henoch 35-2-2013 - jacobus-libre

Jacobus - Calendars from Jewish Documents in the Judean Desert 273

Hen 35(2/2013)

CALENDARS FROM JEWISH DOCUMENTS IN THE JUDEAN DESERT FROM THE FIRST REVOLT

TO BAR KOKHBA*

HELEN R. JACOBUS, University College London

Introduction

It is apparent that the Aramaic and Hebrew legal documents from the First and Second Revolts are dated with Babylonian calendar dates1 and that the years of time are indicated by nationalist Jewish dating formulas (that is, counting the years from the beginning of the �liberation� of Israel or Jeru-salem, and later, by Bar Kokhba). This is in direct opposition to the system used by the ruling administration: the Roman calendar for days and months cpf"vjg"qhÝekcn."rqnkvkecn"Tqocp"fcvkpi"hqtowncu"*eqwpvkpi"vjg"{gctu"htqo"vjg"qhÝekcn"cuegpukqp"qh"vjg"gorgtqt."cpf1qt"vjg"eqpuwnct"{gct."cpf1qt"htqo"vjg"beginning of the Roman administration of Nabatea in 106 CE in that area). It is also of note that local Aramaic Jewish legal documents from before and after the First Revolt and before the Second Revolt are dated by the Babylo-nian calendar for the day and month combined with different variations of the Roman dating formulas for the year concerned. It is possible that this hybrid hqto"gpcdngf"vjg"{gct"vq"dg"kfgpvkÝgf"cu"tgswktgf."hqt"xcnkfkv{"qt"enctkv{"qwv-side of a rebel community, while the scribes retained the community�s Jewish identity and customs, as indicated by the use of the Babylonian instead of the Roman calendar.

The research suggests that the Aramaic and Hebrew legal documents may contain the earliest examples of the luni-solar, Babylonian calendar used in practice for Jewish civil purposes. They are, therefore, of interest to calendar studies and the history of the early Jewish calendar. Furthermore, by examin-ing all the civilian archives from the Judean caves collectively and taking on board their different calendar and dating formulas we have additional sources of historical, political, sociological, ideological and theological data related to the activities of Jewish communities in the caves� area. This information affords an insight into how these communities lived and thought during these times of political change, rebellion and destabilisation.

* I would like to thank the participants in the Qumran section for their useful and interesting comments in the discussion that followed this paper at the International Meeting of the Society of Biblical Literature, St Andrews, Scotland, July 8, 2013. This paper was entitled �First and second century calendars in documents from the Cave of Letters and elsewhere.�

1 Since we do not know what the difference was between the Jewish and Babylonian calendars, I have referred to what appears to be the Babylonian calendar with the month names translated into Aramaic in the Jewish documents as the Babylonian calendar, rather than the Jewish calendar, for the sake of argument.

7.Articles - Jacobus.indd 273 04/12/2013 22.25.13

274 Articles / Articoli

This study examined 48 secular and religious legal documents from dif-ferent caves in the Dead Sea area from before the time of the First Revolt (66-73 CE) from about 55 CE, to the last documents still being written at the end of the Second Revolt (c.132-135 CE). In particular, the research is concerned with the dating systems and the calendars in these documents. �Dating systems� or �formulas� refer to the political systems that are used vq"fgÝpg"dnqemu"qh"vkog"d{"eqwpvkpi"vjg"{gctu"htqo"vjg"dgikppkpi"qh"urgekÝe"eras connected to a person, or an event, or to an administrative system, what-ever the case may be in the particular documents.

The discussion of the �calendar,� refers to the mathematical cycles related to the sun and the moon, by which the months and years are calculated. The Babylonian calendar with the Aramaic Babylonian month names is used in all of the Aramaic and Hebrew documents. The important point to note is that kp"vjg"Dcd{nqpkcp"ecngpfct"vjg"oqpvj"dgikpu"ykvj"vjg"Ýtuv"qdugtxcvkqp"qh"vjg"nwpct"etguegpv."jgpeg"fc{"3"ku"vjg"Ýtuv"etguegpv."okf/oqpvj"ctqwpf"vjg"36th or 15th is the full moon, and day 29 or 30 is the last day of the month.2

The legal documents from different caves in the Judean desert have been recovered in controlled archaeological excavations and in unauthorised digs d{"Dgfqwkp." kp"yjkej"ecugu" vjg"Ýpf"urqvu"ctg"wpegtvckp03 They largely en-compass legal matters � family and property law � by ordinary people within their communities. The documents were regarded as of the utmost personal korqtvcpeg"vq"vjg"kpfkxkfwcnu"vq"yjqo"vjg{"dgnqpigf"yjq"Þgf"vq"vjg"ecxgu"for refuge at different times because they took great care in preserving their documents and in hiding them.4

2 See J.M. Steele, �The Length of the Month in Mesopotamian Calendars of the First Millennium BC,� in J.M. Steele (ed.), Calendars and Years: Astronomy and Time in the Ancient Near East (Oxford: Oxbow, 2007), pp. 133-148 (esp. pp. 143-144).

3 H.M. Cotton and A.Yardeni, Aramaic, Hebrew and Greek Documentary Texts from Pc巾cn" 均gxgt" cpf" Qvjgt" Ukvgu." ykvj" cp" Crrgpfkz" Eqpvckpkpi" Cnngigf" Swotcp" Vgzvu" *Vjg"Ugk{¤n"Eqnngevkqp"II) (Discoveries in the Judean Desert [abbrev. DJD] 27; Oxford: Clarendon, 3;;9+."rr0"3/80"[0[cfkp"/"L0E0ItggpÝgnf"/"C0[ctfgpk"/"D0C0Ngxkpg."The Documents from the Dct"Mqmjdc"Rgtkqf"kp"vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu<"Jgdtgy."Ctcocke"cpf"Pcdcvgcp/Ctcocke"Rcr{tk *Lwfgcp"Fgugtv"Uvwfkgu"]LFU_"5="Kutcgn"Gzrnqtcvkqp"Uqekgv{1"Kpuvkvwvg"qh"Ctejcgqnqi{."Jgdtgy"Wpkxgtukv{1"Ujtkpg"qh"vjg"Dqqmu."Kutcgn"Owugwo."4224+."rr0"4/70"Rncvgu"qh"Ctcocke."Jgdtgy"and two new Greek papyri edited by H. Cotton appear in The Documents from the Bar-Kokhba Rgtkqf"kp"vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu<"Jgdtgy."Ctcocke."Pcdcvgcp/Ctcocke"cpf"Itggm"Rcr{tk0"Rncvgu *Lgtwucngo<" Kutcgn"Gzrnqtcvkqp"Uqekgv{1" Kpuvkvwvg"qh"Ctejcgqnqi{."Jgdtgy"Wpkxgtukv{."Ujtkpg"of the Book, Israel Museum, 2002). N. Lewis, The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period kp"vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu<"Itggm"Rcr{tk0"*LFU"4="]kpenwfkpi"Rncvgu_"Lgtwucngo<"Kutcgn"Gzrnqtcvkqp"Uqekgv{1"Jgdtgy"Wpkxgtukv{1"Ujtkpg"qh"vjg"Dqqm."3;:;+."rr0"5/70"[0"[cfkp."The Finds from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters (JDS 1; Jerusalem: The Hebrew University, The Kutcgn"Gzrnqtcvkqp"Uqekgv{."Vjg"Fgrctvogpv"qh"Cpvkswkvkgu."Okpkuvt{"qh"Gfwecvkqp"cpf"Ewnvwtg."3;85+."rr0"57/58."5:/620"*Rncvgu"kp"Plates, Jerusalem 2002).

4 For a popular summary description and account of deeds found rolled like a cigar in a Þwvg/nkmg"tggf"ecug"htqo"vjg"Dcdcvjc"ctejkxg"cpf"Dct"Mqmjdc"fqewogpvu."cpf"qvjgt"ogvjqfu"qh"preserving and concealing documents (and letters), see Y. Yadin, Bar-Kokhba: The rediscovery qh"vjg"ngigpfct{"jgtq"qh"vjg"ncuv"Lgykuj"Tgxqnv"cickpuv"Korgtkcn"Tqog (London: Weidenfeld



The Hebrew and Aramaic and Greek legal documents examined in this paper are those that have existing calendrical data. Documents where the date is missing have not been included in this study. None of the Bar Kokhba ngvvgtu"kpenwfgf"fcvgu0"Vjg"Ýpf/urqvu"ygtg"kp"Pc昭cn"昌gxgt"*vjcv"ku."vjg"Ecxg"of Letters); Wadi Murabba┼¤v="Mgvgh"Lgtkejq."Ugk{¤n"cpf"Ufgkt=" vjqug" htqo"wpegtvckp"Ýpf/urqvu"ctg"rtqdcdn{"gkvjgt"htqo"vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu."qt"qh"Ugk-{¤n0"Vjg"fqewogpvu"kpenwfg"c"xctkgv{"qh"fggfu"qh"rtqrgtv{."KQWu."tgfgorvkqp"qh"fgdv"egtvkÝecvgu."oclqt"ikhvu"cpf"nqcpu"vq"hcokn{"ogodgtu."tgegkrvu"hqt"vjg"purchase of property, crops, or animals between family members, friends, business people, and members of the community. There are personal family documents: different kinds of marriage contracts, divorce agreements, child-vtwuv"rc{ogpvu."cpf"ngicn"fkurwvgu"kpxqnxkpi"eqornkecvgf"Ýpcpekcn"ukvwcvkqpu."cpf"rtqdcvg0"Ocp{"jcxg"dggp"uwdlgev"qh"dqqmu"cpf"rcrgtu"qp"curgevu"qh"cp-cient Jewish law.5

The languages are Greek, in the main transcribed, edited and translated by Naphtali Lewis,6 Hannah Cotton,7 cpf" Rkgttg" Dgpqkv=8 and in Aramaic and Hebrew, mainly transcribed, edited and translated, by J.T. Milik,9 Yigael Yadin10 and Ada Yardeni.11 Seven Aramaic and Hebrew documents from Owtcddc┼¤v"hqtogtn{"cuetkdgf"vq"vjg"Dct"Mqmjdc"rgtkqf"jcxg"dggp"tgfcvgf"vq"vjg"Hktuv"Tgxqnv"kp"vjg"ockp"chvgt"Jcpcp"Gujgn"swgtkgf"vjgkt"fcvkpi"vq"vjg"Second Revolt by Milik.12 Most of the dating formulas from the redated First Revolt documents do not include the name of �Bar Kosba,� but �to the Re-demption,� or �to the Freedom of Israel,� or of �Jerusalem,� only. One docu-

and Nicholson, 1971), pp. 173-181 (with photos); pp 223-251 (Babatha archive with photos); pp. 113-139 (Bar Kokhba letters with photos).

Yadin, Finds, JDS 1, Babatha archive: pp. 38-40 (there is also a reed case containing a fqewogpv."r0"5;+."37;/386" ."Ýi0"::."rncvgu"73/74"cpf" ngcvjgt"rqwej" kp"Plates."Rnu0"3/5="Dct"Mqmjdc"Ngvvgtu"ykvj"enc{"ugcn"kortguukqpu."rr0"57/58."Ngvvgtu"umkp."Rn0"75."fggfu"htqo"Gp/Igfk"kp"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu<"r0"382."Ýi0"7:"dqvvqo."ngcvjgt"rwtug"kp"Rn0"74."Plates."Rn0"340"Nqewu"9"yjgtg"the letters were found and locus 61 where the Babatha archive was discovered are both at the farthest extremities of the Cave of Letters, see the plan of the cave in Finds, JDS 1 (pull-out at map at the back).

5 See for example, J.G. Oudshoorn, Vjg"Tgncvkqpujkr"dgvyggp"Tqocp"cpf"Nqecn"Ncy"kp"vjg"Dcdcvjc"cpf"Ucnqog"Mqoc•ug"Ctejkxgu0"Igpgtcn"Cpcn{uku"cpf"Vjtgg"Ecug"Uvwfkgu"qp"Ncy"qh"Uweeguukqp."Iwctfkcpujkr"cpf"Octtkcig (Leiden: Brill, 2007).

6 N. Lewis, JDS 2, 1989.7 Cotton and Yardeni, DJD 27, 1997.8" R0"Dgpqkv." q0r0" /" L0V0"Oknkm" /"T0" fg"Xcwz."Ngu" itqvvgu" fg"OwtcddcÓ¤v (DJD 2; in two

xqnwogu<"Vgzvu"cpf"Rncvgu="Qzhqtf<"Enctgpfqp."3;83+09 Milik, DJD 2, qr0"ekv.10"[cfkp."ItggpÝgnf."[ctfgpk."cpf"Ngxkpg."LFU"5."42240"11 Yardeni, DJD 27, and JDS 3, qr0"ekv. 12 H. Eshel, �Documents of the First Jewish revolt from the Judean Desert,� in A.M. Berlin

- J.A. Overman (eds.), The First Jewish revolt: archaeology, history and ideology (London - New York: Routledge, 2002), pp. 157-163. Two documents, Mur 22 and Mur 29, have been uekgpvkÝecnn{"eqpÝtogf"d{"tcfkqectdqp"fcvkpi."ugg"J0"Gujgn"et al0."ÐHqwt"Owtcddc虎cv"Rcr{tk"and the Alleged Capture of Jerusalem by Bar Kokhba,� in R. Ratzoff- D.Schaps (eds.), Law in the Documents of the Judaean Desert (SJSJ 96; Leiden: Brill, 2005), 45-50.



ogpv."htqo"cp"wpegtvckp"Ýpf/urqv."*fqewogpv":c+."yjkej"cnuq"jcu"vjku"fcvkpi"formula and does not mention of the name of �Shimon bar Kosba,� remains assigned to the Second Revolt, by Yardeni (as far as I know).13

Unlike the Bar Kokhba letters, the documents from the Second Revolt are purely legal matters. They do not contain overt political and ideologi-cal statements or information about activities. The political statements are inherent in the nature of the dating formulas. The documents from the caves and the Bar Kokhba letters also from the caves are not sociologically unre-lated. One of the names of the parties in a document written in Greek, to be discussed, can be matched up to a family member in the Bar Kokhba letters.

Included in the redating of documents from the Second Revolt period to the First Revolt is the famous divorce document from Masada also found in Ycfk"Owtcddc┼¤v"*Owt"3;+014 Self contained collections in this study include the Babatha archive from the Cave of Letters, a fascinating family legal col-lection consisting of Nabatean, Aramaic and mainly Greek documents cover-ing a 40-year period from 93 to 132, the cusp of the Second Jewish War, and the Salome Komaïse archive, which mainly consists of Greek documents htqo"cp"wpegtvckp"Ýpf"urqv"htqo"347"EG"vq"353"EG0

One of the most striking aspects of the Babylonian calendar date system on the Jewish documents, which I do not believe has been commented on be-fore, or studied, is that in the Aramaic and Hebrew documents covering most qh"vjg"gzvcpv"Ýtuv"cpf"Ugeqpf"Tgxqnv"fqewogpvu"cpf"oquv"vjqug"kp"dgvyggp"those periods, show a preference for certain days of the months. In compari-son to the dates in the Elephantine papyri, for example, which also employ the Babylonian calendar,15"vjg"urtgcf"qh"fcvgu"kp"vjg"oclqtkv{"qh"Lwfgcp"fgugtv"civil, legal documents seems to be arithmetically grouped. In particular, ev-ery seventh day, the 1st, 7th, 14th, 21st and the 28th"cpf"fcvgu"fkxkukdng"d{"Ýxg<"the 10th, 15th, 20th, and the 25th"qh"vjg"oqpvj"htgswgpvn{"qeewt0"Vjg"rcvvgtp."kh"that is the case, applies to the documents from the First Jewish Revolt and, with a few exceptions, from the time of the Second Jewish Revolt.

I shall suggest that in the Hebrew and Aramaic documents there is a sys-tem of �lucky days� that were regarded as good for legal contracts from commercial transactions such as borrowing money, to private and personal arrangements such as marriage. The system of fortunate days and bad days to carry out certain activities are known from Mesopotamia.

A late Babylonian hemerological text in the British Museum (Text 56794+."qtkikpcnn{"eqrkgf"d{"Rkpejgu."nkuvu"iqqf"cpf"dcf"fc{u"hqt"c"ncy"uwkv."

13"[ctfgpk."ÐZ昌gx1Ug":c"rcrFggf"qh"Ucng"E"*356"qt"357"EG+.Ñ"FLF"49."rr0"56/590"[ctfgpk"dates this document on paleographical grounds (p. 35).

14 Milik, �Mur 19. MurDivorce ar,� DJD 2, pp. 104-109; H. Eshel et al., �Alleged Capture,� r0" 6;" p0" 45="[0"[cfkp." ÐVjg" Gzecxcvkqpu" qh"Ocucfc" 3;85186<" Rtgnkokpct{"Tgrqtv.Ñ" IEJ 15 (1965), pp. 1-20 (p. 19 n. 112).

15"D0"Rqtvgp."ÐVjg"Ecngpfct"qh"Ctcocke"Vgzvu" htqo"Cejcgogpkf"cpf"Rvqngocke"Gi{rv.Ñ Irano-Judaica 2 (1990), pp. 13-52; S. Stern, �The Babylonian Calendar at Elephantine,� ¥gkvuejtkhv"hwgt"Rcr{tqnqikg"wpf"Grkitcrjkm 130 (2000), pp. 159-171.



qt"vq"gcv"Ýuj."cpf"vjgtg"ctg"ocp{"gzcorngu"qh"iqqf"cpf"dcf"fc{u"hqt"fkhhgtgpv"activities that are connected with different astronomical conditions.16 Casa-buri has published a seventh century BCE neo-Assyrian tablet in which there are particular days in most months that are good for slaughtering animals or loosening spells17"cpf"cp"gctnkgt"Oguqrqvcokcp"jgogtqnqi{"kp"yjkej"vjg"Ýtuv"10 days of Te�ritu (Tishri, the seventh month) are days of penance when en-lq{cdng"jwocp"cevkxkvkgu"ctg"pqv"cnnqygf018 (This is also the practice in within Judaism in the same calendrical period).19

It will be suggested that the Babylonian calendar with the Aramaic month names, which were also known at Qumran20 and that were used in all the He-brew and Aramaic documents in the Judean desert, had a national and unify-ing identity. This case may be argued because the calendars used in the dating formulas in First and Second Revolt documents use the Semitic month names in connection with the phrase, �to the redemption of Israel,� or the Freedom of Israel in the name of Shimon bar Kosba,� and so on, thereby giving this calendar a nationalist or theological identity.

Before and between the revolts, different dating formulas were used with the Babylonian calendar in Jewish documents. In general, outside the two revolts the Aramaic and Hebrew documents used the Babylonian lunar calen-dar combined with either a Roman dating system, or, a dating system count-ing years with reference to an era that is missing due the fragmentary condi-tion of the documents. One form of a Roman dating system in the Aramaic and Hebrew texts consists of a very basic count of regnal years of the Roman gorgtqt"cv"vjg"vkog."ikxkpi"jku"pcog"ykvjqwv"cp"gncdqtcvg"qhÝekcn"vkvng"*ugg"below). The Roman, or Julian, calendar was solar and had spread in the Ro-man Empire21 but it does not appear in the Hebrew and Aramaic documents. It does so only in the Jewish documents in Greek written after the Roman annexation of Nabatea the early second century CE.22 The Aramaic docu-

16" V0I0" Rkpejgu." Late Babylonian Astronomical and Related Texts" *Rtqxkfgpeg<" Dtqyp"Wpkxgtukv{" Rtgu." 3;77+." gfkvgf" kp" G0" Ygkfpgt." Gestirn-Darstellungen auf Babylonischen Tontafeln" *£uvgttgkejg" Cmcfgokg" fgt" Ykuugpuejchv." Rjknquqrjkuejg/jkuvqtkuejg" Mncuug0"Sitzungsberichte 254. Band 2; Graz: Hermann Böhlaus, 1967), pp. 34-38.

17 M.C. Casaburi, �Early Evidence of Astrological Aspects of a Neo-Assyrian Medical Hemerology,� Uvcvg"Ctejkxgu" qh" Cuu{tkc" Dwnngvkp 14 (2002-2005), pp. 63-88. I thank Mark Geller for sending me this article.

18 M.C. Casaburi, �The Alleged Mesopotamian �Lent�: the hemerology for Te�ritu,� Uvwfk"GrkitcÝek"uwn"Xkekpq"Qtkgpvg"cpvkeq 17 (2000), pp.13-29.

19 The period between the Jewish New Year, Rosh Hashanah on 1 Tishri and the Day of Atonement, Yom Kippur on 10 Tishri, the Days of Awe.

20"L0E0"ItggpÝgnf"cpf"O0"Uqmqnqhh."Ð53:0"6S¥qfkqnqi{"cpf"Dtqpvqnqi{"ct.Ñ"FLF"58."rr0"259-257; J.A. Fitzmyer, �332. 4Q Historical Text D,� DJD 36, pp. 281-286 (at 283-284); H. R. Lceqdwu."Rj0F."fkuu."Ocpejguvgt"4233."323/332"*qp"oqpvj/pcogu"kp"6S53:"cpf"6S554+."cnuq."revised thesis, Id. ¥qfkce"Ecngpfctu"kp"vjg"Fgcf"Ugc"Uetqnnu"cpf"vjgkt"Tgegrvkqp (IJS: Studies in Judaica; Leiden: Brill, 2014, forthcoming).

21 A.E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology (Munich: Oscar Beck, 1972), pp. 186-188; S. Stern, Calendars in Antiquity"*Qzhqtf<"QWR."4234+."rr0"447/4490"

22 The Nabatean calendar was Babylonian until the annexation in 106 CE. The Babatha



ments in the Babatha archive written after the annexation also retained the Babylonian calendar, see below.

Table 1

Table 1 lists all the Hebrew and Aramaic documents according to the extant days of the month whatever the surviving dating formulas. The dates have been separated into columns according to whether the day of the month followed kpetgogpvu"qh"ugxgpu"qt"Ýxgu."ukorn{"dgecwug"vjgug"vyq"rcvvgtpu"ctg"uvtkmkpi0"The marriage-related contracts in this table are noted for the later discussion.

Table 1. Aramaic and Hebrew documents. Known days of month. (Marriage-related docu-

ments noted)

1, 7, 14, 21, 28 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 Other

Mur 19: 1st Marheshvan *Ocucfc"fkxqteg"document)

CL 43: 1st Ellul/remit 5th (Bar Kokhba document)

CL 45 & 46: 2nd Kislev (Bar Kokhba document)

CL 42: 1st Iyyar (Bar Kokhba document)

Mur 23: 10th Shevat (1st revolt document)

CL 10: 3rd Adar *DcdcvjcÓu"octtkcig"contract, 128 CE?)

Mur 20: 7th Adar *Octtkcig"eqpvtcev"116/7CE)

Z昌gx1Ug"34<"15 Shevat *Ucnqog"Mqockug"fggf."131 CE)

Sdeir 2: 6th Adar (Bar Kokhba document)

Mur 29: 14th Ellul (1st revolt document)

Z昌gx1Ug":a: 10/20th? Adar (2nd revolt deed?)

CL 7: 24th Tammuz *DcdcvjcÓu"hcvjgt"document, 120 CE)

Mur 22: 14th Marheshvan (1st revolt document)

Mur 24: 20th Shevat (Bar Kokhba documents)

CL 8: 3rd Tammuz *[gjqugrj"dgp"UjkoqpÓu"tgegkrv."34415"EG+

Z昌gx1Ug"9<"14th Iyyar (Bar Kokhba document)

Z昌gx1Ug"6;<"20th Kislev (Bar Kokhba document)

CL 47: 14th Tevet (Bar Kokhba document)

Z昌gx1Ug"35<"20th Sivan (Bar Kokhba divorce document)

Mur 21: 21st [month?]

*Octtkcig"eqpvtcev0"3st

revolt?)

Z昌gx1Ug"33<"1n?/ 20th Elul (marriage contract rtg/Dct"Mqmjdc+

Mur 30: 21st Tishri (1st/2nd? revolt document)

Jer 7: 25th Tevet (84 CE) Tgegkrv"hqt"fcvgu

CL 44: 28th Marheshvan (Bar Kokhba document)

Key: X昌gx"1Ug<"wpegtvckp"Ýpfurqv="EN<"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu<"Owt<"Ycfk"Owtcddc┼¤v

ctejkxg"jcu"vjtgg"Pcdcvgcp"fqewogpvu"kp"Pcdcvgcp"Ctcocke."718昌gx"3/5"fcvgf"e0;5"EG.";:"EG."98 CE that use the Babylonian calendar.



The �Other� column includes the exceptions to the pattern. There is a document from Sdeir where there is a date of the 6th Adar.23 Of the three legal papyri that are connected with each other and written by the same scribe, Cave of Letters documents numbers 44, 45, and 46,24"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"vjgug."kp"vjg"ugxgpu"column (�1, 7, 14, 21, 28�) is dated to 28 Marcheshvan and the other two in the Other column, are dated 2nd Kislev. It is possible that this transaction took place at the time of the last visible lunar crescent (28th), and then again at the waxing new crescent (2nd), with a possible Sabbath avoidance in between.

Kp"vjg"ugxgpu"eqnwop"yjkej"kpenwfgu"vjg"Ýtuv"fc{"qh"vjg"oqpvj"hqt"eqp-venience, with the exception of Mur 20, a marriage contract dated to 116 or 117 CE when Hadrian became emperor,25 all the dates divisible by seven are from the First and Second Revolts. In Year 106, the Nabatean Kingdom was cduqtdgf"kpvq"vjg"pgy"Tqocp"Rtqxkpeg"qh"Ctcdkc"d{"Vtclcp"cpf"htqo"vjcv"point the Jewish dating systems under that administration varied in the way that they conformed to the Roman system of dating documents. Jewish docu-ments using the local era were written in Greek, the language of the Roman administration, discussed later in this paper.

Two Aramaic Jewish documents from before and after the First Revolt use the epoch of the Roman emperor in a brief form. One document, not in Table 1 because its day and month have been lost, is an Aramaic IOU with a partially extant date formula of the second year of the Emperor Nero, that is 77"qt"78"EG0"Kv"ycu"hqwpf"kp"vjg"ecxg"qh"Ycfk"Owtcddc┼¤v"*Owt"3:+026

Vjg"qvjgt."Mgvgh"Lgtkejq"*Lgt"9+."kp"vjg"Ýxgu"eqnwop"*Ð7."32."37."42."47Ñ+."is a receipt of the sale of a date crop, edited by Eshel, Eshel and Misgav.27 This gives the Babylonian calendar date of the 25th Tevet with the short Ro-man dating system of �in the third year of Domitian,� which would be 84 CE. Vjgtghqtg."vjgtg"ycu"c"tgvwtp"vq"wukpi"vjg"Tqocp/gorgtqt"tgipcn"{gctu"lwuv"11 years after the First Revolt.

The Jewish dating system in the Aramaic documents did not change greatly from its earlier form after the annexation of the Nabatean Kingdom. There is an identical formula to that of the Ketef Jericho receipt, found in the Cave of Letters in Na昭al 昌ever that is 50 years older. This is (Cave of Let-ters, document. 8 in the Other column) the purchase of a white donkey and a she-ass by Yehosef son of Shimon, from his brother. It is dated 3rd Tammuz, {gct"Ýxg"qh"Jcftkcp"*vjcv"ku."344"qt"345"EG+028

Kp"vjg"eqnwop"eqpvckpkpi"fc{u"qh"vjg"oqpvj"fkxkukdng"d{"Ýxg."qpg"qh"vjg"Jewish Aramaic documents, probably from the archive of Salome Komaïse,

23"C0"[ctfgpk."ÐUfgkt"40"UfgktRtqoPqvg"ctÑ"kp"L0"Ejctnguyqtvj"gv"cn0"*gfu0+."Okuegnncpgqwu"Texts from the Judean Desert (DJD 38; Oxford: Clarendon, 2000), pp. 125-129 (dated 135 CE).

24"[0"[cfkp"gv"cn0.Ð718昌gx"66/680"718昌gxNgicn"Rcr.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"5;/92025 J.T. Milik, �Mur 20. OwtOcttEqpvC" ct.Ñ" kp" R0" Dgpqkv" gv" cn0" *gfu0+." Les grottes de

OwtcddcÒ¤v (DJD 2 [in two parts]; Oxford: Clarendon, 1961), pp. 109-114.26 Milik, �Mur 18. MurIOU ar,� DJD 2, pp. 104-109.27 E. Eshel - H. Eshel - H. Misgav, �Jer 7. JerDateCrop ar, DJD 38, pp. 55-61.28"Ð718昌gx":0"718昌gx:RwtejcugEqpv"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"32;/339"*R0"[cfkp":+0



daughter of Levi,29 edited by Yardeni (X昌gx1Ug"3430) uses the era of the New Tqocp"Rtqxkpeg"qh"Ctcdkc0"Kv" tghgtu" vq" kv" kp" vjg" vgzv"cu"Ðvq" vjg"Grctej{0Ñ31 That administrative count was in its 25th year making the year concerned 131 CE (counting from 106 CE). This simple document is an apparent tax receipt for dates sold by �Salom daughter of Levi� on the 15th Shevat. Hanan Eshel reckoned the second Jewish war broke out in the summer of 132 CE.32 All the other documents with dates associated with Salome Komaïse and her family are earlier, from 125 to 129 CE and are in Greek. The use of the Babylonian calendar and Aramaic in this document could indicate that some small degree of national autonomy or assertion of cultural identity was apparent in this lo-ecn"ctgc"*wpurgekÝgf"kp"vjg"vgzv+"dgecwug"qh"vjg"kookpgpv"tgdgnnkqp0"

There are only two Aramaic documents in the Babatha archive, both use the Babylonian calendar. In the Other column, Babatha�s marriage contract to her second husband and written by him (Cave of Letters, document no. 10) dated 3rd Adar without an existing year;33 and the Deed of Gift from Ba-batha�s father to her mother (Cave of Letters, document no. 7).34 This is dated 24th Tammuz, Year 3 of the Emperor Hadrian (120 CE) and the second year of the named Roman consuls as well as a �year 15,� which is presumed to be vjg"cfokpkuvtcvkxg"{gct"qh"vjg"Pgy"Rtqxkpeg"qh"Ctcdkc"hqtogf"kp"328"EG="vjg"year matches the dates of the names of the consuls.35

Babatha�s many civil law cases are in Greek and are written according the Roman court system.36 The use of Aramaic in Babatha�s archive well before the Second Revolt may be a function of the different levels of legal admin-istration. The combination of having the Babylonian Aramaic calendar with vjg"Tqocp"u{uvgo"qh"fcvkpi"vjg"{gctu"kp"uqog"Ctcocke"fqewogpvu"tgswktgu"some further investigation.

The latest document in the Babatha archive is a Greek receipt (not listed in the table) from August 132 CE. This is a receipt for three months mainte-

29 H.M. Cotton, �The Archive of Salome Komaïse Daughter of Levi: Another Archive from the �Cave of Letters,�� ¥gkvuejtkhv"hwt"Rcr{tqnqikg"wpf"Grkitcrjkm 105 (1995), pp. 171-208; H. Eshel, �Another Document from the Archive of Salome Komaïse Daughter of Levi,� Uetkrvc"Classica Israelica 21 (2002), pp. 169-171; Cotton, �Introduction to the Archive of Salome Komaïse,� DJD 27, pp. 158-164.

30"[ctfgpk."ÐZ昌gx1Ug"340"Z昌gx1Ug340"rcrTgegkrv" hqt"Fcvgu"ct" *353"EG+.Ñ"FLF"49."rr0"60-64.

31"[ctfgpk."FLF"49."r0"82"*Z昌gx1Ug34"nkpg"34<"]hy]krphl).32" J0" Gujgn." ÐVjg"Fcvgu" wugf" fwtkpi" vjg"Dct"Mqmjdc"Tgxqnv.Ñ" kp" R0" Uej“hgt" *gf0+."The

Dct"Mqmjdc"Yct"Tgeqpukfgtgf<"Pgy"Rgturgevkxgu"qp"vjg"Ugeqpf"Lgykuj"Tgxqnv"cickpuv"Tqog"(Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 2003), pp. 93-132, at p. 102.

33"[cfkp"gv"cn0."Ð718昌gx"320"718昌gx32OcttEqpv"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"33:/363"*R0"[cfkp"32+034"[cfkp"gv"cn0."Ð718昌gx"90"718昌gxFggfIkhvC"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"95/32:"*R0"[cfkp"9+035 Yadin et al., qr0"ekv0."LFU"5.";2/;3="R0[cfkp"9"nkpg"3<"hqt"vjg"nkuv"qh"eqpuwnuÓ"pcogu"cpf"

years for 120 CE see also Samuel, Chronology, p. 269.36 N. Lewis, The Documents from the Bar Kokhba Period in the Cave of Letters: Greek

Rcr{tk, (Ctcocke" cpf"Pcdcvgcp"Ukipcvwtgu" cpf" Uwduetkrvkqpu, edited by Y. Yadin and J.C. ItggpÝgnf+" *LFU"4=" Lgtwucngo<" Kutcgn"Gzrnqtcvkqp"Uqekgv{."3;:;+="O0"Iqqfocp."ÐDcdcvjcÓu"Story,� Lqwtpcn"qh"Tqocp"Uvwfkgu 81 (1991), pp. 161-175.



nance money for her son, in the Roman courts, when the Second Revolt may have started or was beginning. In this document, solar, Macedonian calendar oqpvj/pcogu"ctg"gswcvgf"ykvj"eqttgurqpfkpi"Dcd{nqpkcp"nwpct"oqpvju."vjg"1st Tammuz to the 30th Elul. This is Cave of Letters document, no. 27.37 Ac-cording to Sacha Stern, this document indicates that the Jewish calendar (or the use of the Babylonian calendar by Jews) was employing solar months at this time (that Tammuz and Elul were solar months).38 However, given the late date of this document, and the changing political situation, it is also pos-sible that the familiar lunar, Babylonian calendar month-names were being permitted, or used by the scribes, in Roman legal documents.

The famous divorce document, dated the 1st Marcheshvan, Year six in Ocucfc."hqwpf"kp"Owtcddc┼¤v"ycu"qtkikpcnn{"fcvgf"vq"vjg"Ugeqpf"Tgxqnv."cpf"has been redated to the First Jewish War (placed in the sevens column for convenience). This document does not count its epoch from the Redemption of Israel, and its year-date, �Year six in Masada,� may tell us that �in Ma-sada� was another Era from which nationalist Jewish documents during that time-period were dated.

Qvjgt"fqewogpvu"ogpvkqpkpi"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"vjg"oqpvj"jcrrgp"vq"dg"fcvgf"vq"the Second Revolt and apply to repayment dates: the lease agreement in the Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu."fqewogpv"pq"64."fcvgf"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"K{{ct"vq"vjg"tgfgorvkqp"qh"Israel �by the hands,� or �of the days of� Shimon bar Kosba.39 The document cnuq"uvcvgu"vjcv"vjg"oqpkgu"fwg"hqt"vjg"rtqrgtv{"jcxg"vq"dg"rckf"qp"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"Vgxgv."vjg"Ýtuv"qh"Ukxcp"cpf"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"Gnwn0"

Kp"vjg"Ýxgu"eqnwop."fqewogpv"pwodgt"65"uvcvgu"vjcv"vjg"rc{ogpv"fwg"qp"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"Gnwn."ycu"rckf"qp"vjg"7th.40 In the light that debts were due to be rckf"qp"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"vjg"oqpvj."vjg"Ocucfc"fkxqteg"fqewogpv"*Owt"3;+"eqwnf"dg"eqpukfgtgf"cu"c"Ýpcpekcn"ugvvngogpv."kh"pqv"jcxkpi"jgogtqnqikecn"ukipkÝ-ecpeg"cu"vjg"Ýtuv"fc{"qh"vjg"oqpvj0"

Table 2

In Table 2, the different ways of phrasing the dating formulas in the docu-ments of the First and Second Revolts have been listed to see if there was any pattern on a cave-by-cave basis. It can be seen several come from an uncer-tain location, which obscures this data. The First Revolt documents that have been redated from the Second Revolt all come from Murcddc┼¤v."yjgtg"vjgtg"are also �Bar Kosbah� letters. The dating formula that simply states: �to the redemption of Israel� is favoured for this cave in both revolts.

37" Ngyku." Ð718Jiiiiiigx" 490" 718昌gxTgegkrvC" ct.Ñ" LFU" 4." rr0" 338/339." [cfkp/ItggpÝgnf."�Subscriptions,� pp. 148�149.

38 S. Stern, Calendar and Community: A History of the Jewish Calendar 2nd century BCE � 10th Century CE"*Qzhqtf<"Qzhqtf"Wpkxgtukv{"Rtguu."4223+."rr0"5:/630

39"[cfkp"gv"cn."Ð718昌gx"640"718昌gxNgcug"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"364/36;"*R0"[cfkp"64+040"[cfkp"gv"cn."Ð718昌gx"650"718昌gxTgegkrvD"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"372/377"*R0"[cfkp"65+0



Table 2. Hebrew and Aramaic documents sorted according to the dating formula of the

First and Second Revolts* with the day of month in brackets

Dating formulas

(1st revolt)

Hebrew mss+day of month

Aramaic mss +day of month

(Day and month) to the tgfgorvkqp tl)gl of Israel�

Mur 30 (Tishri 21st); Mur 22 (Heshvan 14th); Mur 29 (Ellul 14th)

Mur 23 (Shevat 10th)

Mur 21 (2[1st )

(Day and month) to the freedom twrxl of Jerusalem�

Mur 25 (day unknown)

(Day and month) in Ocucfc�

Mur 19 (Marheshvan 1st)

Named Eras (2nd revolt)

(Day and month) freedom of Israel in the days of Ujkoqp"dct"MqukdcÈ

Z昌gx1Ug":"*fc{"unknown)

(Day and month) freedom of Israel in the name of Ujkoqp"dct"MqukdcÈÓ

Z昌gx1Ug"9"*K{{ct"14th) ;

Z昌gx1Ug"35"*Ukxcp"20th)

(Day and month), tgfgorvkqp"qh"Kutcgn"d{"the hand(s)/(in the days of) Ujkoqp"dct"Mqukdc

Sdeir 2 (Adar 6th);

EN"64"*K{{ct1"Vgxgv."Sivan, Ellul 1st)

(Day and month) to Ujkoqp"dct"Mqukdc

CL 44 (Heshvan 28th); CL 45 & CL 46 (Kislev 2nd)

CL 47 (Tevet 14th);

CL 43 (5th due on Ellul 1st)

(Day and month) tgfgorvkqp"qh"Kutcgn"d{"Ujkoqp"dct"Mqukdc

Mur 24 (Shevat 20th);

Z昌gx1Ug"6;"*Mkungx"20th)

(Day and month tgfgorvkqp"qh"KutcgnÈ

Z昌gx1Ug":c"*Cfct"10/20th?)

Key: Z昌gx1Ug"<wpegtvckp"Ýpfurqv="EN<"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu="Owt<"Ycfk"OwtcddcÒ¤v0*"Owt"44"cpf"Owt"4;"jcxg"dggp"eqpÝtogf"cu"Hktuv"Tgxqnv"fqewogpvu"d{"ectdqp"fcvkpi."ugg"pqvg"340

Table 3

Table 3 looks at whether the possible practice of using certain days was brought over to the Jewish documents written in Greek that used the Roman ecngpfct"cpf"Tqocp"fcvkpi" u{uvgo0" K" co"urgekÝecnn{" vcmkpi" vjg"gzcorngu"of the marriage-related contracts on the grounds that the parties concerned may have been interested in choosing a lucky day of the month to sign these documents.



The dating systems in the documents written in Greek vary according vq"vjg"ngxgn"qh"qhÝekcnfqo"cpf"ngicn"uvcvwu0"Vjg"fqewogpvu"vjcv"tghgt"vq"vjg"Roman emperor in the dating system are all in the era of Hadrian (post 117 EG+"cpf"vjg{"wug"c"nqpigt"qhÝekcn"hqto"qh"jku"korgtkcn"vkvng0"Vjg{"oc{"cnuq"kpenwfg"vjg"Ncvkp"pcogu"qh"vjg"eqpuwnu"yjq"ygtg"kp"qhÝeg"kp"Tqog."eqphqto-ing to the standard dating system in Roman documents to designate years, and they sometimes exclude the emperor�s regnal year. In addition they fre-swgpvn{"wug"vjg"eqwpv"qh"{gctu"qh"vjg"Pgy"Rtqxkpeg"qh"Ctcdkc"htqo"{gct"328"CE as the dating system, as do some of the Aramaic documents with Baby-lonian month-names.41

Table 3. Jewish marriage-related documents in Greek (Roman and Macedonian month-name calendars)

Numbers 1, 7, 14, 21 Numbers 5, 10, 20, 25

Mur 115 gr. Contract of Remarriage.

Salome daughter of Yohanan Galgoula (cf. Mur 42&44) and Eleazar son of Simon. 7th year of emperor Hadrian [incorrect] under the consuls. 14th before the Kalends of November which is the 15th Dystros [incorrect] (Julian date: 19th October 124 CE stated by the editors)

CL 18. gr. Marriage contract of Shelamazion, Babatha�s step-daughter. Nones of April year 23 of the province of Arabia; 15 Xandikos in the Macedonian calendar.

(Julian date: 5th April 128 CE stated by the editors).

ZJgx1Ug"87"it0"Octtkcig"Eqpvtcev0"

Yeshua son of Menahem and Salome Komaïse daughter of Levi. 7 days from Kfgu"qh"Cwiwuv13;"Nqqu"{gct"48"qh"vjg"province of Arabia. No regnal year. (Julian date: 7 Aug 131 CE stated by the editors)

Interestingly, local scribes, whose mother tongue was Aramaic, like the participants involved, synchronised the solar Macedonian calendar with the Julian calendar in the legal Greek documents.42 The Macedonian calendar, which was originally lunar, had been spread by Alexander the Great.43 It was used by Josephus to theoretically explain the lunar Babylonian calendar

41 Cotton, �Introduction to the Greek Documentary texts,� DJD 27, pp. 133-157, esp. pp. 368/36;"qp"Vjg"Ecngpfct."Fcvkpi"hqtowncu."cpf"vjg"Rtqxkpekcn"[gct"kp"Ctcdkc0Ñ"Ngyku."ÐVjg"Calendar,� JDS 2, pp. 27-28 (see also 20); S. Stern, Ecngpfctu"kp"Cpvkswkv{<"Gorktgu."Uvcvgu"cpf"Uqekgvkgu"*Qzhqtf<"Qzhqtf"Wpkxgtukv{"Rtguu."4234+."rr0"478/47;0

42 Cotton, DJD 27, pp. 146-156.43 A.E. Samuel, Greek and Roman Chronology: Calendars and Years in Antiquity (Munich:

Beck, 1972), pp. 140-145, pp. 171-182; Stern, Calendars in Antiquity, pp. 155, 259-303.



months even though it was solar at that time.44 It may have been familiar to both Jews and non-Jews, and thus could be used as a kind of common calen-dar conversion between the two cultures. Many of the documents written in Greek have Aramaic subscriptions written by the scribes, who signed their names in Aramaic.45

Of particular interest is a remarriage contract from Wadi Murabba┼¤v"kp"124 CE (Mur 115) in Greek, between Salome, daughter of Yohanan Gal-goula and Eleazar son of Simon.46 (We meet Salome�s brother, Yeshua son qh"Icniqwnc."cu"vjg"jgcf"qh"vjg"tgdgnuÓ"ecor"cdqwv"32"{gctu"ncvgt"]35617"EG_"in two or possibly four Bar Kokhba letters found in the same cave).47 The remarriage contract between Salome and Eleazar contains two Roman dat-ing systems: the long title of Hadrian, his regnal years and the names of the Roman consuls.

The date of the contract is the 7th year of Hadrian, the 14th before the Ka-ngpfu"qh"Pqxgodgt"*vjg"Mcngpfu"ku"vjg"Ýtuv"qh"vjg"oqpvj."vjgtghqtg"vjg"fcvg"ku"kp"Qevqdgt+"yjkej"vjg"uetkdg"gswcvgu"ykvj"vjg"37th of Dystros in the converted calendar with Macedonian month names. The problem is that both the day and the month in the converted Macedonian calendar are completely wrong. F{uvtqu"ku"vjg"ugeqpf"oqpvj0"Vjg"Tqocp"fcvg"ujqwnf"eqpxgtv"vq"vjg"Ýtuv"fc{"of the month (noumenia) of Hyperberetaios, the 10th month that overlaps with October.

Vjg"fqewogpvÓu"gfkvqt"Rkgttg"Dgpqkv"uvcvgu"vjcv"vjg"fkuetgrcpe{"ku"c"ugtk-qwu"fkhÝewnv{0"Hwtvjgtoqtg."jg"pqvgu"vjcv"vjg"uetkdg"ku"cnuq"okuvcmgp"kp"uvcvkpi"that the regnal year is Emperor Hadrian�s 7th year. According to the Roman system of ascension, it would be Hadrian�s 6th year.48"Vjg"qhÝekcn"uetkdg"cr-rgctu"pqv"mpqy"jqy"vjg"eqwpv"qh"tgipcn"{gctu"qrgtcvgf."pqt"jqy"vjg"qhÝekcn"ecngpfctu"yqtmgf."c"ocvvgt"vjcv"ku."Ðwpg"fkhÝewnvfi"rnwu"itcxg0Ñ"Kv"ku"rquukdng"that perhaps our scribe was drunk at the celebrations, or he wanted to put some deliberate errors into the contract so that it could be annulled if nec-essary, or it could be proposed that the dates were incorrect in order to be fortunate for a remarriage since the incorrect date presents a line-up of a 7, a 14 and a 15. (The noumenia"ku"cnuq"c"ukipkÝecpv"fcvg"ceeqtfkpi"vq"qwt"vjgqt{."cnvjqwij"vjg"qpn{"qvjgt"octtkcig/tgncvgf"fcvg"qh"Ýtuv"qh"vjg"oqpvj"ku"vjg"Oc-sada divorce document, so it may not have been a lucky day for a marriage).

The marriage contract of Shelamazion (Cave of Letters, document no. 18), Babatha�s step-daughter, has a 15 date for the solar Macedonian calendar.49 The marriage contract of Salome Komaïse (unknown location, number 65)

44 Stern, Calendar and Community, pp. 34-38.45"[cfkp"/"ItggpÝgnf."ÐUwduetkrvkqpu.Ñ"LFU"4."rr0"358/36;="[cfkp"gv"cn0."LFU"5."ÐIgpgtcn"

Introduction,� pp. 11-12.46"R0"Dgpqkv."ÐOwt"3370"OwtrcrTgoctt"it.Ñ"FLF"4."rr0"465/476047 Mur 42, 43, 44 (and Mur 51, 52?), DJD 2, p. 156.48 Benoit, DJD 2, p. 152 commentary to lines 1-2.49"Ngyku."Ð718昌gx3:0"718昌gxOcttEqpvD"it.Ñ"LFU"4."rr0"98/:40



has a 7 date in the Roman calendar.50 Neither of these dates is connected to the moon as the calendars concerned are solar. So, if the theory of auspicious days of the month is correct, the numbers may be regarded as being effective kp"fkhhgtgpv"mkpfu"qh"ecngpfctu"cpf"vjg"pwodgtu"vjgougnxgu"ukipkÝecpv0

Finally, we will move onto the clay seals as these are artefacts that belong with the written documents and letters. They comprise a bulla with a seal impression document Mur 2951 from the First Revolt whose date is 14th Ellul and two bullae from the Cave of Letters. One of these was found with the Bar Kokhba letters in situ in the waterskin where the letters were found with c"yqocpÓu"rgtuqpcn"rquuguukqpu="cpf"vjg"qvjgt"qp"vjg"Þqqt"qh"vjg"ucog"pkejg"in a second search eight years later, in 1961.52

First, the earlier bulla with Mur 29 dated to the First Revolt: Milik describes the image as containing an olive branch, a bunch of grapes, a pomegrante, a sheaf, corn stalks in the centre, and two other fruits, arranged in a tableau that is reminiscent of the coins of the two revolts.53"Jqygxgt."vjcv"ku"pqv"swkvg"ceew-rate; although grapes, vine leaves and pomegranates do appear as single sym-bols on the coins, corn stalks do not feature as motifs in Jewish numismatics *ugg"Rncvg"3+0"Kp"xkgy"qh"vjku"wpwuwcn"kpvcinkq"qpg"eqwnf"cnuq"uwiiguv"vjcv"ikxgp"the day and month, in Ellul (full moon), that the olive, sheaf and corn stalks jcf"ugcuqpcn"cpf"ecngpftkecn"ukipkÝecpeg054 The argument that seals were per-sonal and belonged to individuals should here be weighed against the fact that it is dated according the epoch of the Redemption of Israel.

Regarding the clay seal impressions found with the Bar Kokhba letters in vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu."[cfkp"uvcvgu"vjcv"Ugcn"Kortguukqp"Pq090325"ku"c"ÐÞqtcnÑ"oqvkh"cpf"vjcv"kv"ku"tgokpkuegpv"qh"vjg"ugcn"htqo"Owtcddc┼¤v"*ugg"Rncvg"4+055 Richard Freund suggests that if one looks at the image from the other way up kv"crrgctu"vq"dg"c"o{vjqnqikecn"Ýiwtg."uwej"cu"c"ogtockf."jqnfkpi"c"vqtej056

Yadin suggests that Seal Impression No. 7.102 represents a bearded man uvtwiinkpi"ykvj"c"nkqp"*ugg"Rncvg"5+057 He compares this motif to Heracles kill-ing the Nemean lion, and suggests it was a pagan seal that had been partly

50"Eqvvqp."ÐZ昌gx871UgOcttEqpv"it.Ñ"FLF"49."rr0"446/459051 Milik, �Mur 29. MurSaleDeedF,� DJD 2, pp. 140-144, 205. See also image of bulla and

kortguukqp"*Rn0"63"vqr."FLF"4"xqn04+0"Hqt"c"dgvvgt"kocig"qh"vjg"ugcn"kortguukqp."ugg"The Dead Ugc"Uetqnnu"Fkikvcn"Ctejkxg0"Ceeguugf"Lwn{"4;."42350"jvvr<11yyy0fgcfugcuetqnnu0qti0kn1gzrnqtg/vjg/ctejkxg1kocig1D/4:6982

52 Y. Yadin, JDS 1, 118-121; r033:."Ýi0"66<"ugcn"kortguukqp"pq0"9094"cpf"r033;"Ýi0"67<"ugcn"impression no. 7.103 (the photographs of the bullae and the drawings of them are also in Plates, Lgtwucngo"4224."Rn0"36+0"

53 Milik, DJD 2, p. 141.54 In the discussion after this paper�s presentation it was pointed out that it is assumed that

a single seal impression would be used by an individual in all their correspondence. The above interpretation would presuppose that the bulla used in Mur 29 was connected to the rebels� collective, and was not a personal seal.

55 Yadin, Finds, p. 121.56 R. Freund, Ugetgvu"qh"vjg"Ecxg"qh"Ngvvgtu (Amherst, New York: Humanity Books, 2004),

p. 145.57 Yadin, Finds, p. 119.



qdnkvgtcvgf"kp"qtfgt"vq"gpcdng"kvu"wug"d{"Lgyu"kp"vjg"Dct"Mqmjdc"jgcfswct-ters.58 In my view, the image may represent the myth of Orion struggling with the giant scorpion. Whichever it represents, the image is mythological, and may therefore have cosmological and calendrical associations.

In conclusion, local Jews were using the lunar Babylonian calendar as their calendar in Aramaic and Hebrew documents during the First Revolt, and after the First Revolt in Judea and also, locally, under Hadrian in the province of Arabia, and then during the Bar Kokhba era. In other words, con-vkpwcnn{="jqygxgt."cv"cp"qhÝekcn"ngxgn"wpfgt"Jcftkcp"vjku"ecngpfct"ycu"pqv"kp"use in the documents written in Greek. Jews also used a solar version of the Macedonian calendar (originally a lunar calendar) in the Greek documents to convert dates in the solar Roman calendar, possibly to make them more ac-cessible. They did not adopt the Roman calendar in any Aramaic documents throughout the Roman rule period.

During the two Jewish wars the status of the Babylonian calendar as the national calendar of the Jews was asserted. In between the revolts, local Jews were able to use the Babylonian calendar for documents in Aramaic. They were also using the Roman dating systems to count the years to situate the date in time, therefore, using a non-Jewish pre-existing historical structure. This practice was dispelled with by Bar Kokhba, and also earlier by the reb-els in the First Revolt, all of whom replaced the Roman formula with a Jew-ish nationalist one.

It may be suggested that the Aramaic and Hebrew documents contain the earliest example, or version, of the Jewish calendar that is known today, which has the same Babylonian Aramaic month names, in a civil context. We cannot check if the Babylonian calendars were synchronised with the lunar phases because even when the Roman year is used between revolts, there is no corresponding day of the month in the Julian calendar.59

The fact that the Babylonian calendar is used in the documents of the First cpf"Ugeqpf"Tgxqnv"rgtkqfu"kp"eqplwpevkqp"ykvj"c"rqnkvkecn"uvcvgogpv"qh"vjg"era, that is, dating the period to the Freedom of Israel and with �Bar Kosba,� tgurgevkxgn{." guvcdnkujgu" cpf"fgÝpgu" vjku" ecngpfct" kp" vjku" rgtkqf" cu"jcxkpi"rqnkvkecn."kfgqnqikecn."ewnvwtcn."uqekqnqikecn"cpf"jkuvqtkecn"ukipkÝecpeg0"Hwt-thermore, many of the Jewish documents in Greek also use similar numbers to the Aramaic and Hebrew document dates in their calendar dates although those calendars may not be astronomically connected to the moon.

There was an apparent preference for legal documents from the First to the Second Revolt to use dates in the Babylonian calendar that were divisible d{"vjg"pwodgt"ugxgp"qt"Ýxg0"K"uwiiguv"vjcv"vjgug"fc{u"qh"vjg"oqpvj"oc{"jcxg"carried some kind of lucky association, a tradition inherited from the Baby-lonian hemerologies. These days of the month were apparently also favoured

58 Yadin, Finds, p. 121. 59 As also discussed at the end of the presentation it is not possible to determine from

the data whether the calendar in the Aramaic and Hebrew documents was a variant of the Babylonian calendar, similar to the Jewish calendar, for the same reason.



in the Jewish documents written in Greek, particularly in the marriage con-tracts. In one case it happens that possible lucky days of the month were writ-ten into the document even where they did not coincide with the calendar.

The Babylonian calendar with Aramaic-Babylonian month names was not only part of a nationalistic movement but a religious one, as evidenced by the letter from Bar Kokhba ordering the four species of vegetation for Succot (the Aramaic document from the Cave of Letters no. 5760 and in Greek, from the Cave of Letters, no.52).61

The use of the seal impression which includes imagery of grapes and an olive branch in Mur 29 dated the 14th Elul in the First Revolt, probably suggests an interest by ordinary people and rebels alike in the seasons and the calendar. Seals containing cosmological or mythological imagery were found with the Bar Kokhba letters in the Cave of Letters. They could be con-sidered to be part of a belief system that meant more than simply choosing a convenient day of the week for signing a contract. Different kinds of Baby-lonian hemerologies are well attested and it seems possible that elements of this tradition could have been preserved by Jews alongside the Babylonian calendar itself, upon which hemerologies depend, and were adapted to be appropriate to their culture. The hemerological tradition may still have been used even when Jews were unable to use the Babylonian calendar because the Roman legal infrastructure restricted it.

Hkpcnn{."c"tgncvkqpujkr"dgvyggp"Lgykuj"Ýtuv"cpf"gctn{"ugeqpf"egpvwt{"ngicn"documents from the caves in the Judean desert with the calendars at Qum-ran could be investigated further, since there are also calendars in the Dead Sea Scrolls which are structured according to seven-day weeks62 as well as calendars with the Babylonian Aramaic month-names. The apparent interest kp"fc{u"qh"vjg"oqpvj"fkxkukdng"d{"vjg"pwodgtu"Ýxg"cpf"vgp"tgswktgu"hwtvjgt"research.

60"[cfkp."Ð718昌gx790"718昌gxDctMNgvvK"ct.Ñ"LFU"5."rr0"544/54:"*ugg"r0"548+061"Eqvvqp."Ð718昌gx740"718昌gxDctMNgvvF"it.ÑLFU"5."rr0"573/584"*ugg"r0"576+0"62"ÐVjg"Ecngpfct"cv"SwotcpÑ"kp"C0L0"Cxgt{/Rgem"/"L0"Pgwupgt"/"D0F0"Ejknvqp."Judaism in

Ncvg"Cpvkswkv{<"Vjg"Lwfckuo"qh"Swotcp<"C"U{uvgoke"Tgcfkpi"qh"vjg"Fgcf"Ugc"Uetqnnu (2 vols. Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section 1, The Near and Middle East 56; Leiden: Brill, 2001), vol. 1, part 5, pp. 145-171.



ABSTRACT

Vjku"rcrgt"tgrqtvu"vjg"rtgnkokpct{"Ýpfkpiu"qh"vjg"gzcokpcvkqp"qh"fcvgu"kp"ngicn"fqewogpvu"qh"vjg"Hktuv."cpf"Ugeqpf"*Dct"Mqmjdc+"Tgxqnvu."vjg"Dc-dcvjc"ctejkxg."vjg"Ucnqog"Mqoc•ug"ctejkxg."cpf"qvjgt"ekxkn"fqewogpvu"htqo"nc{" Lgykuj" eqoowpkvkgu" hqwpf" kp" vjg" Ecxg" Ngvvgtu" kp" Pc巾cn" 均gxgt."Ycfk"Owtcddc┼¤v"cpf"qvjgt"ukvgu0"Kv"ku"rtqrqugf"vjcv"c"rcvvgtp"qh"fcvgu"vjcv"qeewtu"in the documents may indicate an interest in fortunate days to sign legal con-vtcevu0"Vjgug"crrctgpv"tgrgvkvkqpu"qeewt"kp"ugewnct"cpf"tgnkikqwu"*octtkcig/

Rncvg" 3<" Owt" 4;" fcvgf" 36th Elul �to

the Redemption of Israel� (1st Revolt)

showing the seal impression (Courtesy

qh"Kutcgn"Cpvkswkvkgu"Cwvjqtkv{+0

Rncvgu" 4" cpf"5<"Dwnncg"ykvj"Dct"Mqukdcj"Ngvvgtu."Ecxg" qh"Ngvvgtu" *Eqwtvgu{" qh" Kutcgn"Cpvkswkvkgu"Authority).



related) legal documents written in Hebrew and Aramaic in the mid and late Ýtuv"egpvwt{."cpf"kp"Itggm"wpfgt"vjg"Tqocp"cfokpkuvtcvkqp"kp"vjg"gctn{"uge-qpf"egpvwt{0"Vjg{"uggo"vq"qeewt"kttgurgevkxg"qh"vjg"fkhhgtgpv"ecngpfctu"wugf0"Chvgt"vguvkpi"vjg"j{rqvjguku"qh"Ðnwem{"fc{uÑ"d{"gzcokpkpi"vjg"fcvgu"kp"uqog"octtkcig"eqpvtcevu"vjg"rcrgt"uwiiguvu"vjcv"oqtg"tgugctej"ku"pggfgf"vq"kpxgu-vkicvg"rquukdng"Lgykuj"kpvgtguv"kp"jgogtqnqikgu."cpf"vjg"dgnkgh"d{"nc{"rgqrng"cpf"tgdgnu"cnkmg"vjcv"uqog"fc{u"qh"vjg"oqpvj."qt"vjqug"ykvj"rctvkewnct"pwo-dgtu."ygtg"dgvvgt"hqt"ugcnkpi"citggogpvu0
