Helping Students Read Effectively

Text Structures, Word Clues, Study Guides and Note-taking

Agenda

Humor: Words (and editing) Matter

Chapter 10 Part I: Text Structures: External & Internal Text Structures Part II: Summarizing & Note-taking

Chapter Quiz

1) Did you read the text assigned for this class?

1) What are “external text structures”?

1) Name two or three “internal text structures”?

Daily Dose of Humor:

Why Editing Matters

Entrance Slip Follow-Up 1) What is “RTI”?

Response to Intervention, a three stage-approach to helping struggling students catch up to their peers: 1) small scale, whole class or group intervention (or new differentiation for struggling student(s) within a class; 2) more structured group intervention, 3) pull-outs and individualized attention on particular issue(s). The approach is constantly monitored (students are frequently tested) to see where they are and how the particular intervention is working.

Entrance Slip Follow-Up 2. “I disagree that if you are a good reader you are a good writer. I’m a great reader but a terrible writer”

As we discussed in class, there is a strong correlation between being a good writer and being a good reader. The correlation is not reciprocal (i.e., being a good reader does not necessarily make for a good writer).

Good writers are almost always good readers.

Good readers may or may not be good writers.Being a good reader does, however, help in the writing process.

Entrance Slip Follow-Up 3. Biopoems: Many students expressed a dislike of biopoems because the latter are formulaic.

The formula is there to be brief (a biography is seldom brief) and provide structure to students who struggle as readers (and tend not to see the structure of the reading). That is not to suggest, however, that you cannot change the format or give students an ‘open’ format for a biopoem or some other creative endeavor that tries to get at the heart of a person/character.

Entrance Slip Follow-Up 4. How might a double-entry journal work in a lower-level mathematics class?

The double entry journal can be especially useful for math problems that require an order of operations. For example, the Double-Entry Journal can be applied in lessons on multi-step algebraic equations.  “This strategy will help students keep track of each step while solving these equations…this strategy is useful because students can use one column to write the problem and steps to solution while they detail their process in the other column.  It is easy for students to mix up the steps in solving these types of equations by forgetting which operation should be used first.  Applying the Double-Entry Journal to this concept will be useful for students to keep track of their solutions, and they will be able to refer back to their journal for assistance with future algebra problems. 

Example

Entrance Slip Follow-Up

5. I though the section on RAFT was complicated and I’m not sure if I got the true meaning.

Role, Audience, Form, Topic (RAFT)Vacca and Vacca make this issue too technical and confusing. The big idea

here is that we write in different ways for different audiences and to different purposes (to persuade our parents to buy us something, to complain about a faulty product, to show our knowledge of an issue to a teacher, to ask someone out, etc.). We need to teach and encourage students to write in different ways at different times rather than to write academically for the purposes of exposition.

Entrance Slip Follow-Up: RAFT

Role: What role will you (the writer) be in this assignment: yourself, a fictional character, a historical character, and how might that person present herself/himself?

Audience: Who is your intended audience what makes them unique? How might you best convey information to them?

Form: What form of writing/self expression will you take to convey the information most appropriately?

Topic: What is your main topic and how does it fit into your plans above? Do your plans mirror the significance of the topic? Do you convey the main ideas of the lesson, book, article, movie, etc. you read or studied?

Entrance Slip Follow-Up

6. Character Journaling verses Unsent Letters: what’s the difference?

An “unsent letter” can be from any perspective, including the student’s. It can be written/addressed to a historical person, character, or someone still alive. The main point is to express ideas, frustrations, emotional responses, questions, etc. in a way that the reader (to whom the letter is sent) would have to respond thoughtfully, thus representing thoughtful insights on the part of the writer). These can also be cathartic, especially when they involve momentous events in one’s life (e.g., 9-11).

Character Journaling is by definition where the reader/writer takes on the identity of a character or historical person and writes from that perspective. The student’s work is judged, at least in part, upon her/his ability to transcend time, place, and context to judge events and ideas from the views of the character (historical or fictional). It requires an understanding of historical context.

Entrance Slip Follow-Up 7. “In your opinion, what are the most effective form of writing assignments”?

The non-answer is that this depends upon context and content. My preference is for anything that makes the content seem more ‘real’ and relevant to the student and bridges content with creativity and critical thinking:

Some examples: describing how to put a math concept into action; describing a faux medical experiment on genetics, medicine, etc.; writing a legal defense for John Brown; creating a ‘newspaper’ for a fictitious or historical event. I very much like character journaling, especially when teachers find a way to have characters ‘journal’ (discuss issues) with each other!

Examining Text Structures

Teaching students the ‘clues’ to decipher texts

1) External Text Structures - what are they and how might they be used?

2) Internal Text Structures - understanding how texts operate

3) Rewording text content and ideas into one’s own words/perspective; this is, at least metaphorically, connecting the content to the ‘real’ world (the essence of note-taking)

External Text Structures

External Text Structures: The “obvious”

Book coverTable of ContentsAbstracts and IntroductionsBibliographyHeadingsGlossaryIllustrationsGuiding questions

External Text Structures

External Text Structures: The somewhat less “obvious”

Bolded wordsItalicized words h

Guiding/Thought Questions embedded in text or between paragraphs

Headings/Subheadings within a chapter

These structures are obvious to good readers, but not necessarily to everyone. Many students don’t know how to ‘skim’ for information and skip over important text clues

Words In Margin

Words Or issues In tables

Examples In Charts

Internal Text Structures

Authors give intentional and unintentional hints as to the meaning of what is to come (or what is meant within the text) by the very nature of what they write. These are a part of internal text structures.

Internal Text Structures = Signal Words, Phrases, & Punctuation in the Text

Good authors give myriad clues as to the meaning of any given word; there are many clues within any given text that help readers define a word’s meaning.

Internal Text Structures

Consider some of these common writing conventions:

• First, Second,…• Therefore,• Because, though• If…then • Parentheses and Em dashes• Colon• Dependent clauses (Heading out to the store,…) & Participial

phrases (Singing in the shower, ….)

The list of such clues is long, but these clues share common traits

Syntax

Syntax is the arrangement of words in a sentence. Syntax provides structure to a sentence:

No syntax - house the sale street for green the down is street

Typical Syntax - the green house down the street is for sale.

Knowing basic parts of speech—and where they typically fall within English sentences—can help one decipher their meaning in context.

Appositives

An appositive is a noun phrase that renames or describes another noun phrase, with no word interposed between the two phrases.

Woody, the old carpenter, promised to fix the broken shelves. Black Friday, the day after Thanksgiving, is a notoriously busy shopping day. Bertha Mason is mad: and she came of a mad family—idiots and maniacs

through three generations! Her mother, the Creole, was both a mad woman and a drunkard!—as I found out after I had wed the daughter.

T cells, a group of white blood cells known as lymphocytes, play a central role in our body’s immune system.

The Pythagorean Theorem, expressed most often as A2 + B2 = C2, is used to find the length of the hypotenuse, the longest of the three sides of a right triangle and opposite to the right angle.

Punctuation

Authors give important clues and organize information via punctuation Hawks differ from eagles in a number of important ways: eagle species

are larger than most hawk species, eagles have greater wingspans in relation to their body size, and eagles tend to be more powerful hunters.

The world of adolescent literature is changing in myriad and positive ways; library shelves are stocked with quality texts that will engage young readers.

Professor White (the person in charge of UNF’s English Education program) taught my content area reading course.

Dr. White, the biggest goober of a professor I ever had, tried— unsuccessfully I might add—to be funny in class.

Punctuation and Meaning: An Activity

Punctuation Activity 1

Punctuation Activity 2

Chronological Order

The content of history textbooks and English Anthologies/textbooks tend to be organized by chronology. This is reflected in the wording itself: First, second, third…

After Lee surrendered at Appomattox, …

Before Truman would even contemplate a cessation of hostilities, he needed assurances that the Allies would be offered an unconditional surrender.

Later, academics and laypersons alike would question whether the U.S. needed to drop the second atomic bomb, this one on Nagasaki.

Sequential Order (order of operations, building upon prior knowledge/information, etc.)

Textbooks in Science, Math, History…Many texts specifically reference sequence

Before one mixes the two chemicals, it is important to remember…

Only after allowing the particles to settle can measurements be taken…

Therese was giving Daniel instructions on what to prepare for the birthday dinner; meanwhile, Therese’s husband, Wilbur, was asking Dan’s wife, Wilma, to make reservations for the group.

Cause and Effect

Textbooks, especially those in Science, Math, Health, and History, frequently employ cause and effect constructions.

As a result of excessive radiation poisoning, the flora and fauna near Chernobyl changed in remarkable ways.

The destruction of 9-11 resulted mostly from the ability of hijackers to penetrate the cockpit; as a result, airlines have since been required to reinforce all cockpit doors with…

Because Chicago’s Mayor has planned to close 53 elementary schools in poor neighborhoods, teachers across Illinois are rallying in opposition.

Concept Definition

Textbooks—and many other texts—offer overt clues to readers as to the meaning of vocabulary found therein When facing major catastrophe (e.g., a hurricane, an

earthquake, a forest fire), it is essential to…

Democrats often rely on the three states bordering the Pacific Ocean (i.e., Washington, Oregon, and California)—to remain “blue” despite voting trends in other states.

Lakoff et al. found that repeated uses of specific forms of language over time result in changes to brain structures and thus to thinking.

Internal & External Text Structures: Helping students decode the clues

You can enhance students’ reading ability by helping them recognize and understand internal and external text structures.

If you spent even a short amount of time discussing with students the issues in the following slide (handout), you can help them interpret information they might otherwise miss.

Text Structure Signal Words Definition Example

Cause and Effect

so that, because of, thus, unless, since, as a result, then, reasons for, consequently, explanation for, nevertheless, thus, accordingly

The writer explains the reasons for an event or phenomenon.

So many Bald Eagles were killed by pesticides and illegal hunting. They were in danger of becoming extinct.

Comparison/ Contrast

different from, same as, alike, similar to, unlike, but, as well as, yet, either…or, compared to, in contrast, while, although, unless, however

The writer discusses the similarities and differences of two ideas, objects, or processes.

Golden Eagles are apt to hunt for prey while Bald Eagles are more likely to take an easy meal.

Enumeration or Listing

to begin with, first, second, in addition, next, then, last, finally, another, also, most important

The writer presents information in a structure that resembles an outline. It is often presented in bulleted format.

1. Golden Eagles are birds of prey. 2. Golden Eagles search for prey. 3. Golden Eagles swoop through the air to attack their prey.

Sequential or Chronological ~ Process

first, second, third, now, before, after, then, next, finally, following, while, meanwhile, last, during, not long, when, on date

The writer presents a series of events or explains a procedure or process in the order they happen.

First, Golden Eagles soar high along ridges near their nests. Then, they search for prey. When a meal is spotted, they attack in a long swoop.

Concept/ Definition is, for example, involves, can be, defined, an example, for instance, in fact, also, contain, make up

The writer introduces an idea and explains what it is.

Golden Eagles are powerful raptors with large dark brown bodies and small heads with golden crowns.

Generalization/ Description

is, for example, involves, can be, defined, an example, for instance, in fact, also, contain, make up

The writer explains phenomenon and processes by listing examples and unique characteristics.

Golden Eagles are birds of prey.

ChunkingChunking is the systematic organization of specific and

important groups of words in text. Via “chunking,” students learn that they can understand meaning without

having to read each individual word, a process which slows reading and can negatively impact comprehension.

Effective chunking has been defined as “the largest meaningful combination of units that can be placed in short-term memory”*

For effective reading, chunking is the selection of important words, often leaving out less important words or phrases

Articles (a, an, the) Conjunctions (and, or, both, for,…) Demonstratives & adjectives (this, that, those)

Simple Lesson and Explanation of Chunking* http://www.cehd.umn.edu/nceo/presentations/NCEO-LEP-IEP-ASCDHandoutChunking.pdf

Chunking

How might you “chunk” the following paragraph(s) if you were reading for clarity and efficiency?

Chunking

Chunking is also a good tool for helping students understand some unknown vocabulary?

-Today’s Word:

Antidisestablishmentarianism

Chu

nkin

g

C

hu

nki

ng

: R

oot

word

s, p

refixes,

suffi

xes

Consider the root words, prefixes and/or suffixes in the following words. How do they affect what you know about them?

-epidemic - quadrennium-decagon - retrogress-herbicide - proscribe-iconography - contemporary-lexicology - equivocate-malcontent - bibliophile

CLUES

Extra Credit hydrangea

Word Play Activity

Part II: Summarizing Information

Summarizing information is not just a key to note-taking, it is analogous to good reading. it requires students to absorb information and reword it in a different

formatThe process itself is cognitively demanding—consider how taking actual

written notes on a topic enhances your memory and conceptualization of that topic

Consider how much prior knowledge you bring into note-taking in your own words

Consider the anticipation you use when note-taking

Note-taking from lecture/text

Using the video clip (a lecture), summarize the main points in your own words, collapsing information or details as necessary.

George Lakoff

Note-taking from lecture

What did you write down in your notes?Why did you include what you did?What did you leave out? Why?What clues did the author give to help you know

what was important?

HOW could your notes help you in the future? How could such strategies be used when reading?

Relevance to Reading

Taking notes from a lecture is analogous to reading in that the speaker and the author BOTH give clues as to what is important and they tend to do so in very similar ways.

Lecture/Speech TextIntroduction of main idea Chapter introduction or preview

Repetition of word(s)Stressed word(s)

Bolded & Italicized WordsChapter SubheadingsCharts/Diagrams

Examples of idea or concept (stories to “make it stick”)

Examples of idea or concept (idea that should “stick”)

Pauses Punctuation

Definition of terms or ideas Definitions in text, appositives, parentheses

Big Problem: Study Skills

Students in 6-12 (and beyond) have not necessarily developed effective study skills. This is correlated with reading because the process of taking good notes and recording information in one’s own words/format are very similar to those used in reading & writing.

STUDENTS NEED TO BE TAUGHT STUDY SKILLS

STUDY SKILLS ARE A FORM OF LITERACY (and are transferable to other aspects of life)

Graphic Organizers

When considering the use of graphic organizers, what form should students use? What is their personality and learning style? What do they know how to use already? What are they most comfortable using?

There is NOT a particular way of organizing information that is inherently preferable to another Organization and relationships of concepts most important

Graphic organizer of ANY sort should reflect the relationship of concepts represented in the reading/text

Common Teacher Mistakes

Teachers sometimes tend to suggest that only one form of outline is suitable to representing text information Most often what they are comfortable using They only demonstrate one type of outline or organizer

• Traditional outline format (such as these slides!)

• They only connect one form of outlining with good writing

Teachers need to model the creation of the outline with students; they should not assume that students know how to outline

Formal Outlines

Formal Outlines are the most commonly used type of outline and most represented graphic organizers found in textbooks.

Their format most closely represents the organization and syntax found in textbooks.

Formal outline style also most represented in ‘real-world’ situations (study guides, procedural guides, job responsibilities, law, medicine, etc.).

Thus, students should—at a minimum—understand their structure; understanding their structure can help ensure that students understand structure of formal texts. Formal outline style should be taught!

Different Forms of Graphic Organizers/Outlines

Note-taking/outlining should be personalized to a student’s preference, learning style, background, etc.

What is YOUR preferred mode of taking notes or outlining for writing? Why? Where and how did you learn this style? Would you expect your students to use this style? Why or why not?

Compare and Contrast: Venn Diagram

Cause and Effect

Student Notes: Hybrid Text/Image

Traditional Structures for Note - Taking

T-charts

K-W-L

Formal outlines (above)

Double-Entry Journals

Cause & Effect Guide

Traditional note-taking structures are analogous to graphic organizers; both give readers a figurative “road map” for what to look for in readings prior to reading and during reading.

Problem & Solution Outline

Helps focus student reading; scaffolds reading

Study Guide/Organized Notes

Network Tree

Helps students understand relationships

Mixed Method Outline- combining creativity and structure for students

Mind-Mapping/Semantic Mapping

Summary

This is not rocket science

(though don’t you sometimes wish you were a rocket scientist just so that you could brag about it whenever this cliché comes up?).

BUT…

Summary

There is no guarantee that secondary students have learned these skills; they must be taught and reinforced through repeated use and through example/modeling.

Creating good notes and completing a well-conceived study guide is analogous to and correlated with good reading skills.

Reading/study guides themselves should—through their format and content—do at least three things:

1) promote critical reading skills by asking probing questions;

2) model for students where and how to find relevant information in texts;

3) help students comprehend the contents of the text.

FINALLY: A Great Reminder That Good Things Happen in Schools

Too often, it is easy to forget that teachers, students, and schools in general often do remarkable things. There are myriad examples of this. The following is but one example of a school as community:

A Team Player