hierarchy of knowledge

8/7/2019 Hierarchy of Knowledge

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In brief, the hierarchy is as follows:

MathPhysicsChemistryBiologyPsychologySociology

According to this approach, Mathematics is the most basic and abstract

form of knowledge. Math cannot be broken down into lesser elements

or underlying factors or patterns. The application of math onto the

real world is Physics, which attempts to explain the happenings of the

universe through mathematics. Chemistry is the science of using

physics to understand the constituent particles that make up

all matter. Biology is the study of how chemistry manifests itself

as life. Psychology is the study of how biology manifests itself

as consciousness. Sociology is the study of human systems and social

interaction.

Each step cannot exist or be understood properly without a firm

understanding of the step that lies before it. One cannot understand

biology without first understanding molecular biology and

how DNA encodes theproteins that make life possible. One cannot

understand DNA unless he first understands how the chemistry

ofatoms allow them to form covalent bonds and intermolecular

attractions. One cannot understand atoms unless he first understands

physics and the nature ofparticles. One cannot understand particles

without math. However, in going down the hierarchy, the necessary

degree of mastery of the primary level is less.

In some respects, each level in the hierarchy is simply another level

ofcomplexity imposed on the prior. Looked at differently, each

successive step is a higher degree of generalization,dealing with

increasing levels oforganization. As the hierarchy implies there is not

set division between levels and instead it forms a gradient as each

level blurs into its neighbours. A more fleshed out hierarchy may

appear as: MathematicsPhysicsPhysical

ChemistryChemistryBiochemistryBiologyNeurobiologyPsychol

ogySociology
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_attractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_attractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lifehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consciousnesshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNAhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Covalent_bondhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_attractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermolecular_attractionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subatomic_particlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_Chemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemistryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurobiologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology


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Knowledge managementFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Knowledge Management (KM) comprises a range of strategies and

practices used in an organization to identify, create, represent, distribute,

and enable adoption ofinsights and experiences. Such insights and

experiences comprise knowledge, either embodied in individuals or

embedded in organizational processes or practice.

An established discipline since 1991 (see Nonaka 1991), KM includes

courses taught in the fields ofbusiness administration, information

systems, management, and library and information sciences (Alavi &

Leidner 1999). More recently, other fields have started contributing to KM

research; these include information and media, computer science, public

health, and public policy.

Many large companies and non-profit organizations have resources

dedicated to internal KM efforts, often as a part of their 'business strategy',

'information technology', or 'human resource management' departments

(Addicott, McGivern & Ferlie 2006). Several consulting companies also

exist that provide strategy and advice regarding KM to these organizations.

Knowledge Management efforts typically focus on

organizational objectives such as improved performance, competitive

advantage, innovation, the sharing of lessons learned, integration

and continuous improvementof the organization. KM efforts overlap

with organizational learning, and may be distinguished from that by a

greater focus on the management of knowledge as a strategic asset and a

focus on encouraging the sharing of knowledge. KM efforts can help

individuals and groups to share valuable organizational insights, to reduce

redundant work, to avoid reinventing the wheel per se, to reduce training

time for new employees, to retain intellectual capital as

employees turnoverin an organization, and to adapt to

changing environments and markets (McAdam & McCreedy 2000)

(Thompson & Walsham 2004).

History
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonaka1991http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAddicottMcGivernFerlie2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_improvementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_the_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_capitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_(employment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFMcAdamMcCreedy2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFThompsonWalsham2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Experiencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_academic_disciplineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonaka1991http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_administrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_scienceshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner1999http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_healthhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Policyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Companieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-profit_organizationshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategic_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_resource_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAddicottMcGivernFerlie2006http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competitive_advantagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Innovationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_improvementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinventing_the_wheelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employeehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_capitalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turnover_(employment)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFMcAdamMcCreedy2000http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFThompsonWalsham2004


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KM efforts have a long history, to include on-the-job discussions,

formal apprenticeship, discussion forums, corporate libraries,

professional training and mentoring programs. More recently, with

increased use of computers in the second half of the 20th century,

specific adaptations of technologies such as knowledge bases, expert

systems, knowledge repositories, group decision support systems,

intranets, and computer supported cooperative work have been introduced

to further enhance such efforts.[1]

In 1999, the term personal knowledge management was introduced which

refers to the management of knowledge at the individual level (Wright

2005).

In terms of the enterprise, early collections of case studies recognized theimportance of knowledge management dimensions of strategy, process,

and measurement (Morey, Maybury & Thuraisingham 2002). Key lessons

learned included: people, and the cultures that influence their behaviors,

are the single most critical resource for successful knowledge creation,

dissemination, and application; cognitive, social, and organizational

learning processes are essential to the success of a knowledge

management strategy; and measurement, benchmarking, and incentives

are essential to accelerate the learning process and to drive cultural

change. In short, knowledge management programs can yield impressive

benefits to individuals and organizations if they are purposeful, concrete,

and action-oriented.

More recently with the advent of the Web 2.0, the concept of Knowledge

Management has evolved towards a vision more based on people

participation and emergence. This line of evolution is termed Enterprise

2.0(McAfee 2006). However, there is an ongoing debate and discussions

(Lakhani & McAfee 2007) as to whetherEnterprise 2.0 is just a fad that

does not bring anything new or useful or whether it is, indeed, the future of

knowledge management (Davenport 2008).

[edit]Research

KM emerged as a scientific discipline in the earlier 1990s. It was initially

supported solely by practitioners, when Scandia hired Leif Edvinsson

ofSweden as the worlds first Chief Knowledge Officer(CKO). Hubert

Saint-Onge (formerly ofCIBC, Canada), started investigating various sides

of KM long before that. The objective of CKOs is to manage and maximize
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the intangible assets of their organizations. Gradually, CKOs became

interested in not only practical but also theoretical aspects of KM, and the

new research field was formed. The KM ideas taken up by academics,

such as Ikujiro Nonaka (Hitotsubashi University), Hirotaka

Takeuchi (Hitotsubashi University), Thomas H. Davenport (Babson

College) and Baruch Lev (New York University). In 2001, Thomas A.

Stewart, former editor at FORTUNE Magazine and subsequently the editor

ofHarvard Business Review, published a cover story highlighting the

importance of intellectual capital of organizations. Since its establishment,

the KM discipline has been gradually moving towards academic maturity.

First, there is a trend towards higher cooperation among academics;

particularly, there has been a drop in single-authored publications. Second,

the role of practitioners has changed. Their contribution to academicresearch has been dramatically declining from 30% of overall contributions

up to 2002, to only 10% by 2009 (Serenko et al. 2010).

A broad range of thoughts on the KM discipline exists with no unanimous

agreement; approaches vary by author and school. As the discipline

matures, academic debates have increased regarding both the theoryand

practice of KM, to include the following perspectives:

Techno-centric with a focus on technology, ideally those thatenhance knowledge sharing and creation.

Organizational with a focus on how an organization can

be designed to facilitate knowledge processes best.

Ecological with a focus on the interaction of people, identity,

knowledge, and environmental factors as a complex adaptive

system akin to a natural ecosystem.

Regardless of the school of thought, core components of KMinclude People, Processes, Technology (or) Culture, Structure,

Technology, depending on the specific perspective (Spender & Scherer

2007). Different KM schools of thought include various lenses through

which KM can be viewed and explained, to include:

community of practice (Wenger, McDermott & Synder 2001)[2]

social network analysis[3]

intellectual capital (Bontis & Choo 2002)[4]

information theory[5] (McInerney 2002)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikujiro_Nonakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitotsubashi_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirotaka_Takeuchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirotaka_Takeuchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Davenporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babson_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babson_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Stewarthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Stewarthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Reviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontisBookerSadeddin2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_sharinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(social_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSpenderScherer2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSpenderScherer2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFWengerMcDermottSynder2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFBontisChoo2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFMcInerney2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ikujiro_Nonakahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hitotsubashi_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirotaka_Takeuchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hirotaka_Takeuchihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_H._Davenporthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babson_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babson_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Universityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Stewarthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_A._Stewarthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortune_(magazine)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Business_Reviewhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontisBookerSadeddin2010http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_sharinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Designhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(social_science)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_adaptive_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/School_of_thoughthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peoplehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSpenderScherer2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSpenderScherer2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_(cognitive)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFWengerMcDermottSynder2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_network_analysishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-2http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFBontisChoo2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFMcInerney2002


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complexity science[6] [7]

constructivism[8] (Nanjappa & Grant 2003)

The practical relevance of academic research in KM has been questioned

(Ferguson 2005) with action research suggested as having more relevance(Andriessen 2004) and the need to translate the findings presented in

academic journals to a practice (Booker, Bontis & Serenko 2008).

[edit]Dimensions

Different frameworks for distinguishing between knowledge exist. One

proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledge

distinguishes between tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Tacit

knowledge represents internalized knowledge that an individual may not beconsciously aware of, such as how he or she accomplishes particular

tasks. At the opposite end of the spectrum, explicit knowledge represents

knowledge that the individual holds consciously in mental focus, in a form

that can easily be communicated to others.[9] (Alavi & Leidner 2001).

Early research suggested that a successful KM effort needs to convert

internalized tacit knowledge into explicit knowledge in order to share it, but

the same effort must also permit individuals to internalize and make

personally meaningful any codified knowledge retrieved from the KM effort.Subsequent research into KM suggested that a distinction between tacit

knowledge and explicit knowledge represented an oversimplification and

that the notion of explicit knowledge is self-contradictory. Specifically, for

knowledge to be made explicit, it must be translated

into information (i.e., symbols outside of our heads) (Serenko & Bontis

2004). Later on, Ikujiro Nonaka proposed a model (SECI for Socialization,

Externalization, Combination, Internalization) which considers a spiraling

knowledge process interaction between explicit knowledgeand tacit

knowledge (Nonaka & Takeuchi 1995). In this model, knowledge follows a

cycle in which implicit knowledge is 'extracted' to become explicit

knowledge, and explicit knowledge is 're-internalized' into implicit

knowledge. More recently, together with Georg von Krogh, Nonaka

returned to his earlier work in an attempt to move the debate about

knowledge conversion forwards (Nonaka & von Krogh 2009).

A second proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of

knowledge distinguishes between embedded knowledge ofa system outside of a human individual (e.g., an information system may
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNanjappaGrant2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFFerguson2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAndriessen2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFBookerBontisSerenko2008http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontis2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontis2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonakaTakeuchi1995http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonakavon_Krogh2009http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complexity_sciencehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNanjappaGrant2003http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFFerguson2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_researchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAndriessen2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFBookerBontisSerenko2008http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_frameworkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimensionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tacit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAlaviLeidner2001http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Informationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontis2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSerenkoBontis2004http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explicit_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonakaTakeuchi1995http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFNonakavon_Krogh2009http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System


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have knowledge embedded into its design) and embodied knowledge

representing a learned capability of a human bodys nervous and endocrine

systems (Sensky 2002).

A third proposed framework for categorizing the dimensions of knowledgedistinguishes between the exploratory creation of "new knowledge" (i.e.,

innovation) vs. the transferor exploitation of "established knowledge" within

a group, organization, or community. Collaborative environments such as

communities of practice or the use ofsocial computing tools can be used

for both knowledge creation and transfer.[10]

[edit]Strategies

Knowledge may be accessed at three stages: before, during, or after KM-

related activities. Different organizations have tried various knowledge

capture incentives, including making content submission mandatory and

incorporating rewards into performance measurement plans. Considerable

controversy exists over whether incentives work or not in this field and no

consensus has emerged.

One strategy to KM involves actively managing knowledge (push strategy).

In such an instance, individuals strive to explicitly encode their knowledge

into a shared knowledge repository, such as a database, as well as

retrieving knowledge they need that other individuals have provided to the

repository.[11] This is also commonly known as the Codification approach to

KM.

Another strategy to KM involves individuals making knowledge requests

ofexperts associated with a particular subject on an ad hoc basis (pull

strategy). In such an instance, expert individual(s) can provide

theirinsights to the particular person or people needing this (Snowden

2002). This is also commonly known as the Personalization approach to

KM.

Other knowledge management strategies for companies include:

rewards (as a means of motivating for knowledge sharing)

storytelling (as a means of transferring tacit knowledge)

cross-project learning

after action reviews

knowledge mapping (a map of knowledge repositories within a

company accessible by all)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSensky2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_measurementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hochttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSnowden2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSnowden2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytellinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_systemhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endocrine_systemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSensky2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_transferhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_computinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-9http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incentiveshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_measurementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Databasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hochttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insightshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSnowden2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFSnowden2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storytelling


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communities of practice

expert directories (to enable knowledge seeker to reach to the

experts)

best practice transfer

competence management (systematic evaluation and planning of

competences of individual organization members)

proximity & architecture (the physical situation of employees can be

either conducive or obstructive to knowledge sharing)

master-apprentice relationship

collaborative technologies (groupware, etc.)

knowledge repositories (databases, bookmarking engines, etc.)

measuring and reporting intellectual capital (a way of making explicitknowledge for companies)

knowledge brokers (some organizational members take on

responsibility for a specific "field" and act as first reference on whom to

talk about a specific subject)

social software (wikis, social bookmarking, blogs, etc.)

Motivations

A number of claims exist as to the motivations leading organizations to

undertake a KM effort.[12] Typical considerations driving a KM effort include:

Making available increased knowledge content in

the development and provision ofproducts and services

Achieving shorternew product development cycles

Facilitating and managing innovation and organizational learning

Leveraging the expertise of people across the organization

Increasing networkconnectivity between internal and external

individuals

Managing business environments and allowing employees to obtain

relevant insights and ideas appropriate to their work

Solving intractable orwicked problems

Managing intellectual capital and intellectual assets in the workforce

(such as the expertise and know-how possessed by key individuals)

Debate exists whether KM is more than a passing fad, though increasing

amount of research in this field may hopefully help to answer this question,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_bookmarkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_product_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(business)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_product_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inter_connectivity&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groupwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_bookmarkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_softwarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motivationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_product_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_(business)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_(economics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_product_developmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expertisehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inter_connectivity&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wicked_problemshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Procedural_knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fad


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as well as create consensus on what elements of KM help determine the

success or failure of such efforts (Wilson 2002).[13]

[edit]Technologies

Early KM technologies included online corporate yellow pages as expertiselocators and document management systems. Combined with the early

development of collaborative technologies (in particularLotus Notes), KM

technologies expanded in the mid-1990s. Subsequent KM efforts

leveraged semantic technologies forsearch and retrieval and the

development ofe-learning tools forcommunities of practice[14] (Capozzi

2007).

More recently, development of social computing tools (such

as bookmarks, blogs, and wikis) have allowed more unstructured, self-

governing or ecosystem approaches to the transfer, capture and creation of

knowledge, including the development of new forms of

communities, networks, ormatrixed organizations. However such tools for

the most part are still based on text and code, and thus represent explicit

knowledge transfer. These tools face challenges in distilling meaningful re-

usable knowledge and ensuring that their content is transmissible through

diverse channels[15] (Andrus 2005).

Software tools in knowledge management are a collection of technologies

and are not necessarily acquired as a single software solution.

Furthermore, these knowledge management software tools have the

advantage of using the organization existing information technology

infrastructure. Organizations and business decision makers spend a great

deal of resources and make significant investments in the latest

technology, systems and infrastructure to support knowledge management.

It is imperative that these investments are validated properly, made wisely

and that the most appropriate technologies and software tools are selectedor combined to facilitate knowledge management.

Knowledge management has also become a cornerstone in

emerging business strategies such as Service Lifecycle

Management (SLM) with companies increasingly turning to software

vendors to enhance their efficiency in industries including, but not limited

to, the aviation industry.

Knowledge management and collaboration.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFWilson2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFCapozzi2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFCapozzi2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_bookmarkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_(communications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_(communications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAndrus2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifecycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifecycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFWilson2002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-12http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Knowledge_management&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Onlinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellow_pageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lotus_Noteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Searchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communities_of_practicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-13http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFCapozzi2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFCapozzi2007http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enterprise_bookmarkinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blogshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_networkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_(communications)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#cite_note-14http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_management#CITEREFAndrus2005http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_strategyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifecycle_managementhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_lifecycle_management


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What is a knowledge hierarchy?

Definition

According to RobertGagn (1985), a knowledge hierarchy is a ranked list of all

knowledge, and, therefore, of all intellectual skills and all learning, which progresses

from the simplest to the most complex: associationsand chains, which are prerequisites

fordiscriminations, which are prerequisites forconcepts, which are prerequisites

forrules and generalizations, which are prerequisites forhigher-order rules.

DiscussionGagn believed that

it is important for anyone teaching people to present all the necessary lower-

level facts before proceeding to teach at higher levels of the knowledge

hierarchy, and

people can reason with higher-level concepts if they have learned all the

prerequisite lower-level information.

Example: Here is an example of Gagn's theory that higher-level types of

information cannot be understood or learned until all the appropriate

lower-level knowledge has been mastered:

To do a math problem in percent (a higher-order rule requiring a

series of processes), one must know the following:

o A rule: the formula for calculating percent

o A concept: the concept of percent

o Discriminations: the differences between addition,

subtraction, multiplication, division, fractions, and their

uses

o Associations: basic math facts, such as addition facts,subtraction facts, multiplication and division tables, and

the basic numbering system

Conditions within the learner and conditions within the learning situation vary with

each of these categories and greatly affect results. As new material is processed by a

learner, new memory structures are acquired. These new structures are what enable

learners to retain and transfer information.

In later years, Gagn placed less importance on hierarchical ranking and more on the

importance of prior knowledge.

See: Schema theory of learning
http://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/BibliographyLiteracy/Gagne1985.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/BibliographyLiteracy/Gagne1985.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAssociation.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAChain.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsDiscrimination.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAConcept.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAConcept.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatAreRulesAndGeneralizations.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatAreRulesAndGeneralizations.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAHigherOrderRule.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAHigherOrderRule.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/ImplementALiteracyProgram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/BibliographyLiteracy/Gagne1985.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAssociation.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAChain.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsDiscrimination.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAConcept.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatAreRulesAndGeneralizations.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/referencematerials/glossaryofliteracyterms/WhatIsAHigherOrderRule.htmhttp://www.sil.org/lingualinks/literacy/ImplementALiteracyProgram/SchemaTheoryOfLearning.htm


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However, he used the hierarchical model to point out the important fact that higher-

level types of information cannot be understood or learned until all the appropriate

lower-level knowledge has been mastered.

1999 SIL International

hierarchy of knowledge

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