HIGH YIELD HINTS FOR AIPMT, AIIMS AND JIPMER

TOPIC 1 - ECOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENT

1.A troublesome American water weed in India called “ sorrow of Punjab “ is - Eichornia2. Bergman’s rule is related to - Avian and Mammalian life3. The leaves of Tundra plant resemble the leaves of plant in the - Desert4. A woody plant becomes hardened to the cold in preparation for winter. It lowers the freezing point of its cells and fluids by – Increasing TP.5. Plants such as Prosopis, Acasia, and Capparis represent examples of tropical - Grass lands6. Layering or Stratification is common in – Tropical rain forests.7. The most important characteristic feature of Xeric environment is – Low humidity.8. Rhizopora / Mangrooves of marshy / swampy Sunderbans is characterized by

– Viviparity, Proproots, Pneumatophores

9. Submerged Hyrophytes show – Absence of cuticle and stomata on any surface.10. Salinity of soil can be corrected by the use of – Lime.11. Black soil is rich in – Clay and Humus.12. A non- succulant Xerophyte with thick leaves having white sticky waxy coating is – Calotropis13. The correct sequence of organizational complexity is – Population – Species – Community

- Ecosystem.14. Allopatric speciation is due to – Geographical isolation.15. Communication in honey bee is discovered by – Karl Von Frisch.16. Two opposite forces operate in the growth and development of every population. One of them relates to the ability to reproduce at a given rate. The force opposing too it is – Environmental

resistance.17. Species diversity increases as one proceeds from – High altitude to low altitude and from high

latitude to low latitude.18. Mutualism ( Reciprocal symbiosis ) is mutually benefited relationship between two organisms.

Anabaena and Azolla which cannot live independently. This is also found in –Rhizobium and Legumes, Sea anemone and Hermit crab, Zooxanthellae and Termites / Ruminants.

19. The type of food chain in which the energy rich organic compounds produced by producers is

decomposed by microbes and converted into energy rich compound is – Detritus food chain.20. The Ecological pyramid that never occurs in the Inverted form is – Pyramid of Energy.21. The grass land that has richest and deepest soil and tall grasses is – Prairies of Canada.

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22. 10 % Law is applied to – Transfer of 10% energy from one trophic level to next and 90% loss

and Transfer of 10% food from one trophic level to next and 90% is

consumed.23. Competition for food, light and space is most severe in – closely related species occupying the

same niche.24. Warm ocean surge of Peru Current recurring every 5-8 years or so in the East Pacific of South

America is – El Nino.25. The part of the world that has high density of organisms is – Tropical rain forests.26. Carbon dioxide is a green house gas because it is – Transparent to solar radiation and opaque to

Infrared and is a strong absorber of Infrared rays.27. Life in biosphere is abundant between – 200 m below sea level to 6000 m above sea level.28. The Phosphorous rich fertilizer obtained from Sea birds along the cost of Chili and Peru is

Guano.29. In many countries, spread of Opuntia is controlled by – Introducing insects.30. Ecological Backlash or Ecological Boomerang is – Adverse ecological effect caused by a chemical

which was previously useful.31. Leakage of Methyl iso cyanate ( MIC ) caused the biggest industrial disaster of the recent times in 1984 ( Bhopal Tragedy ). The industrial plant where the leakage occurred is – Pesticide factory.32. Ozone layer of Stratosphere requires protection from indiscriminate use of – Aerosols and high

flying jets.33. The most dangerous Radio isotope to humans is – Strontium 90.34. The series of events that leads to Eutrophication are – High phosphate content – excess growth of

algae – bacteria feed on dead algae – depletion of Oxygen.35. Agent Orange contains – 2,4 D, 2,4,5 T , Dioxin as contaminant or carcinogen36. Itai – Itai or Ouch – Ouch disease is characterized by bone softening. It is due to – Cadmium.37. Kock knee disease is due to – Excess Fluoride in the water.38. Sewage water can be made it for drinking by using – Microbes ( It is Bioremediation ]39. NEERI is – National Environmental Engineering Research Institute.40. The most common indicator that represents polluted water is – Escherichia coli.41. Green Petrol is – Unleaded Petrol.42. Ozone day, World Environment day, and National Pollution Prevention day are celebrated

respectively – Sept 16 , June 5 , Dec 2.43. Threatened species is – That is to be conserved to avoid its becoming rare, endangered, or

vulnerable species.

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44.The most important activity responsible for the extinction / diminishing of wild life isAlteration and destruction of natural habitats.

45. Project Tiger was launched in 1973. It is a – Conservation programme.46. Periyar wild life sanctuary of Kerala is famous for – Elephants and other animals.47. The symbol of WWFN is – Giant Panda.48. The Indian army wing that takes the task of preserving and restoring ecology of the country is

TASK.49. Chipko Movement is the world’s most known eco development programme started by

S.L.Bahuguna in 1973 in Tehri Garhwal ( Uttranchal ). It is meant for – Plant / Forest conservation.

50. Shifting cultivation is being practiced by some tribals in Assam and Europe. It is one of the causes of deforestation as a forest area is cleared by slashing ( cutting ) and burning of trees for cultivation for 3-5 years and then a new forest area is cleared. The abandoned area invites erosion wild vegetation. This type of cultivation is – Jhuming cultivation.51. The most important function of the forest to control drought is – Brings rain fall in monsoon.52. The main cause of increase in salinity of arid land due to irrigation is – solutes being brought up from lower soil horizon.

TOPIC 2 GENETICS AND APPLICATION BIOLOGY

1. In a material medium, when a positron meets an electron, both the particles annihilate leading to the emission of two gamma ray photons. This process forms the basis of an important diagnostic procedure called – PET.

2. In Drosophila melanogaster, normal body colour is brown and hereditary variant has yellow colour. When normal larva raised on food containing silver salts, they develop in to mutant but would give rise to brown flies in the normal environment, this effect of environment on expression of genes is – Phenocopies.

3. Haemolytic jaundice is caused by a dominant gene but only 10% of the people actually develop it. What proportion of the children would be expected to develop the disease if a heterozygous man marries a homozygous woman – 1 : 20

4. The important features of Positron Emission Tomography – PET – are1. It uses radio isotopes such as Carbon 11 and Oxygen 15 tagged with

glucose.2. The principle of mass annihilation is used for emitting a pair of

Gamma radiations.3. Epilepsy, Schizophrenia, Parkinson’s disease and Drug addiction can

be studied.

5. Phenylketonuria in man is caused by a recessive allele p. If both parents are carriers – Pp – what is the chance of all children are normal in population of five children – 243 / 1024.

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6. In Tomato, genotype aa bb cc produces 100 gm tomatoes and AA BB CC produces 136 tomatoes. What will be the weight of tomatoes in the parents and progenies of the cross between Aa bb cc and aa BB cc - 106 g, 112 g , 112 g, 106g.

7. In human an abnormality of the large intestine called Intestinal Polyposis is dependent on a dominant gene A and nervous disorder Huntington’s chorea is determined by a dominant gene H. A man carrying the gene A ( Aahh ) married a woman carrying the gene H ( aa Hh ). Assume the A and H are on the non homologous chromosomes. What is the proportion of children that might be expected to have both abnormalities - 1 / 4

8. MRI has the following features.1. It uses magnetic field of fixed frequency but varying magnetic field.2. Defective cells absorb energy at a different frequency campared to

healthy cells.3. The magnetic field used is around 2 Telsa.

9. The presence of recessive part of in a large population is found to be 16 %. The frequency of dominant allele in the population is – 0.84

10. Digital Substraction Angiography or DSA uses – Iodine angiographs.11. Simple radiography images – entail the difficulty of internal structure

superimposition.12. Sonography uses – the principle of reflection of ultrasonic waves due

to difference in densities of two tissues or organs.13. If only one chiasma is organized between two gene loci X and Y in 40 % of

the tetrad of an individual of genotype AB / ab. The percentage of gametes in recombinants ( Ab or Ab ) considering linkage factor is - 5 %.

14. The patient suffering from Killer Disease ( SCID ) can be cured by inserting - ADA gene

15. E. Coli is used in genetic engineering to produce – Humulin, Interferon, Interleukin, Human GH.

16. The microbe that remove oil spills is – Pseudomonas putida.17. The longest human gene which is made up of 2400 Kilo base pairs is – Gene

for Duchenne muscular dystrophy.18. Chromatin is formed by a repeating series of chromosomes containing –

DNA and Histones.19. The correct sequence of genes within the operon is – Regulator –

Promoter – Operator – Structural genes.20. Wobble pairing takes place – in some cases between the third base of

codon and that of an anticodon.21. The concept of Split genes is that of – coding sequences in many

eukaryotic genes are often separated by non coding sequences.22. Heterochromatinisation takesplace during – early gestational

development.23. Gynandromorphism in certain flies is the result of – mis division of

chromosomes where by one X chromosome gets lost.24. During mutagenesis the information necessary to repair the damage of

segment of the DNA is present in – Proof reading enzyme DNA Polymerase I25. Magnetic Resonance Images are derived from the proton bearing species

present principally from water and – long alkaline chain protons of the fatty acid moieties.

26. The segment of DNA molecule determining the amino acid sequence of protein is – Structural gene.

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27. The Aminoacyl synthetase facilitates – adoption of amino acid by t RNA of its type.

28. Largest chromosome is - Polytene chromosome.29. The Puffs in the Polytene chromosomes of the Salivary gland cells of

Drosophila represents – Region of active protein synthesis.30. Chromosome puffs are also called as – Balbiani rings.31. Lampbrush chromosomes are found in – Amphibian Oocytes.32. Certain genetic elements that regularly “ jump “ to new locations, often

inactivating the genes into which they become inserted. These are – Transposones.

33. Based on the current knowledge, which represents the complete and accurate depiction of “ Central Dogma “ in molecular biology – DNA RNA

Protein.34. The partial duplicates of structural genes which have incorporated

sufficient changes so that they are not biologically active and usually are not transcribed are – Pseudogenes.

35. Point mutations are due to – changes in nucleotide sequences of a gene.36. Kappa particles are – Sub microscopic granules formed by the folding of

naked DNA found in the cytoplasm of Paramecium.37. Paramecium that kills other strains by producing toxin “ Paramecin “

contains – Kappa particles.38. The first step in the biosynthesis of polypeptide is catalysed by – Aminoacyl

–E-RNA synthetase.39. The Mitochondrial DNA or mt DNA is characterized by – the production of

its own r-RNA and t-RNA which directly interact with mt DNA codon .40. Bar eye, a dominant character of Drosophila is due to – duplication of a

chromosomal segment.41. The method used to detect chromosomal disorder during eight to tenth

months of pregnancy is – Chorionic Villus Sampling or CVS.42. Test tube baby is produced by – fertilization outside and gestation

inside the womb of mother.43. First test tube baby is – Lousi Jay Brown.44. GIFT is – Embryo Implantation after in vitro Fertilization.45. Lack of sleep, loss of appetite, hallucinations are the symptoms due to the

intake of – Cocaine.46. Replacement level in developed and developing countries is – 2.1 and 2.747. The average number of children that would be born to a woman during life

time, assuming the age specific birth rate of a given year is – total fertility rate.48. Dilation of pupil, urination, high blood sugar level are the symptoms due to

the intake of – Marijuana.49. The number of centers of origin of crop plants recognized by Vavilov is – 750. The characters of Plant introduction are

1. give us new crops2. give us new varieties3. there is risk of disease.4. quarantine is a must.

51. Coccidiosis in poultry is caused by – Protozoan parasite Eimeria .52. Multiple ovulation and embryo transfer ( MOET ) is the method of –

hybridization in cattle.53. Viral disease of Silkworm is – Flacheria.54. The proteins present in silk are – Sericin and Fibroin.

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55. A loose association formed by nitrogen fixing bacteria with roots of crops is – Azospirillum.

56. Anti-feedant property occurs in – Azadirachtin.57. Rotenone is – Natural insecticide.58. Transgene expression can achieve by

1. prevention of expression of native gene.2. modify the existing bio chemical pathway.3. produce a protein that itself produces phenotype of interest.

59. The risks associated with GM crops are1. toxicity.2. allergic RKn3. antibiotic resistance in microorganisms present in the alimentary

canal.60. EnzymeTissue Plasminogen Activator ( TPA ) is used for – dissolving blood

clot.61. Cidar is prepared by – action of saccharomyces on apple juice.62. The bacterium associated symbiotically with non legume plant is – Frankia.63. “ Collego “ and “ Devine “ are two substances used as – Bioherbicides.64. Distemper is a fatal disease of dogs. The important feature of the disease is

– humans have innate immunity for this disease.65. The only antibody that crosses placenta is – Ig G.66. piezoelectric effect is used in – CT scanning and Ultrasound imaging.67. PET is the best method for functional imaging because – Isotopes of basic

body elements are used for imaging.68. Embryo culture is used for – recovery of inter specific hybrids.69. The crystal Lead Zirconate is a key component of – Sonography.70. The part of Endoscope that receives signals is – Transducer.

TOPIC 3 CELL BIOLOGY1. Glycocalyx layer- The cell layer which is not absolutely essential for bacterial survival but can

become immunogenic.2. Porins – Proteins present in the cell wall of E.coli that functions ass

channels for the entry and exit of hydrophilic low molecular weight substances.

3. Components of bacterial cell wall – Pentacyclic sterols or Hopanoids, Glycoproteins, Glycophorins.

4. Functions of mesosomes 1. cell wall formation and secretion.2. chromosome replication and distribution.3. increase plasma membrane surface area and enzyme content.

5. Plant Karyotyping uses banding technique called – Q,C,R bands.6. The purple Cabbage leaves do not lose their colour in cold water but do so in the

boiling water because – Plasmalemma killed in boiling water.7. Interferon is a natural product of animal cell which protects – Human and bird

cell against variety of viruses.8. Plasma membrane of animal cell is composed of – Lipids, proteins, and

oligosaccharides.9. Succinic dehydrogenase and cytochrome oxidase are located in the –

Mitochondrial inner membrane.

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10. Single membrane bound cell organellae are – Lysosomes and Sperosomes.

11. Poisons like Cyanide inhibit Na efflux and K influx during cellular transport. This inhibitory effect is reversed by the injection of ATP. This shows that – Energy for Na – K exchange pump comes from ATP.

12. In an experiment, radio active substance is incorporated with amino acid then maximum amount of radio active labeled protein will be found in – Endoplasmic reticulum co ordinated with polysomes.

13. Camodulin is a – Cadmium binding protein.14. Besides the primary constriction, there is a secondary constriction in some

chromosomes. This is called – Nucleolar organizer.15. Janus green stain is vital stain which is specific for – Mitochondria.16. One month old human embryo has a tail which is – the actual vestigial

tail.17. Formation of which complex molecule was noticed by Urey and Miller when

they subjected NH3, CH4, and H2O to electric discharge – Amino acids.18. The plant that turns to brown ball during drought ( drought adaptation ) but

turns green just with first shower is – Selaginella lepidophylla.19. The method of determining the age of a tree by counting the annual rings is

called – Dendro chrono biology.20. The dyes used to stain chromatin are – Acetocarmine, Haematoxylin,

Feulgen stain, Acetoorcein.

21. The important peculiarity of the polytene chromosome of Drosophila is – Size

22. Polytene chromosomes are formed by – Endo mitosis or Endo duplication ( chromatin multiplication without cell division ).

23. Chiasma are formed during crossing over in the pachytene stage of meiosis I. Presence of one chiasma reduces the chance of another chiasma formation by – Interference.

24. Acrosome of sperm is formed from – Golgi apparatus.25. The Mitosis Promoting Factor ( MPF ) consists of two components namely

catalytic and regulatory. The regulatory sub unit is – Cyclin dependent Kinase or cdk.

26. In Kreb’s cycle, the FAD participates as electron acceptor during the conversion of – Succinic acid to Fumaric acid.

27. The correct sequence of Electron acceptors in ATP synthesis is – cyt.b, c, a, a3

28. Microtubules are involved in – Cell division.29. All antibodies are formed of – Proteins.30. Spoilage of oil can be detected by – fatty acid Erusic acid.31. Recently after 1980, evolution is considered as “ RNA World “ because of

the discovery – RNA has enzymatic ( Ribozymes ) activity.32. In Mitosis, the difference between Anaphase and Metaphase is – Same

number of chromosomes but half number of chromatids in anaphase.33. 5-Bromo uracil is a base analogue. It pairs with – Adenine.34. Tay – Sachs disease is an autosomal recessive inherited disorder due to –

Ganglioside breakdown and excessive accumulation of Gangliosides.35. Histidine amino acid can be converted into biologically active amine

Histamine ( produces allergy ) by – Lyase enzyme.36. Thr glycolytic enzyme are inhibited by Fluoride is – Enolase.

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37. Cut apple turns brown but does not do so if dipped in Ascorbic acid because of – inactivation of polyphenol oxidase.

38. Dictysome is also called – Golgi body.39. Both ATP and Mg are required for the activity of – Glucokinase.40. NAD and NADP are similar in respect that they – take up two electron at

a time.41. A short length of DNA contains 240 adenine and 240 cytosine bases. The

total number of nucleotides in this DNA segment is – 480 bases.42. The bond in B – DNA that have to be rotated to convert it to Syn to

Anti conformation is – Glycosidic bond.43. The substance that is used to determine Glomerular filtration rate is –

Inulin.44. The enzyme Hayaluronidase is unique to – Acrosome of mammalian

sperm.45. The protein that become a tough and hard on treatment with tannic acid

and yield gelatin on boiling with water is – Collagen.46. Spermatozoa in seminal fluid uses – Fructose.47. Quenching is – Rapid cooling of DNA to fix it in denatured state.48. Cyanide resistant respiration is the characteristic of – Plants.

PLANT KINGDOMTHALLOPHYTAPHYLA1.Cyanophyta Blue green algae Eg. Nostoc , Anabaena.2.Euglenophyta Euglenoids Eg. Euglena.3.Chlorophyta Green algae Eg. Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra.4. Chrysophyta Yellow green algae, Golden brown algae, Diatoms. Eg. Mallomonas, Pinnularia.5. Phaeophyta Brown algae Eg. Ectocarpus, Laminaria.6. Pyrrohta Cryptomonads, Dinoflagellates . Eg. Gymnodinium7. Rhodophyta Red algae Eg. Polysiphonia, Gelidium.8. Schizomycophyta Bacteria9. Myxomycophyta Slime moulds10. Eumycophyta True fungi

Divided into 4 classes1. Phycomycetes Eg. Rhizopus, Albugo.2. Ascomycetes Eg. Penicillium, Aspergillus.3. Basidiomycetes Eg. Puccinia, Ustilago.4. Deuteromycetes Eg. Fusarium, Alternaria. ( Fungi imperfecti )

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SUB KINGDOM : EMBRYOPHYTADivided into 2 phyla.

1. Phylum Bryophyta or Atracheata divided into 3 classes.A. Musci ( Mosses ) Eg. Funaria, Pogonatum.B. Hepaticae ( Liver worts ) Eg. Riccia, Marchantia.C. Anthocerotae ( Horn worts ) Eg. Anthoceros,

Notothylas.2. Phylum Tracheophyta or Tracherata Vascular plants. Divided into 4 sub phyla.

Tracheophyta

Silopsida Lycopsida Sphenopsida Pteropsida Primitive vascular plants Club mosses Horse tails

Pteropsida

Class Filicinae Gymnospermae Angiospermae

Class - Gymnospermae2 sub classes 1. Cycadophytae

2. Coniferophytae

Class – Angiospermae2 sub classes 1. Dicotyledonae

2. Monocotyledonae

CHARACTERS OF PLANT GROUPSCRYPTOGAMAENon flowering plants – divided into Thallophyta, Bryophyta and Pteridophyta.

THALLOPHYTA1. Body not differentiated into roots, stem and leaves.2. Body is called Thallus.3. Vascular tissue absent.4. Sex organs mostly unicellular.5. No multi cellular embryo.6. Alternation of generation is not distinct.

ALGAE1. Phycology is the study of Algae.2. Vegitative structure is unicellular and motile in Chlamydomonas.3. Macrocystic and Nereocystis are largest algae.4. Cellwall is composed of cellulose and Pectose.

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5. Cell wall of Blue green algae is composed of Mucopeptide or Muroin or Peptidoglycan.

6. Sexual reproduction is primitive.7. Sexual reproduction is totally absent in Blue green algae.

FUNGI1. study of Fungi is Mycology.2. P.A.MICHELI is the founder of Mycology and De Bary is the Father of Modern

Mycology.3. Hyphal wall is composed of Chitin but in Rhizidiomyces cell wall contains

cellulose and chitin.4. Reserve food is Glycogen.5. Albugo and Puccinia are Obligate parasites living in the cells of hosts.6. Phythium and Fusarium are Facultative parasites living as Saprophytes.7. Mucor and Rhizopus are Obligate Saprophytes living on dead matter.8. Ustilago or Smut fungus is a Facultative Saprophyte living as parasites but can

become saprophyte.9. Sexual reproduction is absent in Deuteromycetes or Funfi imperfecti.10. In Synchytrium, plant body is unicellular and become a reproductive

structure ( Holocarpic Fungi )11. In Eucarpic Fungi, a part of the Thallus is used as reproductive structure.

Egs. Penicillium, Aspergillus.

LICHENS1. Fungal partner is Mycobiont and Algal partner is Phycobiont.2. Based on Growth, Lichens are classified into

A. Crustose lichens - Tallus adhered on to the rocks. Egs. Acarospora, Basidia, Bullia, Lecanora, Lecidea, Rhizocarpon.

B. Foliose lichens -Thallus is leaf likeEgs. Parmelia, Heterodermia, Physia, Dermatocarpon, Collema, Leptogium.

C. Fruticos lichens - Thallus lobes are branched and thread like Egs. Usnea, Ramalina, Rocella, Cladonia,

Stereocaulon.

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ULOTHRIXFound in free running water. Found attached to the substratum.

Ulothrix zonata is the most common species.Ulothrix flacca is the Marine species.

Filaments are green and unbranched.Filaments exhibits division of labour.

Cell wall is two layered, outer cellulose layer and inner pectose layer.

Girdle shaped chloroplast are found in cells except hold fast cells.Chloroplasts are parietal in position and contains one or more Pyrenoids.

Aesxual reproduction is through Akinetes, Aplanospore, Hypnospores, Palmella stage and Zoospores.Hypnospores are thick walled aplanospores formed during Drought.Zoospores are formed during favorable periods.Zoospores are motile, nacked without cell wall and possess cup shaped chloroplasts.

Sexual reproduction is Isogamous – Gametes are like biflagellate micro – zoospores.Zygote is Qadriflagellate and motile at first. It has 2 eye spots, 2 chloroplasts, and 2 sets of chromosomes.

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SPIROGYRA

Commonly called as “ Pond Scum “ or “ Water Silk “Most common species is Spirogyra condensate.Filaments green and un branched.Cell wall consists of outer Pectose layer and inner Cellulose layer.Chloroplast contains equidistant Pyrenoids.Reproduction is by sexual or vegetative.Asexual reproduction is found in Spirogyra aplanosporum.Sexual reproduction is Isogamous occurs by Conjugation.Scalariform conjugation takes place at night between recently divided cells which shows heterothallic or dioceous condition ( morphologically similar but physiologically different )Parthenospores are round haploid structures formed during scalariform conjugation. They develop into filaments. Eg. S. groenlandica and S. mirabilis.

RHIZOPUS

Includes 35 species.Commonly called as “ Bread mould “.Rhizopus nigrans is the most common species.

Mycelium is Coenocytic and are Stoloniferous and Rhizoidal hyphae.Soloniferous hyphae are areal growing horizontally.

Rhizoidal hyphae occur as clusters along the Soloniferous hyphae.

Asexual reproduction is through non motile multinucleate Aplanospores.

Thick walled Chlamydospores are multinucleate structures formed during unfavorable seasons.

Sexual reproduction is Isogamous and mycelium is Heterothallic.

Heterothallism was discovered by A.F.Blakeslee in 1904.

YEASTNon-mycelial Ascomycetous fungi growing as Saprophytes.They are unicellular globose organisms measuring 1-12 micrometer length and 1-10 micometer breadth.Cell wall is composed of Chitin.Nucleus is spherical and surrounded by a double membrane. Nucleolus and chromosomes are present.Vacuole and 4-10 mitochondria are present.Asexual reproduction may be Budding or Fission.Budding takes place in Budding Yeast ( Saccharomyces ) and Fission in Fission Yeast ( Schizosacchaomyces ).Life cycle may be 1. Haplobiotic type – Diploid stage is short. – Schizo saccharomyces octosporus2. Diplobiontic type – Diploid stage is pronged – Saccharomyces ludwigii.3. Haplo – diplobiotic type – Haploid and diploid stages are present – Saccharomyces cerevisiae

( Beaking Yeast )Adelphogamy – In some yeast like Schizosaccharomyces mellacei and S. prombe, copulation occurs between two adjacent cells formed by fission .This is called Adelphogamy.Top Yeasts grow on the surface of fermenting liquid and Bottom Yeast grow at the bottom of fermenting liquid.Fermentation is carried out by enzymes Invertase and Zymase.

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ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF ALGAE

As Food – Porphyra, Nostoc, Ulva, Laminaria, Sargassum, ChlorellaAs Fodder – Sea weeds like Laminaria, Fucus, AscophyllusAgar Agar – Red algae Gelidium, GracillariaAlginic Acid – Ascophyllum, Laminaria, Macrocystic, Eisenia.Carrageenin – Red alga Chondrus crispus ( Irish moss ). Used in industry.Iodine – Brown alga Kelps.Laminaria, Eisenia.Diatomite – Rock like deposite from past diatoms.Nitrogen fixers – Soil pH control- Aulosira, Oscillatoria, Anabaena, Nostoc, CylindrosperumMedicine Clorellin – Chlorella. Inhibits growth of Staphylococcus.Vermifuge – Digenia, Codium, Alsidium.Space travel – Chlorella pyrenoidosa used in space travel to remove CO2.Water supply – Blue green algae like Microcystis, Oscillatoria, Nostoc causes Water blooms.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI

As Medicine - Sclerotia of Claviceps is used as a strong Abortifacient.As Food - Mushrooms ( Psalliota campestris , Pleurotus ), Puffballs ( Lycoperdon ) Morels ( Morchella ) Amanita – Highly poisonous mushroom.Alcohol - Yeasts, Aspergillus niger.Baking - Saccharomyces cerevisiae.Cheese - Penicillium sp.Enzymes - Saccharomyces, Rhizopus,

Aspergillus, Penicillium.Lactic acid- Rhizopus, Mucor.Citric acid - Aspergillus. Penicillium.Fungi causing Plant diseasesWhite rust of Crucifers Albugo candidaDowny mildew PeronosporaLate blight of potato

PhytophthoraPowdery mildew Erysiphe

ERGOTISM caused by the alkaloids present in Claviceps purpurea

Spoilage of Food – Penicillium, Aspergillus, Mucor, Rhizopus

Rotting of Timber – Wood rot of trees is caused by Polyporus and Fomes

Heteroecism Some Parasitic fungi requires two hosts to complete the life cycle. This is Heteroecism. Eg. PucciniaSmut – It is called so because the rust formed resembles soot

Common names of FungiBread mould or Pin mould Rhizopus nigricansGreen or Blue mould PenicilliumRed or Pink bread mould NeurosporaBlack mould Aspergillus niger

Heterokaryosis Presence of nuclei containing different genotypes in the fungal mycelium

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BLUE GREEN ALGAE Nostoc, Anabaena, Oscillatoria.

Gaidukov Phenomenon or Complementary Chromatic Adaptation - Oscillatoria assumes Green colour in Red light, Reddish in green light, Bluish green in Yellow light. This is called Gaidukov phenomenon.Blue green algae contain photosynthetic pigments Chlorophyll a and Carotene. Chlorophyll b totally absent.Other pigments are c-Phycocyanin, c- Phycoerythrin and Myxoxanthin.Heterocysts are specialized cells that carry out Nitrogen fixation.Hormogonia are segments of filaments produced by fragmentation.

YELLOW GREEN ALGAE XanthophytaBotrydium, Vaucheria

Pigments are Chlorophyll a and Xanthophyll.Reserve food Leucosin

( Oil, Lipid, Glucose polymer )

BROWN ALGAE Phacophyta

Fucus, Ectocarpus, Laminaria, Sargassum, Dictyota.They are exclusively Marine.Fucoxanthine ( carotinoid ) gives brown colour. Photosyntheic Pigment is Chlorophyll aReserve food – Mannotol and Lamina.

RED ALGAE RhodophytaPorphyra, Polysiphonia, Gelidium, Gracilaria, Chondrine.Mostly marine.Pigments are Chlorophyll a and d.Red colour is due to r-Phycoerythrin – red

r- Phycocyanin – blue greenReserve food Floridean starch.

CHARA is called as Stone wortIt belongs to the group Charophyta.Pigments are Chlorophyll a and b.Reserve food is starch.

DIATOMS Bacillariophyta

Commonly called as “ Jewels of Plant World “ because of the ornamented call wall.Cell wall is made up of Pectic substance called Silica.Diatom cell is known as Frustule.Pigments are Chlorophyll a, c, Fucoxanthine.Diatomin is the principle colouring pigment present in diatoms.Reserve food – Volutine ( Protein )Auxospores – Formed during vegetative reproduction.

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LICHENS

Helotism Algal and Fungal parts are symbionts but the Fungus is the dominant partnerReindeer Moss Cladonia rangifeva – Edible, found in tundra region.Rocella tinctoria Used to prepare Litmus.Pollution indicator Lichens are indicators of pollution. They are totally absent in

Industrially polluted areas.

PLANT PATHOLOGY

Etiology Investigation of the causes of plant diseases.Collateral host Host required by a pathogen for PerennationProphylaxis Prevention of plants from being exposed to pathogens.Hypertrophy Increase in size of cells due to infection.Hyperplasia Increase in the number of cells due to infection.Irish famine Occurred in 1985 due to Late blight disease caused by Phytophthora

Infestans.

BORDEAUX MIXTUREFungicide developed byProf. Millardet of BordeauxUniversity.It is a mixture of Copper sulphate and

AFLATOXINFungal toxin from Aspergillus favus

PHYTOLEXINAntibiotics produced by the interaction of host and parasite. Egs. Glyceollin, Phaseolin, Pisatin, Capdidiol.

PLANT DISEASESDisease Host Causative agentEarly blight Potato Alternaria solaniLate blight Potato PhytophthoraPowdery mildew Pea Erysiphe polygoniErgot Graminae Claviceps purpureaLoose smut Wheat Ustilago triticiCovered smut Barley Ustilago hordeiSmut Sugarcane Ustilago scitamineaStem rust Wheat Puccinia graminisLeaf rust Wheat Puccinia reconditeThikka desease Ground nut Cercospora personataRed rot Sugarcane Collectotrichum falcatumPanama wilt Banana Fusarium oxysporumCanker Citrus Xanthomonas citri

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Mosaic disease Potato Potato virus XBunchy top Banana Banana virus IRoot knot ( Nematode )Tomato Meloidogyne

BRYOPHYTAAmphibions of the Plant kingdom

Plant body may be thalloid as in Livervorts or Musci as in Mosses.True roots absentThey lack Vascular tissue ( Atracheata )

LIVER WORTSUsed as medicine for liver troubles and hence the name.Belongs to the group Hepaticae.Egs. Riccia, Marchantia, Pellia, Porella

HORN WORTSBelongs to the group AnthrocerotaeEg. Anthroceros

TRUE MOSSESFunaria, Polytrichum

PTERIDOPHYTESFirst land plants with vascular systemCRYPTOGAMSDevoid of Visible sex organsPHANEROGAMSSeed plantsPSILOPSIDARootless , leafless SaprophytePTEROPSIDAHigher pteridophytes. Compound leaf iscalled as Fronds. Stem is undergroundAnd is called as Rhizome.LYCOPODIUMIt is the Club MossSELAGINELLAResurrection plants. They can withstand dry seasons for long periods.

GYMNOSPERMSPhanerogams without ovaryCycas, Pinus, GinkoSeeds nackedGymnosperms are related to pteridophytes as they have ciliated sperms and to Angiosperms as they have seeds.

SEQUOIATallest Plant. It is a GymnospermPINUSCataphylls are the brown scale leves present on the stem of Pinus.

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OLEORESINIt is obtained from Pinus It is used to prepare Turpentine and Rosin by distillationRosin is used to prepare Soaps and Cosmetics.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF GYMNOSPERMS

Canada balsam – It is obtained from Abies balsamina. Used to prepare permanent slides.Cedar wood oil – It is obtained from Cedrus. Used in oil immersion objective of microscope.Sandarac - It is called as Hard White Sprit. Obtained from Callitric.Tannin - Obtained from SeqnoiaEphedrine - Obtained from Ephedra. It is used to make cough mixture.

HIGH YIELD FACTS1. Agar is obtained from Gelidium2. Ginkgo biloba is a living fossil3. Ribbon shaped chloroplasts are found in Sprogyra4. Cycas roots have Anabaena5. Sex pili are the sex organs of some bacteria. Used in conjugation6. Circular free DNA is found in Bacteria7. BGA are included in Prokaryotes8. Blue green algae are found in thermal springs. The temperature tolerance is

due to Mitochondrial structure9. Little leaf disease of Brinjal is caused by Mycoplasma10. Crown gall is produced by Bacteria11. Number of Peristome teeth in the capsule of Funaria is 32 in two rows12. Fungal spores produced at the tip of Hyphae are called as Conidia13. In Pinus the approximate time for fertilization after pollination is few

weeks14. Bacteria are considered as Omnipresent organism15. Gram positive bacteria retains colour of Crystal violet after washing

with alcoholic KOH16. Diaminopimelic acid is present in the cell wall of bacteria17. Energy in Chemosynthetic bacteria comes from the oxidation of

surrounding compounds18. Most of the Photoautotrophic bacteria live as Epiphytes on areal plants19. The clear zone formed within the bacterial colony is called as Plaque20. Bacteria with only one flagellum is called as Monotrichus21. Lophotrichus bacteria contains many flagella22. Cell wall material in BGA and Bacteria is Muramic acid23. Most common method of reproduction in bacteria is binary fission]24. Lederberg and Tatum termed the sexual reproduction in bacteria as

Genetic recombination25. In bacteria, sexual dimorphism is seen during conjugation26. Conjugation is meant for the direct exchange of genetic material

between two bacteria27. Transfer of genetic material between bacteria through a virus is called

as Transduction

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28. Rhodospillum rubrum is a Photosynthetic autotrophy29. Mesosomes are the sites of respiration in bacteria30. Phycocyanin is the chief accessory pigment present in Blue green algae31. False branching is the characterestic feature of Scytonema32. BGA causes water pollution in house hold water tanks33. Meiotic division is absent in Cyanophyceae34. Reticulate chloroplast is found in Cladophora35. Algae forms the largest photosynthetic plant group36. Filaments of Ulothrix are unbranched37. Nucleus of Sprogyra is kept in the center of the cell by cytoplasmic strands38. Coenobium is the colony encircled by mucilaginous sheath39. Axospores are found in Diatoms40. Spirogyra shows Palmella stage41. Sea weed is the common name of Brown algae42. Diatoms help to prepare Fireproof living43. Red snow is caused by Chlamydomonas44. Lichens growing on the bank of trees are called as Corti colos45. Lichens are used as Bioindicators46. Perfect stage of Fungus is represented by the Fruiting body47. Phycomycetes are called as Imperfect Fungi48. Yeast is the source of Vitamin B. So rich in curd49. Algae are included among plants because of the presence of cell wall50. Clorella is rich in Proteins51. Stone wort is the common name of Chara52. Cap cells are found in Oedogonium53. Chondrus cripus is commonly called as Irish Moss54. Zoospore is the flagellated asexual cell55. Coprphilous fungi live in Cow dung56. Litmus is obtained from Lichens57. Cladonia rangifera is commonly called as Rein deer moss because it is edible to Rein deers58. Muramic acid is present in the cell wall of bacteria and blue green algae59. Leavening of Bread is brought about by Bacteria60. Damping off disease is caused by Pythium61. Lederberg and Tatum discovered Conjugation in Bacteria62. Clostidium botulinum causes Food poisoning63. Robert Koch proposed the Germ theory of disease64. Equisetum is commonly called as Horse tail65. Ligule is present in Selaginella66. Gymnosperms are the most successful land plants67. Cycas is a living fossil68. Sango palm is the common name of Cycal revolute69. Coralloid roots of Cycas contain Blue green algae70. Canada balsam is obtained from Abies balsamina

PHOTOMORPHOGENESIS AND FLOWERING

Photomorphogenesis refers to the effect of light to the development and metabolism of plants.

Phytochrome It is the pigment that absorbs red and far – red light and also absorbs blue light

Phytochromes play a key role in light regulated plant growth and development.

In dark grown or Etiolated plants, Phytochrome is in the red absorbing form

called Pr form . It is synthesized in Pr form.Pr appears as blue to human eye and is converted into Pfr, ( blue ) a

far red Absorbing form by red light.Pfr is the physiologically active form of Phytochrome.Phytochromobilin is the open chain tetrapyrole of Phytochrome.Phytochrome is a dimeric protein.

Garnar and Allard in 1920 found that flowering in plants is related to day length.

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PHOTOPERIODISMShort day plants – SDPs Flower in day length less than critical amount. Egs. Nicotiana, Glycine

Max, Xanthium, Chrysanthimum, Dahlia.

Long day plants – LDPs Flower when day length exceeds the critical level. Egs. Spinach, Radish,

Beet, Wheat.

Day neutral plants – DNPs . not affected by photoperiod. Egs. Cotton, Sunflower, Tomato, Maize.

Short-Long day plants – SLDP –Require short photoperiod for bud initiation and long photoperiod

For blossoming. Egs. Trifolium repens, Secale cereale.

Flowering is controlled by Dark period rather than light period.Short day plants flowers when critical dark period is exceeded. That is SDPs are Night Long plants. In Long day plants Dark period is less. That is LDPs is short night plants.

CIRCADIAN RHYTHEMIt is a biological activity that shows rhythmic activities depending on the regular periodicity of 24 hours.

Flowering is induced when light exposure coincide with the appropriate phase of the biological rhythm.

The stimulus for flowering is transmitted to the floral buds in the form of Hormone.

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Leaves receives the stimuli and transmits through the Phloem

Defoliated plants do not flower because they cannot receive the stimuli.

The most effective wave length is between 580nm and 680nm in the red region

Green color will not induce flowering.

FLORIGENIt is the flowering hormone identified by M.K.Chailakhyan in 1937. Gibberillin and Ethylene can also induce flowering.

ANTIFLORIGENThese are inhibitors that prevent flowering.

Gibberillin induce flowering in Arabidopsis by activating certain

Ehylene induce flowering in Pineapple.

VERNALISATIONFlowering in response to cold temperature. Plants are subjected to cold treatment to the growing point and exposed to the photoperiod.Vernalin is the hormone that causes Vernalisation

Devernalisation is caused by high temperature.

SENESCENCEPeriod between reproductive maturity and death of plants.Whole plant senescence Whole plant dies after seed formation.Sequential senescence Older leaves and lateral organs die and tip of plant continue to grow.Shoot senescence In Banana and Gladiolus, the shoot die and underground parts survive.

Cytokinins delay senescence Abscisic acid promotes senescence.

HIGH YIELD FACTS

1. Photomorphogenetic responses, the most important pigment absorbs Blue and Red lights.

2. Studies on seed germination led to the discovery of Phytochromes.3. Pfr is the physiologically active Phytochrome.4. Day neutral plants are beneficial to farmers because more than one crop of the

same plantcan be raised in a year.

5. Growing point of the plant receives stimulus for cold treatment in vernalisation.6. Auxins also induce flowering in some plants.

TOOLS AND TECHNIQUESLIGHT MICROSCOPE

1. Robert Hook designed first Microscope2. Numerical aperture is the light gathering capacity of the Microscope.3. Working distance is the distance between the specimen and front lens of the

objective.4. Condenser lens collects light from the light source and focus to the specimen.5. Objective lens produce the primary magnified image of the object and it is

real and inverted.6. Ocular or Eyepiece lens produces the secondary image of the primary image

produced by the objective lens. It is virtual image.7. Magnification power of the compound microscope is 2000 – 4000 times and

Resolution is 0.3 micometer.8. Resolution of the lens is the property to distinguish two adjacent points in the

specimen as two separate regions.9. A good quality microscope has maximum resolution.10. Magnification of compound microscope

Size of the retinal image seen in the microscope / Size of the retinal image with the normal eye.

11. Maximum resolving power of human eye is 100 Microns or 0.1 mm.12. Average wave length of light in the compound microscope is 5850

Angstroms.13. Resolving power of the compound microscope is 300 Angstroms or 0.3

microns. It the half wave length of ordinary light.14. Oil immersion objective is used in the compound microscope to get

maximum resolution. The space between the cover glass and objective lens is filled with oil like Cedar Wood Oil to prevent the loss of light.

ELECTRON MICROSCOPE

1. Knoll and Ruska discovered EM in 1932.2. Source of illumination in EM is electrons.3. A Tungston filament in the Electron Gun is heated using 500 Kv voltage to emit

electrons.

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4. Resolving power of EM is 5 – 10 Angstroms and magnification is up to 10 Lakhs.

5. Electromagnetic lenses are used in EM in the place of glass lenses because glass will not pass electrons.

6. Image in the EM is not visible since human eye cannot detect electrons. So a fluorescent screen is used to see the image.

7. Electron microscope may be TEM or SEM or ESEM.8. Electron microscope will work only in vacuum because air will scatter the

electrons.9. Electron microscope requires dehydrated specimen because water will cause

electron scatter.10. Metals like Gold and Palladium are used to impregnate the tissue. These

increase the electron scattering power in EM.11. Osmium tetroxide is used as electron stain to increase the electron

scattering in EM.12. Scanning Electron Microscope provides the surface details of the

specimens.13. For specimen preparation in SEM, first the tissue is dipped in liquid

Propane at – 180 degree and dehydrated in alcohol at – 70 degree.14. Gold is coated over the specimen to increase secondary electron emission

from the specimen.15. Secondary electrons from the specimen are used to produce image in SEM.16. Magnification power of SEM is 15000 to 20000 times.17. Specimen in EM should be thin ( 100 Angstrom thickness ) because thick

specimens will scatter electrons and hence the resolution will be poor.18. Enivironmental Scanning Electron Microscope or ESEM is used to

study wet specimens like leaf, animal parts etc. It requires no procedures like electron microscope.

PHASE CONTRAST MICROSCOPE

1. Zernike in 1940 discovered the phase contrast microscope.2. Phase contrast microscope is used to study unstained living specimens because

staining will kill the living organism.3. Phase contrast microscope has a Phase plate in the condenser and an Anuular

diaphragm in the ocular lens.4. The phase plate and annular diaphragm produces a phase difference in the light

and the object appears as bright in the dark background.5. No staining is done in phase contrast microscope.

DARK FIELD MICROSCOPE

1. Zsigmondy in 1905 discovered Dark field microscope.2. It is used to study unstained living objects.3. It has a special condenser which remove light from the center. The object is

illuminated by an oblique beam of light.4. The specimen appears as bright against a dark background.

INTERFERENCE MICROSCOPE

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1. Mesten developed Interference microscope.2. In Interference microscope, light beam is split into two beams. One beam passes

through the object and the other besides the object. The two beams are brought together again. It gives the idea about the thickness of the specimen and also the light absorbing property of the specimen.

ULTRA VIOLET MICROSCOPE

1. Ultra violet microscope permits greater resolution and hence greater magnification because the Ultra violet light has a shorter wave length ( 180 – 400 nm ) than the visible light ( 400 – 800 nm).

2. In Ultra violet microscope, Quarts or Lithium fluoride lenses are used since UV rays cannot pass through optical lenses.

3. Image in UV microscope is not visible to human eye and hence a fluorescent screen is used for observation.

4. UV microscope is used for Quantitative and Qualitative evaluation of cellular components.

5. Those substances like DNA and RNA which absorb in the UV region can be localized even in the living state.

FLUORESCENT MICROSCOPE

1. Some biological materials like Chlorophyll a, Vitamin A, Riboflavin etc. emit light when exposed to UV rays. This is called Autofluorescence.

2. Non fluorescent substances can be made fluorescent by treating with dyes called Flurochromes like Acridine Orange, Auramine, Primulin, Fuschin etc.

3. In fluorescent microscope, Iodine – Quartz lamp or Mercury vapour lamp is used to produce UV rays.

4. Fluorescent microscope is used to detect Chemicals, Microbes, and finding Metabolic pathways.

X – RAY MICROSCOPE

1. It uses X- ray beam, Electromagnets and Photographic film.2. Magnification of X-ray microscope is very high similar to that of EM.3. It is used to study the 3 D structure of substances in the crystalline state.4. The technique in X- ray microscope is called X-ray Crystallography or X- ray

diffraction.5. Astbury and Franklin in 1935 obtain the X- ray diffraction of DNA.6. It is used with solid crystalline materials.

ULTRA VIOLET SPECTROSCOPY

1. It is used to identify the functional groups and determination of the molecular structure of an organic compound.

2. It is specially used to identify compounds containing multiple bonds.

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3. It is based on the electron transitions of the molecule by the absorption of UV light.

4. The point where maximum UV light absorption takes place is called Lambda maxima.

VISIBLE SPECTROSCOPY

1. It uses the visible light in the 400 – 800 nm range.2. It is usually used for the quantitative estimation of coloured compounds like

chlorophyll , biological pigments etc.

LIQUID SCINTILLATION SPECTROMETRY

1. To measure the radiation emitted by a radio active material, 3 methods are used.1. Autoradiography - X- ray film is used.2. Geiger – Muller method - Property of the radiation to cause ionization

of particles with whom collide is used.3. Scintillating counting method - Some materials like Anthracene

or Stilbene absorbe ionizing radiations and emit phosphorescent light. By using this method, low energy emitters like Tritium can be counted.

NUCLEAR MAGNETIC RESONANCE ( NMR ) SPECTROSCOPY

1. It is used to characterize organic compounds.2. It provides a means of determining the structure of the organic compound by

measuring the magnetic movements of its hydrogen atoms.3. The number of peaks obtained in the NMR spectrum of the compound gives

the number of sets of equivalent Protons ( Hydrogen atoms ) present in that group.

ELECTRON SPIN RESONANCE ( ESR ) SPECTROSCOPY

1. It is used to detect the presence of free radicals or free metal ions in the biological systems.

2. Free radicals contain odd electrons and also some metal ions as non haem iron of electron transport system in the mitochondria.

PLASMA EMISSION SPECTROSCOPY

1. It is used to detect the presence of metals in the biological systems.2. When the electrons get excited, they move to high energy level and return back to

normal and release energy in a form of characteristic pattern of wavelengths called Plasma Emission.

3. The identification of metal is done by measuring the Plasma emission spectrum.

AUTORADIOGRAPHY

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1. It is used to localize radio active tracers in the biological systems.2. It is highly useful to trace metabolic pathways.3. Calvin used auto radiography to study photosynthesis which result in the

discovery of Calvin cycle.4. The biological material is placed in direct contact with a layer of Photographic

emulsion containing Silver halide.5. Radio active material in the sample emit radiations which will produce images.6. Tracer elements like Tritium, C14, P32, I-131 etc are used in auto radiography.

TISSUE STAINING

1. PAS ( Periodic Acid Schiff’s reaction ) is used to detect Carbohydrates in the tissues.

2. Sudan black – B and Sudan Red are used to stain lipids.3. Naphthol Yellow – S and Mercuric Bromophenol blue are used to stain

Proteins.4. Feulgen’s stain is used to stain DNA.5. Azure – B is used to stain RNA.6. Methyl green Pyronine is also used to stain DNA.7. Metachromasia is the phenomenon in which the cell parts are stained

differently.8. Neutral Red, Methylene blue etc are Vital Stains used to stain living calls.9. Bouins fluid and Carnoys fluid are used as tissue fixatives.10. Acetocarmine and Acetoorcein are used as chromosome stains used to

study cell division.11. Leishman’s and Wright’s stain are used to stain WBC.12. Safranin is used to stain plant cells.13. Janus green is used to stain Mitochondria.14. Methylene blue is used as a counter stain.15. Acid dyes – Eosine, Acid fuchsin16. Basic dyes – Methlene blue, Basic fuchsin, Crystal violet, Safranin.17. Crystal violet, Methylene blue and Carbolfuchsin are used to determine

the size and shape of bacteria.18. Gram staining uses Crystal violet stain. Iodine act as a Mordant in

gram staining.19. Safranin is the Counter stain in gram staining.20. Gram positive bacteria retains Crystal violet where as Gram negative

loses Crystal violet.21. Safranin stains Gram positive strains dark purple and Gram negative

strains as pink to red.22. Ziehl – Neelsen method is used to identify Mycobacterium .It uses Basic

fuchsin stain and Methylene blue counter stain.23. Negative staining involves mixing of bacteria with India ink or Nigrosin

so that bacteria appears as spots in the middle of a blue black background.

CELL FRACTIONATION

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1. Is used to separate cell components. It involves Homogenization and Centrifugation.

2. Homogenization involves the breaking of cell components.3. Homogenization is carried out in ice cold ( 0 – 4 degree ) isotonic solution of 0.25

Molar Sucrose solution.4. Centrifugation separates cell components.5. Centrifuges operates based on the Centrifugal and Centripetal forces.6. The RPM of Ultracentrifuge is over 75000 per minute.7. Sedimentation coefficient is represents in Svedberg units.8. Intact cells and nuclei sediment at 1000 x g for 10 minutes.9. Mitochondria, Lysosomes and Peroxisomes sediment at 10,000 x g for 25 minutes.10. Microsomes sediment at 100,000 x g for 6 minutes.

CHROMATOGTAPHY

1. Chromatography means “ Writing with colors “.2. It is used to separate components of a mixture.3. Chromatography was designed by Michael Tswett in 1906.4. Rf value is the Retension Factor used to identify aminoacids. Each aminoacid

has a typical Rf value.5. Rf value = Distance traveled by the compound / Distance traveled by the

solvent. That is Rf value is always less than 1.6. Solvent represents the Mobile phase and the support forms the Stationary

phase.7. Paper chromatography uses Whatman No. 1 filter paper as the stationary phase.8. Chromatography solvent contains n – Butanol, Acetic acid and Water.9. Ninhydrin is used to stain aminoacids.10. In Column chromatography, Calcium carbonate, Magnesium oxide, Silica

etc are used to fill the column.11. Thin layer Chromatography ( TLC ) uses Cellulose powder or Alumina

to make the support.12. Partition Chromatography uses Silica gel or Cellulose.13. Affinity and Ion exchange chromatography uses Agarose

polysaccharide as the matrix material.14. HPLC – High Pressure ( Performance ) Liquid Chromatography uses Resin

particles to increase the flow of materials.15. Gel Filtration is also called as Molecular Sieving.

ELECTROPHORESIS

1. It is used to separate protein fractions from biological fluids.2. The substance is subjected to an electric field and separation takes place

according to the ionic charges of the individual fractions.3. Barbiturate buffer is used in electrophoresis to provide ions to the protein for

movement.4. Bromophenol blue or Light green stain is used to develop the electrophoresis

paper.5. PAGE – PolyAcrylamide Gel Electrophoresis is used to separate proteins. It is

used to study Antigen – Antibody reactions.6. Electrofocussing is the technique used to separate proteins in a pH gradient.

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TISSUE CULTURE

1. Tissue culture is also called as “ invitro culture “.2. Tissue culture medium uses Agar as the base material.3. Common macro elements used are Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Na and micro elements are Al,

Co, Cu, Fe, B, Mn, Zn, Mo, Cl.4. Carbon source in the tissue culture medium will be Sucrose and rarely Glucose

or Mannitol.5. Phytohormones used are IAA, NAA and Kinetin.6. Vitamins are Nicotinic acid and Pyridoxine.7. Enzymes used in Protoplast fusion are Onozuka –R 10 and Mecerozyme.8. Poly ethylene Glycol or PEG is the inducing agent in somatic hybridization.9. Somatic embryogenesis depends on the balance between Auxin and Nitrogen

source. Such factors are called as Epigenetic factors.10. Organ culture is helpful to protect rare plants from extinction.11. Monoclonal antibodies are only one type of antibody for a specific antigen

generated by Hybridoma technology.12. Monoclonal antibodies are called as “ Magic Bullets “ because they are

used in Chemotherapy to give drug to the target cancer cells.13. Polyclonal antibodies contain different types of antibodies generated by

vaccinating an animal like sheep or Mice.

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MICROSCOPYType Magnification Resolution

1. Bright field 1500 x 100 – 200 nm2. Dark field 1500 x 100 – 200 nm3. Ultra violet 2500 x 100 nm4. Fluorescence 1500 x 100 - 200 nm5. Phase contrast 1500 x 100 – 200 nm6. Interference 1500 x 100 – 200 nm7. TEM 500,000 – 1,000,000 x 1 nm8. SEM 10,000 – 1,000,000 x 1 – 10 nm

Comparison of Light Microscope and Electron Microscope

Feature Light microscope Electron microscope.Magnification 1000 – 1500 Over 1LakhResolution 0.2 micro meter 0.5 nmSpecimen mount Glass slide Copper Metal gridFocusing Changing the position By changing the current through

of lens electromagnetic

TECHNIQUES IN GENETIC ENGINEERING AND TISSUE CULTURE

1. Daniel Nathans ( 1971 ) of Hopkins University utilized the Restriction enzyme to split DNA of the monkey tumour virus, Simian Virus 40 ( SV 40 ).

2.Paul Berg of Stanford University in 1971 opened the DNA molecule of SV40. 3.Herbert Boyr in 1971 isolated the Restriction enzyme.

4. First gene was cloned in 1972-73.5. In 1977 complete genetic code of an organism was determines. The organism was

X 174 phage and its genetic code is 5375 bases long.6. Insulin ( Eli Lilly’s Humulin ) is the first product made through genetic

engineering.7. In 1982, the first transgenic organism, a Mice was produced.8. In 1983, first transgenic plant was produced.9. In 1989, the first patented transgenic animal, the Oncomice was produced.10. In 1990, the first transgenic cereal Maize and Wheat was introduced.11. Ligase enzyme

It is called as Molecular glue. The RE will not make straight cuts, but staggered cuts produced by the RE have sticky ends which are joined by Ligase.

12. Restriction fragmentThe RE cuts the specific DNA at the two ends which become the Restriction fragment.

13. ElectroporationTransient pores are produced in the plasma membrane of the host cell by electric current to insert recombinant plasmids.

14. Complementary or c DNA.DNA synthesized from RNA template using Reverse transcriptase enzyme. cDNA is used to make DNA library.

15. Gene gun or Particle bombardmentIt is technique in which high velocity particles of Tungsten or Gold are coated with DNA and then shot into host cell.

16. MicroinjectionIt is the method to introduce recombinant DNA by using Micro pipette. The method is useful in large cells like egg cells.

17. LiposomesThese are bubbles of lipid that can carry r-DNA into host cells.

18. Ti plasmidIt is the “ Natural Genetic Engineer “. It is the Tumour inducing ( Ti ) plasmid found in Agrobacterium tumefaciens, a gram negative , rod shaped motile bacterium. The Ti plasmid has the ability to integrate the gene into the host nucleus. Ti plasmid system is a naturally existing” vector system “. So it is called as Natural Genetic Engineer.

19. Bio-leachingIt is the separation of metals from ores using microbes. Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is used to separate Cobalt, Nickel, Lead and Lime.

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20. BioremediationTechnique used to clean pollutants using microbes. Pseudomonas can be used to clean up oil spills.

21. Protoplast fusionTechnique used to fuse cells .PEG ( Polyehylene glycol ), Calcium ions, Sodium nitrate etc. are used for protoplast fusion.

22. Nif genesNitrogen fixing genes present in Klebsiella pneumoniae.

23. Flavr SavrGenetically engineered tomato with increased flavour ant long shelf life.

24. Golden riceVitamin A rich variety of Rice containing high amount of betacarotene.

25. Animal cloningAnimal cloning is more difficult than plant cloning since, animal cells lose their totipotency on reaching the gastrula stage.

26. Hela cellsThis is the establishment of a cell line .A heterogenous population of cells resulting from the first subculture of a primary culture. Hela cells were obtained in 1952, from a human cervical carcinoma. Hela cell cultures support the replication of a wide range of viruses.

27. HybridomasThese are produced by the cell fusion between a tumour cell and a non- tumour cell. MAB ( Monoclonal Antibodies ) are produced using the hybridoma technology.

28. MABsMonoclonal antibodies are valuable for immunological and molecular reaserch.

29. Tissue plasminogen activatorIt is used to produce tissue plasmin from plasminogen. Plasmin is used to dissolve blood clots.

30. VaccinesGenetically engineered vaccines for Measles, Small pox, Rubella, Rabies, etc. are produced using chick or duck embryos.

31. Hepatitis vaccineInjectable hepatitis B vaccine is produced from Yeast cells.

32. Norwalk vaccineIt is the vaccine against the Norwalk virus .

33. Travellers diarrheaIt is caused by the toxin produced by E.coli. It is Enterotoxogenic bacteria.

34. Helicobactor pyloriIt is a bacterium causes ulcers in man.

35. Edible vaccinesVaccines produced using A. tumifaciens.

36. Organismal cloningThe first organismal cloning of a vetrebtrate ( Frog ) was done in 1960 by Dr. J. Gurdon at Oxford University.

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37. DollyIn 1965, Dr. Ian Wlmut and his team at Rosalin Institute in Edinburg cloned a sheep called Dolly from the Udder cells. The nucleus of the udder cell was transplanted into a eunucleated unfertilized egg cell. The egg was then transplanted into a surrogate sheep and Dolly was produced. It was born in February 1996.

DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

1. Exotic breeds of cows Gurensey, Jersey, Holstein, Shorthorn, Brown swiss, Friesian.2. Milk yielding breeds Gir, Sahiwal, Red sindhi, Deoni.3. Draught breeds Malvi, Nageri.4. Utility breeds Ongole, Haryana.

Cattle diseases

RinderpestCalled as Cattle plague. It is caused by a virus lived in WBCs. Symptoms are high temperature diarrhoea.

Foot and Mouth disease

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Caused by a modified virus. It is characterized by high fever and formation of blisters in the mouth.

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