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    HelicoptersIn Search and RescueBasic Level

    Charley Shimanski

    Mountain Rescue Association

    www.mra.org

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    HHeelliiccoopptteerrssiinn SSeeaarrcchh aanndd RReessccuueeBBaassiiccLLeevveell

    Charley Shimanski

    Mountain Rescue Association

    www.mra.org 2012, Charley Shimanski/Mountain Rescue Association All rights reserved

    COVER PHOTO: Wasat ch Backcount ry Rescue, a volunteer ava lanche rescue group composed

    of professional ski area personnel in northern Utah, trains for loading their avalanche rescue

    dogs into W asatch Powderbird Guides helicopter. W asatch Powderbird Guides is a helicopter

    skiing operation an d they are usually av ailable to fly rescuers to the scene of an accident.

    Photo courtesy Bruce Tremp er.

    http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/http://www.mra.org/
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    Objective ..........................................................................................................1Introduction.....................................................................................................1Part 1 Helicopter Basics .............................................................................. 3

    Use of Helicopters..........................................................................................................................3Helicopter Limitations ..................................................................................................................4Classifications of Helicopters ........................................................................................................ 5

    Part 2 What Makes a Helicopter Fly (Besides Money)............................... 8Aerodynamics ................................................................................................................................8Helicopter Design ..........................................................................................................................8Helicopter Controls .......................................................................................................................8

    Types of Landing Gear................................................................................................................. 10

    Part 3 Principles of Flight .......................................................................... 11Ground Effect................................................................................................................................11Translational Lift ..........................................................................................................................11Normal Takeoff............................................................................................................................ 12Maximum Performance Takeoff ................................................................................................. 12

    Autorotation................................................................................................................................. 12Part 4 Helicopter Management and Safety Precautions ...........................14

    Landing Zones (LZs)................................................................................................................. 14Air-to-Ground and Ground-to-Air Radio Traffic ....................................................................... 16Landings and Takeoffs .................................................................................................................17Loading and Unloading............................................................................................................... 21

    Part 5 Search and Rescue Helicopter Operations..................................... 25Rescuers aboard Helicopters.......................................................................................................25Dogs aboard Helicopters: ............................................................................................................ 25Searching From Helicopters........................................................................................................26Extrication of Subjects by Helicopter ......................................................................................... 27Extricating Uninjured Search Subjects....................................................................................... 27Emergency Procedures................................................................................................................28

    Conclusion ....................................................................................................29Acknowledgements.......................................................................................29

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    The Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), a volunteer organization dedicated to saving lives

    through rescue and mountain safety education, has developed this program to assist search andrescue (SAR) organizations in their helicopter operations.

    This material is designed for search and rescue professionals that work occasionally withhelicopters in their search and/or rescue operations.

    At the conclusion of this program, students should be able to:

    Understand the basic functions and operation of helicopters Identify several key elements that contribute to effective media relations; and, Identify several means of communicating with the media, and the advantages of each.

    Charley Shimanski is President and Education Director for the Mountain Rescue Association, anational organization of rescue mountaineers. A 20-year veteran of ColoradosAlp ine RescueTeam, Charley has participated as a field member and Incident Commander for hundreds ofrescues among Colorados highest peaks.

    The author of the Mountain Rescue AssociationsHelicopt ers in Mounta in Rescue Operationsmanuals and co-author of theAv alanche Rescue Operations manual, Charley has consultedrescue mountaineers, mountain guides, and climbers throughout the world, from Israel toChina, from Kilimanjaro to Aconcogua. Charley is a frequent speaker at meetings of theInternational Technical Rescue Symposium, The National Association of Search and Rescue, the

    Wilderness Medical Society, and the Mountain Rescue Association.

    This program is dedicated to Peter Peelgrane, Chief Helicopter Pilot, KUSA-TV, Denver. As apilot, Peter demonstrated unparalleled concern for mankind, clear focus on safety and uncannyeyes of an eagle. As a friend, he displayed ardent determination to overcome hardship and aquestionable sense of humor. For all these things, Peter, we miss you.

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    I n t r o d u c t i o nHelicopters in Search and RescueBasic Level

    1

    Nothing has changed search and rescue(SAR) work more dramatically than thedevelopment and refinement of helicopters,especially those with turbine engines.Helicopters have become a vital function insearch and rescue operations. The military,local television stations and private servicesprovide air support, in the form ofhelicopters, often with a moment's notice.

    Nothing has changed search and rescue(SAR) work more dramatically than thedevelopment and refinement of helicopters,especially those with turbine engines.Helicopters have become a vital function insearch and rescue operations. The military,local television stations and private servicesprovide air support, in the form ofhelicopters, often with a moment's notice.

    Because more and more local areas aregaining access to helicopters for use insearch, rescue and emergency response, it is

    essential that everyone who may have towork around these aircraft have a thoroughorientation to helicopter safety. As a searchand reconnaissance platform coupled withrescue and extrication capabilities, thehelicopter is unparalleled in its versatilityfor emergency and disaster response.

    Because more and more local areas aregaining access to helicopters for use insearch, rescue and emergency response, it is

    essential that everyone who may have towork around these aircraft have a thoroughorientation to helicopter safety. As a searchand reconnaissance platform coupled withrescue and extrication capabilities, thehelicopter is unparalleled in its versatilityfor emergency and disaster response.

    Helicopters are commonly used by searchand rescue teams. In a 1988 Coloradosearch for a missing hiker, Alpine RescueTeam utilized seven helicopters at different

    times: two Army Chinooks, three newshelicopters and two charter helicopters.These airborne resources were utilizedprimarily for transport of searchers (byChinook) and spotting for the victim (bynews helicopter). In addition, they were

    vital in the life-saving rescue efforts of thesurvivor of a Civil Air Patrol plane crash

    when NBC affiliate KCNC-TV pilot MikeSilva found the crash site and guided fieldteams as well as the Army Chinook carryingthe bash team to the site. Silva also assisted

    with the extrication from the top ofPendleton Mountain of several searcherssuffering from Acute Mountain Sickness.The charter helicopter was used to flyinfrared scanning equipment in the earlymorning hours and CBS affiliate KMGHpilots Peter Peelgrane and Lyle Gurley as

    well as KCNC's Silva would fly countlessdays on search patterns.

    Helicopters are commonly used by searchand rescue teams. In a 1988 Coloradosearch for a missing hiker, Alpine RescueTeam utilized seven helicopters at different

    times: two Army Chinooks, three newshelicopters and two charter helicopters.These airborne resources were utilizedprimarily for transport of searchers (byChinook) and spotting for the victim (bynews helicopter). In addition, they were

    vital in the life-saving rescue efforts of thesurvivor of a Civil Air Patrol plane crash

    when NBC affiliate KCNC-TV pilot MikeSilva found the crash site and guided fieldteams as well as the Army Chinook carryingthe bash team to the site. Silva also assisted

    with the extrication from the top ofPendleton Mountain of several searcherssuffering from Acute Mountain Sickness.The charter helicopter was used to flyinfrared scanning equipment in the earlymorning hours and CBS affiliate KMGHpilots Peter Peelgrane and Lyle Gurley as

    well as KCNC's Silva would fly countlessdays on search patterns.

    Despite the fact that helicopters areuniquely valuable, they can be extremelydangerous. With rotors turning at over 150

    M.P.H., the hazard to searchers is very real.In addition, the threat of a helicopter crashposes another danger.

    Despite the fact that helicopters areuniquely valuable, they can be extremelydangerous. With rotors turning at over 150

    M.P.H., the hazard to searchers is very real.In addition, the threat of a helicopter crashposes another danger.

    Despite the fact that helicopters areuniquely valuable, they can beextremely dangerous. Photo: Officeof Aircraft Services (OAS)

    In the United States, there have beenseveral accidents involving rescue

    helicopters;

    In the United States, there have beenseveral accidents involving rescue

    helicopters;

    In 1995 a Honolulu Fire Departmenthelicopter crashed while insertingtwo rescuers during a search for amissing hiker. The pilot and tworescuers were killed.

    In 1995 a Honolulu Fire Departmenthelicopter crashed while insertingtwo rescuers during a search for amissing hiker. The pilot and tworescuers were killed.

    In 1997, a contract Bell 205helicopter crashed with eightrescuers on board on the North sideof Mt. Baldy in Olympic NationalPark. Three rescuers were killed in

    the crash. The rest survived due toheroic efforts of rescuers on theground.

    In 1997, a contract Bell 205helicopter crashed with eightrescuers on board on the North sideof Mt. Baldy in Olympic NationalPark. Three rescuers were killed in

    the crash. The rest survived due toheroic efforts of rescuers on theground.

    In 1998, an AirMed helicoptercrashed in the mountains outsideSalt Lake City while evacuating askier injured in an avalanche. Fourpeople died in the crash, includingthe injured skier.

    In 1998, an AirMed helicoptercrashed in the mountains outsideSalt Lake City while evacuating askier injured in an avalanche. Fourpeople died in the crash, includingthe injured skier.

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    Helicopters in Search and RescueBasic Level

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    In 2002, multiple rescuers wereinjured when their Pavehawkhelicopter crashed and rolled 1,100feet down Mt. Hood during anattempt to rescue an injured climber

    In 2002, multiple rescuers wereinjured when their Pavehawkhelicopter crashed and rolled 1,100feet down Mt. Hood during anattempt to rescue an injured climber

    In 2009, a New Mexico State Policehelicopter pilot and his searchsubject died when the helicoptercrashed into a mountainside afterthe pilot rescued the lost hiker.

    In 2009, a New Mexico State Policehelicopter pilot and his searchsubject died when the helicoptercrashed into a mountainside afterthe pilot rescued the lost hiker.

    In 2012, two rescuers died duringhelicopter rescue operations, and athird was injured when struck in thehead by a main rotor blade.

    In 2012, two rescuers died duringhelicopter rescue operations, and athird was injured when struck in thehead by a main rotor blade.

    Whether or not any of these accidents werethe result of pilot error, it must be notedthat a helicopter is only as good as the pilotflying it. Conversely, the pilot of ahelicopter is only as good as the machinethat s/he is flying. The three major killers ofhelicopter pilots are Wind, Weather and

    Wires.

    Whether or not any of these accidents werethe result of pilot error, it must be notedthat a helicopter is only as good as the pilotflying it. Conversely, the pilot of ahelicopter is only as good as the machinethat s/he is flying. The three major killers ofhelicopter pilots are Wind, Weather and

    Wires.

    Despite these tragedies, the fact is that of allforms of transportation, the number offatalities due to helicopter accidents is thelowest - just 0.1 percent of the 56,000transportation fatalities that occurred in1979. In fact, you may have a far greaterchance of surviving a rotary wing aircraft

    crash than from a fixed wing crash. Rotarywing aircraft have higher survival ratesbecause the forward speed they mustmaintain in order to avoid stall is less than a

    fixed wing aircraft. Thus, when they areabout to flare on landing, rotary wing crafthave less forward momentum and thus needless room to negotiate a landing (and areless likely to crash into trees and otherhazards).

    Despite these tragedies, the fact is that of allforms of transportation, the number offatalities due to helicopter accidents is thelowest - just 0.1 percent of the 56,000transportation fatalities that occurred in1979. In fact, you may have a far greaterchance of surviving a rotary wing aircraft

    crash than from a fixed wing crash. Rotarywing aircraft have higher survival ratesbecause the forward speed they mustmaintain in order to avoid stall is less than a

    fixed wing aircraft. Thus, when they areabout to flare on landing, rotary wing crafthave less forward momentum and thus needless room to negotiate a landing (and areless likely to crash into trees and otherhazards).

    What usually kills people in crashes is notthe impact with the ground (unless ofcourse the craft is in a stall), but rather theforward momentum they have when theyare landing. In addition, many helicopter

    fatalities result from fire in the aircraft afterthe crash rather than from trauma receivedin the crash itself.

    What usually kills people in crashes is notthe impact with the ground (unless ofcourse the craft is in a stall), but rather theforward momentum they have when theyare landing. In addition, many helicopter

    fatalities result from fire in the aircraft afterthe crash rather than from trauma receivedin the crash itself.

    A helicopter is only as good as thepilot flying it. Photo: Veteran Flight

    for Life Colorado Pilot andHelicopter Safety Manager PatMahany (by Charley Shimanski)

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    Par t 1 H e l icop te r Bas icsHelicopters in Search and RescueBasic Level

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    Use of HelicoptersUse of HelicoptersToday, search and rescue agencies that usehelicopters have at their disposal a multi-use aircraft that is capable of performing a

    variety of missions, including but notlimited to the following:

    Today, search and rescue agencies that usehelicopters have at their disposal a multi-use aircraft that is capable of performing a

    variety of missions, including but notlimited to the following:

    Search for or attraction of a searchsubject

    Search for or attraction of a searchsubject

    Evacuation of injured parties (eithervictims or rescue personnel)

    Evacuation of injured parties (eithervictims or rescue personnel)

    Transportation or extrication of fieldmembers

    Transportation or extrication of fieldmembers

    Heli-Rappel to the site of a victim Heli-Rappel to the site of a victim Aerial survey of topography for

    mission leadership Aerial survey of topography for

    mission leadership

    While fixed-wing aircraft are generally usedfor searching large open areas, such asabove timberline, for obvious clues (e.g. skitracks, tents, downed aircraft, etc.),

    helicopters can be used to search areas moredifficult to spot from fixed-wing aircraft,such as cliffs, gullies, cliff bottoms, etc.

    While fixed-wing aircraft are generally usedfor searching large open areas, such asabove timberline, for obvious clues (e.g. skitracks, tents, downed aircraft, etc.),

    helicopters can be used to search areas moredifficult to spot from fixed-wing aircraft,such as cliffs, gullies, cliff bottoms, etc.

    In search operations, helicopters can also beused as an attraction device. The noise froma helicopter may attract the victim of asearch who, in turn, may attempt to attractthe attention of those on board thehelicopter. In addition, helicopters can beused to transport searchers and/orequipment to remote search and rescueassignments.

    In search operations, helicopters can also beused as an attraction device. The noise froma helicopter may attract the victim of asearch who, in turn, may attempt to attractthe attention of those on board thehelicopter. In addition, helicopters can beused to transport searchers and/orequipment to remote search and rescueassignments.

    Helicopters are often used in rescuesituations, whereby an injured subject can

    be evacuated and transported to a localhospital. There are a number of methodsthat are used by rescue teams in evacuatinginjured subjects. These methods include

    what is referred to as external loads,including the use of hoist systems and

    slings. Helicopters can also be used to assistin logistical support by transportingrescuers and/or their gear. This can beespecially helpful in reducing time spent

    and fatigue levels of rescuers.

    Helicopters are often used in rescuesituations, whereby an injured subject can

    be evacuated and transported to a localhospital. There are a number of methodsthat are used by rescue teams in evacuatinginjured subjects. These methods include

    what is referred to as external loads,including the use of hoist systems and

    slings. Helicopters can also be used to assistin logistical support by transportingrescuers and/or their gear. This can beespecially helpful in reducing time spent

    and fatigue levels of rescuers.

    The key to the safe utilization of helicopterresources in any search or rescue operationis for the Incident Commander and otherleadership to perform a thorough subjectiverisk-benefit analysis. Is it worth the risk, forexample, to have a helicopter called toevacuate a healthy search subject, simply toavoid the need for a two- or three-mile

    walkout?

    The key to the safe utilization of helicopterresources in any search or rescue operationis for the Incident Commander and otherleadership to perform a thorough subjectiverisk-benefit analysis. Is it worth the risk, forexample, to have a helicopter called toevacuate a healthy search subject, simply toavoid the need for a two- or three-mile

    walkout?

    Conversely, who can question the need foran air ambulance when the victim of a planecrash is lying unconscious and bleedingprofusely at the scene of the crash?Somewhere between these two exampleslies the more difficult decision with regardto helicopter utilization.

    Conversely, who can question the need foran air ambulance when the victim of a planecrash is lying unconscious and bleedingprofusely at the scene of the crash?Somewhere between these two exampleslies the more difficult decision with regardto helicopter utilization.

    Rescue leadership must perform athorough risk-benefit analysis in orderto assure safe utilization of helicopterresources. Photo: Riverside Mountain

    Rescue Unit.

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    HelicopterLimitationsOpportunities for helicopter use duringemergency operations must be weighedheavily against the risks involved. Searchand Rescue teams must be aware of thelimitations of helicopters when calling forthese expensive resources. Conditions suchas altitude, weather and terrain will allaffect the usefulness of helicopters in searchand rescue operations. All aircraft arelimited in their working altitude (calledservice ceiling), which can change based onthe temperature and humidity.

    Visibility MinimumsSmaller helicopters generally do not have"Instrument Flight Rules" (IFR) capability,and must fly under "Visual Flight Rules"(VFR).

    VFR for helicopters is different from VFRfor fixed wing aircraft due to the differencein slowest possible speed of forward flight.Generally speaking, VFR for helicoptersmeans flight conditions "clear of clouds and

    at an airspeed that enables the pilot to seeand avoid collision."

    VFR rules dictate that there must be aminimum one-half mile visibility and a 500-foot ceiling (distance between ground and

    bottom of lowest clouds). For NationalGuard helicopters, the visibility for VFR isincreased to 1 mile. A pilot flying under

    VFR must have sight of the ground at alltimes.

    During night flying, VFR dictates that theremust be a minimum three-mile visibility. Itfurther dictates that there must be a 500-foot minimum below clouds, a 1000-footminimum above clouds, and a 2,000-foorhorizontal distance from clouds.

    Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) are those thatapply to aircraft with special navigational

    instruments that give the pilot greatercapability in otherwise difficult flyingconditions. IFR allows for flying inconditions where electronics provide the

    pilot with information not available throughthe naked eye.

    Larger helicopters, such as most of thoseused in search and rescue operations, eitherhave or are capable of instrument flightcapability and can fly under instrumentflight rules.

    Weather ConditionsTurbulence may be a serious problem to apilot; therefore mornings are usually the

    best time for flights because there is lessturbulence than with afternoon heating bythe sun. Cumulus clouds indicateturbulence and strong updrafts anddowndrafts. Also, there are oftendowndrafts over the middle of a valley, andsuch currents may be dangerous at highelevations because of reduced engine power.Conversely, updrafts often exist over ridgesor on the sunny side of ridges. Leeward sideof ridges may have severe downdrafts.

    Even if a helicopter is on its way to evacuatea victim, ground personnel should still bedispatched to the scene with the equipmentnecessary to transport the victim, in theevent of a helicopter malfunction, changesin weather or other unexpectedcomplications. Never assume a helicopter enroute will become a helicopter on scene.

    FuelAs noted in the "Helicopter Types" sectionlater in this document, each type of

    helicopter has a limited range due to alimited fuel supply, especially since they aregenerally based some distance from thetypical mountain search and rescue mission.In the case of extended search missions, amobile fuel tanker might be considered atthe heliport to refuel the helicopters.Otherwise, the helicopters will have to leave

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    the scene to refuel, causing valuable timeand a loss of an important resource.the scene to refuel, causing valuable timeand a loss of an important resource.

    MechanicalMechanicalIt goes without saying that a helicopter is amachine, and machines do not always work.It goes without saying that a helicopter is amachine, and machines do not always work.

    This is why a thorough risk-benefit analysismust be performed prior to each and everyhelicopter operation.

    This is why a thorough risk-benefit analysismust be performed prior to each and everyhelicopter operation.

    Classifications ofHelicoptersClassifications ofHelicopters

    Med-Evac HelicoptersMed-Evac HelicoptersMost search and rescue teams will haveaccess to local Med-Evac helicopters, sincemany rescue missions occur withinproximity of a large town with a Class Itrauma center. Flight nurses speciallyqualified in critical care and medicineusually accompany each flight. A physicianmay be present on flights where the need isindicated, although this is uncommon.These ships can usually carry anywherefrom two to four supine adult patients,

    depending on the type of craft and theinternal configuration.

    Most search and rescue teams will haveaccess to local Med-Evac helicopters, sincemany rescue missions occur withinproximity of a large town with a Class Itrauma center. Flight nurses speciallyqualified in critical care and medicineusually accompany each flight. A physicianmay be present on flights where the need isindicated, although this is uncommon.These ships can usually carry anywherefrom two to four supine adult patients,

    depending on the type of craft and theinternal configuration.

    Emergency medical equipment includingelectrocardiograph monitor, oxygen,defibrillator, suction apparatus,endotracheal intubation equipment,intravenous fluids, transport Isolettes andemergency drugs are all carried on boardthe helicopter. In effect, the emergencyroom is carried to the patient for immediatetreatment and care.

    Emergency medical equipment includingelectrocardiograph monitor, oxygen,defibrillator, suction apparatus,endotracheal intubation equipment,intravenous fluids, transport Isolettes andemergency drugs are all carried on boardthe helicopter. In effect, the emergencyroom is carried to the patient for immediatetreatment and care.

    These air ambulance services provide for theimmediate response by an emergencymedical team going to the patient viaaircraft, starting intensive therapy at the siteof the illness or injury and, once stabilized,the patient is then returned as rapidly aspossible to the appropriate hospital.

    These air ambulance services provide for theimmediate response by an emergencymedical team going to the patient viaaircraft, starting intensive therapy at the siteof the illness or injury and, once stabilized,the patient is then returned as rapidly aspossible to the appropriate hospital.

    Whenever a med-evac helicopter respondsto a mission, search and rescue teammembers should refrain from talking to theflight nurse or pilot. The only person who

    should discuss the patient with the flightnurse is the primary medical team member,

    who will give the flight nurse a full (andbrief) update of the patient's condition,nature of injuries, etc. (For furtherinformation on this briefing, contact yourteam's Medical Director. If you do not havea Medical Director, contact the med-evachelicopters medical director). The helipaddirector or person most familiar withhelicopter operations should be the onlyperson to speak with the pilot while the ship

    is on the ground.

    Whenever a med-evac helicopter respondsto a mission, search and rescue teammembers should refrain from talking to theflight nurse or pilot. The only person who

    should discuss the patient with the flightnurse is the primary medical team member,

    who will give the flight nurse a full (andbrief) update of the patient's condition,nature of injuries, etc. (For furtherinformation on this briefing, contact yourteam's Medical Director. If you do not havea Medical Director, contact the med-evachelicopters medical director). The helipaddirector or person most familiar withhelicopter operations should be the onlyperson to speak with the pilot while the ship

    is on the ground.

    SAR team members should be aware of howmed-evac helicopters are dispatched. Inmost cases, this will be via the local Sheriff'sdispatch, although some SAR teams may beable to request these helicopters directly.

    SAR team members should be aware of howmed-evac helicopters are dispatched. Inmost cases, this will be via the local Sheriff'sdispatch, although some SAR teams may beable to request these helicopters directly.

    Flight nurses and/or paramedics are akey element of med-evac helicopters.Photo: Charley Shimanski

    In any event, these specially equippedhelicopters should be put on stand-by

    before rescuers are on-scene, if thedescription of the rescue indicates that anmed-evac helicopter may be necessary. Bydoing so, the pilot and flight crew canfamiliarize themselves with the terrain and

    weather conditions before they are actuallycalled on a "chopper go."

    In any event, these specially equippedhelicopters should be put on stand-by

    before rescuers are on-scene, if thedescription of the rescue indicates that anmed-evac helicopter may be necessary. Bydoing so, the pilot and flight crew canfamiliarize themselves with the terrain and

    weather conditions before they are actuallycalled on a "chopper go."

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    Med-evac helicopters also have certainlimitations. They are often limited inlanding areas by either the regulations or

    their equipment. If they are working underFAA Part 135, they may be restricted wherethey can land, particularly at night, ascompared to the public use aircraft. Also,their size or configuration, set up mostly forhelipads and streets, might not work well inthe mountains.

    Med-evac helicopters also have certainlimitations. They are often limited inlanding areas by either the regulations or

    their equipment. If they are working underFAA Part 135, they may be restricted wherethey can land, particularly at night, ascompared to the public use aircraft. Also,their size or configuration, set up mostly forhelipads and streets, might not work well inthe mountains.

    Law Enforcement HelicoptersLaw Enforcement HelicoptersMany local county Sheriffs or city PoliceDepartments operate helicopters for lawenforcement, especially those in the vicinityof a large city. Some of these may be of littleor no value in the mountains, due to theiraltitude limitations, but may be usedfrequently for search and rescue operationsin the foothills. SAR teams should know thelimitations of local law enforcementhelicopters and their pilots. If either is notcapable of flying at altitudes, they shouldnot be considered a resource when highaltitude missions are required.

    Many local county Sheriffs or city PoliceDepartments operate helicopters for lawenforcement, especially those in the vicinityof a large city. Some of these may be of littleor no value in the mountains, due to theiraltitude limitations, but may be usedfrequently for search and rescue operationsin the foothills. SAR teams should know thelimitations of local law enforcementhelicopters and their pilots. If either is notcapable of flying at altitudes, they shouldnot be considered a resource when highaltitude missions are required.

    On the other hand, many county

    governments have sophisticated aviationprograms. In most of California, forexample, the vast majority of search andrescue operations are conducted by countyaviation units. In Los Angeles County, it can

    be either the Sheriff or the fire departmentsrescue-equipped helicopters. In othercounties it may be a combined unit or aSheriffs unit. Within the last couple of

    years, the California Highway Patrol hasgreatly expanded their program and theyare flying missions when county resources

    are not available, including in mountainousterrain.

    On the other hand, many county

    governments have sophisticated aviationprograms. In most of California, forexample, the vast majority of search andrescue operations are conducted by countyaviation units. In Los Angeles County, it can

    be either the Sheriff or the fire departmentsrescue-equipped helicopters. In othercounties it may be a combined unit or aSheriffs unit. Within the last couple of

    years, the California Highway Patrol hasgreatly expanded their program and theyare flying missions when county resources

    are not available, including in mountainousterrain.

    Civilian HelicoptersCivilian HelicoptersCharter helicopters may be available to SARteams. These may be a valuable resource tothe SAR team, although they usually mustcharge for their services, therefore a pre-plan should be made with the local sheriff

    and the private agency itself. In somesituations, funds may be available for searchor rescue activities when the need arises.The SAR team leadership should investigate

    possible sources of such funding before theactual need arises. The SAR teamleadership must also be aware of the ships'and pilots' limitations when high altitudeflying is required.

    Charter helicopters may be available to SARteams. These may be a valuable resource tothe SAR team, although they usually mustcharge for their services, therefore a pre-plan should be made with the local sheriff

    and the private agency itself. In somesituations, funds may be available for searchor rescue activities when the need arises.The SAR team leadership should investigate

    possible sources of such funding before theactual need arises. The SAR teamleadership must also be aware of the ships'and pilots' limitations when high altitudeflying is required.

    Media HelicoptersMedia HelicoptersSearch and Rescue teams in close proximityto large cities with network televisionstations may be fortunate to have at theirdisposal one or more media helicopters. Inmany situations, these helicopters can

    become an extremely valuable resource.Key to the successful implementation ofmedia helicopters is a strong mutualrelationship between the SAR team and thelocal television or radio station that operatesthe ship. Since these helicopters are anexpensive tool for the station, the SAR teammust be judicious in requesting theseresources.

    Search and Rescue teams in close proximityto large cities with network televisionstations may be fortunate to have at theirdisposal one or more media helicopters. Inmany situations, these helicopters can

    become an extremely valuable resource.Key to the successful implementation ofmedia helicopters is a strong mutualrelationship between the SAR team and thelocal television or radio station that operatesthe ship. Since these helicopters are anexpensive tool for the station, the SAR teammust be judicious in requesting theseresources.

    Search and Rescue overhead teams shouldkeep in mind that the media helicopter pilotSearch and Rescue overhead teams shouldkeep in mind that the media helicopter pilot

    Key to the successful utilization ofmedia helicopters is a strong mutualrelationship between the SAR teamand the local television or radiostation that operates the ship. Photo:Charley Shimanski

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    Helicopters in Search and RescueBasic Level

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    and crew have t w o important objectives.The first objective is to "bring home thenews story." The second objective is toassist in the SAR mission. The overhead

    team must respect the media's needs whilefocusing on its own objectives.

    and crew have t w o important objectives.The first objective is to "bring home thenews story." The second objective is toassist in the SAR mission. The overhead

    team must respect the media's needs whilefocusing on its own objectives.

    Let's look at what may appear to the SARteam to be insignificant but is, in fact, animportant example. Imagine that atelevision news helicopter, with a SARmember on board as a spotter, isresponsible for a "find" during a searchoperation in which a safe field landing andextrication of the victim is possible. Often,the television station will have a ground

    crew at the command post, shooting footageof the return of the helicopter. For thisreason, the SAR member should allow thepilot to come to full rotor stop and escortthe victim off the helicopter himself orherself. The result is good PR for thetelevision station, and appropriaterecognition of the contribution of theirhelicopter, even if the SAR spotter wasactually responsible for locating the subjectfrom the helicopter. Remember that it isthe television station that foots the bill for

    the expensive helicopter! And it is the skillsof the pilot that enabled the "find."

    Let's look at what may appear to the SARteam to be insignificant but is, in fact, animportant example. Imagine that atelevision news helicopter, with a SARmember on board as a spotter, isresponsible for a "find" during a searchoperation in which a safe field landing andextrication of the victim is possible. Often,the television station will have a ground

    crew at the command post, shooting footageof the return of the helicopter. For thisreason, the SAR member should allow thepilot to come to full rotor stop and escortthe victim off the helicopter himself orherself. The result is good PR for thetelevision station, and appropriaterecognition of the contribution of theirhelicopter, even if the SAR spotter wasactually responsible for locating the subjectfrom the helicopter. Remember that it isthe television station that foots the bill for

    the expensive helicopter! And it is the skillsof the pilot that enabled the "find."

    As with charter helicopters, SAR teamleadership must also be aware of the mediaships' and pilots' limitations. Nonetheless,these extremely valuable resources shouldnever be overlooked.

    As with charter helicopters, SAR teamleadership must also be aware of the mediaships' and pilots' limitations. Nonetheless,these extremely valuable resources shouldnever be overlooked.

    Some states have limited private helicopterresources. While California rescue teamsstill see the occasional military resource,

    media and civilian helicopters are almostnever utilized.

    Some states have limited private helicopterresources. While California rescue teamsstill see the occasional military resource,

    media and civilian helicopters are almostnever utilized.

    Military HelicoptersMilitary HelicoptersBecause the armed services have a budgetfor assistance in civilian search and rescueefforts, SAR teams are increasingly involvedin missions involving military helicoptersstationed at local Army or Air Force bases.

    There are generally three types ofhelicopters that are available; the doublerotor Chinook and the single rotor UH-70Lakota and Blackhawk. The UH-70 Lakotas

    are used less frequently for mountainactivities due to their altitude limitations.

    Because the armed services have a budgetfor assistance in civilian search and rescueefforts, SAR teams are increasingly involvedin missions involving military helicoptersstationed at local Army or Air Force bases.

    There are generally three types ofhelicopters that are available; the doublerotor Chinook and the single rotor UH-70Lakota and Blackhawk. The UH-70 Lakotas

    are used less frequently for mountainactivities due to their altitude limitations.

    Requests for Army air support aremade through the AFRCCheadquarters at Tyndall Air ForceBase in Florida. Photo: ScottDarsney

    Requests for Army air support are madethrough the Air Force Rescue CoordinationCenter (AFRCC) headquarters. Since

    missions requiring this type of air supportare generally multi-agency missions, theserequests are most always made by the localsheriff's office or the State MissionCoordinator for the state SAR agency, if oneexists.

    Requests for Army air support are madethrough the Air Force Rescue CoordinationCenter (AFRCC) headquarters. Since

    missions requiring this type of air supportare generally multi-agency missions, theserequests are most always made by the localsheriff's office or the State MissionCoordinator for the state SAR agency, if oneexists.

    National Guard resources may also berequested through the state's NationalGuard Joint Operations Centers.

    National Guard resources may also berequested through the state's NationalGuard Joint Operations Centers.

    While military helicopters are often

    operated by some of the best pilots in thecountry, they frequently fly under differentenvironments. This may include the radiofrequencies available, the types of mapsused and the required crew size to fly amission.

    While military helicopters are often

    operated by some of the best pilots in thecountry, they frequently fly under differentenvironments. This may include the radiofrequencies available, the types of mapsused and the required crew size to fly amission.

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    AerodynamicsMost helicopters operate with a single mainrotor and a single tail rotor. If thesehelicopters had only the main rotor, thefuselage of the ship would spinuncontrollably in the opposite direction ofthe rotor, due to the torque induced by the

    main rotor. For this reason, a tail rotor isused to counteract the effect of this torque.In addition, twin rotor helicopters achieveanti-torque by having the two rotors turn inopposite directions.

    The actual "lift" in a helicopter isaccomplished by the main rotor blade,

    which has a cross-section similar to thewing of an airplane. As this "wing" movesthrough the air, spinning on an engine-driven shaft, lift is generated. The amount

    of lift generated is dependent on the "pitch"or angle of attack of the rotor blade throughthe air.

    If you extend your hand out the window of aspeeding car and move the angle of yourhand up from the horizontal position, youcan feel the lift produced as the angle isincreased. A rotor blade works in the same

    way.

    Helicopter DesignThe main rotor is the rotor that rotates onthe horizontal plane. The main rotor turnsat speeds of approximately 300 RPM.Conversely, the tail rotor is the smaller rotorin the rear of non-tandem rotor helicopters,

    which rotates on the vertical plane. The tailrotor generally turns between 1,500 - 1,800RPM, making it impossible to see while inmotion, esp ecia l ly a t n igh t ! The cabin is

    defined as the internal portion of thehelicopter where pilots and passengers areseated.

    Rotor SystemsThere are two basic helicopter designs, thesingle main rotor helicopter or the dual(a.k.a. tandem) main rotor helicopter. Themost common design uses a single mainrotor, which imparts lift and thrust, and asmaller tail rotor, which compensates fortorque induced by the powered turning ofthe main rotor.

    Some helicopters have dual main rotors,mounted in tandem, side-by-side or one

    above the other. Torque compensation isachieved by having the two rotors turn inopposite directions.

    Helicopter ControlsThere are four controls that are used inconjunction with each other when flying ahelicopter.

    o Collective Pitch Controlo Throttle Controlo Anti-Torque Pedalso Cyclic

    Collective Pitch ControlThe "collective pitch control" lever is locatedto the left of the pilot and moves in a simpleup and down motion (remember that inmany helicopters, the pilot sits in the righthand seat... what would be the passengerseat of an automobile.). The collective

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    allows the pilot to vary the angle of attack,or "pitch," of the main rotor blades,increasing the corresponding lift. Forturbine engine helicopters, as the collective

    pitch control is pulled up, the angle of attackof the main rotor blade is increased. As thepitch of the main rotor blades is increased,power must be increased to assure aconstant r.p.m. A fuel governoraccomplishes this by providing more fuel tothe engine as the pitch is increased.

    Throttle ControlA handgrip throttle is mounted on thecollective pitch stick for coordinated use onpiston engine helicopters. The throttleincreases or decreases the rate of revolutionof the main rotor blade. As the pitch isincreased, power must be added to maintainrotor RPM when the helicopter lifts off orclimbs. On turbine-powered helicopters,this power coordination is accomplishedautomatically through the fuel control andgovernor systems of the turbine engine.

    Anti-torque ControlThe two floor pedals provide "anti-torque"control by varying the amount of thrust inthe opposite direction of the helicopter'smain rotor. These pedals control the tailrotor. This anti-torque control is essential

    because it prevents the helicopter fromspinning out of control. By maintaining tailrotor thrust equal to main rotor torque, thehelicopter will hold a hover withoutspinning in any direction. While in a hover,the anti-torque control will allow the pilot tochange the heading in any direction.

    Two anti-torque pedals counteract torque

    effect by providing a means of changingpitch (angle of attack) of the tail rotor

    blade(s). As a result, pedal action willprovide heading and directional control inhover and at low airspeeds. The amount oftorque varies with changes in power.

    On dual rotor helicopters, the problem oftorque control is solved through the

    counter-rotation of the main rotor blades,thereby accomplishing heading anddirectional control in a hover. With forwardmovement, the pilot must blend pedal

    action with his/her other controlmovements to produce a coordinated flight.

    So what does all this mean? In somesituations such as out of ground effect hover(to be explained later), maximumperformance, or certain wind conditions,the maximum thrust provided by the tailrotor is unable to counteract torquegenerated by the main rotor and anuncontrollable turn results. What started asa capability has now become a limitation.

    Cyclic ControlThe final primary flight control is the"cyclic" control stick, which is controlled bythe pilot's right hand via a lever thatprojects between the legs. The cyclic pitchcontrol produces changes in pitch to eachrotor blade individually. If the pilot pushesthe cyclic stick forward, the pitch of each

    blade is increased as it sweeps toward thetail of the helicopter. As each blade swingsforward, toward the nose of the helicopter,

    pitch is flattened. The result is that eachblade produces more lift as it swings to therear than when it swings ahead. Lift-thrustforce is produced in the rear, which elevatesthe tail of the helicopter.

    Directional movement of the helicopter(including bank during turns) and speed inforward flight are achieved by use of the"Cyclic Control." The main rotor system istilted in the direction of the stick movement.

    This principle occurs whenever the cyclic ismoved, allowing the pilot lateral and rollcontrol of the helicopter.

    To hover and move to the left, pitch ischanged to each blade, producing morethrust as it swings to the right. A side wardforce is produced, pushing the helicopter inthat direction. To move to the right, the

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    rotor blades are unbalanced and morethrust is produced over the left side of thehelicopter.

    Types of LandingGearSeveral types of landing gear are found onhelicopters. Each type of landing gearprovides a specialized functionality to theship. The most common types of landinggear are detailed below:

    Retractable Landing GearSome of the more refined helicopters are

    equipped with landing gear that may beretracted during flight. The helicopter,therefore, becomes more aerodynamic.

    SkidsSkids are the most common type of landinggear used in light- and medium-classhelicopters. Skids are permanent, non-retractable horizontal "feet" which provide along, flat touchdown surface for thehelicopter. Tundra pads and snow padsmay be used for weight distribution when

    landings are required in areas wherehelicopter weight may cause the ship tosettle on landing.

    WheelsWheels are primarily used on medium- andheavy-class helicopters. Helicopters with

    wheels may be capable of movement on theground when, for example, repositioning ata heliport is necessary.

    FloatsFloats can be used on land as well as water.There are two types of floats, "fixed" and"inflated."

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    Certain terms are commonly used inreference to the principles of helicopteroperations. Familiarity with these terms isimportant to personnel involved in heliportoperations.

    Ground EffectGround effect is a condition of improvedperformance encountered when operatingnear the ground. It is due to interference

    between the airflow pattern of the rotorsystem and the ground. The interference ismore pronounced the closer the helicopteris to the landing surface.

    In Ground Effect (IGE)Two technical issues must be discussed

    which effect the performance of helicopters."In Ground Effect" (IGE) is the effect on theperformance of a helicopter by the return ofthe rotor wash from the ground. As thehelicopter's main rotor turns, it creates a

    cushion of air beneath the hoveringhelicopter furnishing additional lift caused

    by the air that is compressed beneath thehelicopter. Once the helicopter is above theground by a distance equal to the diameterof the main rotor, IGE is usually reduced tonothing.

    In Ground Effect (IGE) occurs to its greatestextent approximately one-half of the rotor

    diameter above the ground. The groundalters the airflow pattern around andthrough the rotor system. With IGE, theairflow velocity through the rotor system is

    reduced, as is the drag associated with thatvelocity. Further, rotor tip vortexgeneration is reduced. Thus, the lift neededto sustain a hover can be produced with lesspower.

    Out of Ground Effect (OGE)Conversely, "Out of Ground Effect" (OGE)occurs when the rotor wash is not affected

    by the proximity to the ground. In otherwords, OGE usually occurs when thehelicopter is more than one-half of the rotordiameter above the ground. In OGE, ahelicopter is power dependent when a hoveris maintained. This can occur near theground as well, as occurs when thehelicopter is hovering over tall grass, water,and certain types of rough terrain. If thepilot is instructed to try to land in theseconditions, the helispot should be describedas an "OGE Helispot."

    It stands to reason, therefore, that somehelicopters can lift less of a payload by sling

    than they can when the payload is on boardthe helicopter. The reason is that lift bysling occurs while in OGE.

    Translational LiftThe efficiency of the hovering rotor isimproved with each knot of airflow gained

    by horizontal movement of the surfacewind. As increasing velocities of airflow

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    enter the rotor system, turbulence andvortices are left behind and airflow becomeshorizontal. This improved rotor efficiencyresulting from directional flight is called

    "translational lift."

    enter the rotor system, turbulence andvortices are left behind and airflow becomeshorizontal. This improved rotor efficiencyresulting from directional flight is called

    "translational lift."

    In effect, this is the lift that is obtained fromtranslation from a hover to forward flight.It is felt as a "shudder" in the aircraft.

    In effect, this is the lift that is obtained fromtranslation from a hover to forward flight.It is felt as a "shudder" in the aircraft.

    Effec t ive Tra n s la t iona l L i ftEffec t ive Tra n s la t iona l L i ft

    At airspeeds between 10 and 15 knots,depending on the model of helicopter, therotor completely outruns the recirculationof old vortices and begins to work on cleanair. Effective translational lift results.

    Normal TakeoffNormal takeoff is the procedure used whereflight of the helicopter is not limited by thepresence of obstructions---natural or man-made. The normal takeoff procedure ismade into the wind to obtain maximumairspeed with minimum ground speed.

    MaximumPerformance Takeoff"Maximum performance takeoff" is the

    takeoff procedure used when departing aconfined area, that is, where flight of thehelicopter is limited by terrain or otherobstructions. During the maximumperformance takeoff, little use can be madeof ground effect or translational lift until theobstruction has been cleared. Thus, therotor system is less efficient and greaterdemands are placed on the power plant,

    with less remaining power left as a safetymargin. This explains why hover holes andconfined helispots should be avoided,

    whenever possible. Remember that thegreatest strain on a helicopter's engineoccurs during landings and takeoffs, andhover holes and confined helispots leavelittle room for error.

    Autorotation"Autorotation" is the term used for the flightcondition during which no engine power is

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    supplied to the rotor system and sustainedflight is possible from the rotor blades. Thepilot can use the inertia for collective pitchto slow the rate of descent and effect a safe

    landing. Unlike fixed wing aircraft, rotorwing aircraft are capable of controlledlandings during most conditions whenpower is lost; assuming a suitable landingsurface exists below the helicopter.Helicopter pilots often train in autorotationlandings.

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    Safety training of rescue team groundpersonnel must include items requiringspecial care in and around helicopters,either on the ground or in the air.

    Safety training of rescue team groundpersonnel must include items requiringspecial care in and around helicopters,either on the ground or in the air.

    Prior to each day's operation, a briefingshould be conducted. This briefing shouldset forth the plan of operations for the pilotsand the ground personnel, covering suchitems as on-the-ground and in-the-air safetyprecautions. Pertinent safety plans andflight hazard maps should be reviewed

    before the flight is scheduled. Rememberthat the pilot is responsible for the safety ofthe helicopter at all times. The pilot should,therefore, be encouraged to participate inthe planning so as to assure safe utilizationof the helicopter at all times.

    Prior to each day's operation, a briefingshould be conducted. This briefing shouldset forth the plan of operations for the pilotsand the ground personnel, covering suchitems as on-the-ground and in-the-air safetyprecautions. Pertinent safety plans andflight hazard maps should be reviewed

    before the flight is scheduled. Rememberthat the pilot is responsible for the safety ofthe helicopter at all times. The pilot should,therefore, be encouraged to participate inthe planning so as to assure safe utilizationof the helicopter at all times.

    Operation of the helicopter should be duringdaylight hours whenever possible (defined

    as hour before sunrise to hour aftersunset). The mission's leadership must beaware of wind velocity and visibility and,subsequently, not dispatch helicopters formountainous flying when the average wind

    velocity exceeds the different helicopters'limitations.

    Operation of the helicopter should be duringdaylight hours whenever possible (defined

    as hour before sunrise to hour aftersunset). The mission's leadership must beaware of wind velocity and visibility and,subsequently, not dispatch helicopters formountainous flying when the average wind

    velocity exceeds the different helicopters'limitations.

    Passengers of the helicopter should requesta briefing from the pilot prior to the flight toascertain the location of emergency exits,fire extinguishers, emergency electrical and

    fuel shut-off, emergency locator transmitter(ELT) manual switch, first aid kits andsurvival gear. No unauthorized personnelshould be allowed to fly on any mission.

    Passengers of the helicopter should requesta briefing from the pilot prior to the flight toascertain the location of emergency exits,fire extinguishers, emergency electrical and

    fuel shut-off, emergency locator transmitter(ELT) manual switch, first aid kits andsurvival gear. No unauthorized personnelshould be allowed to fly on any mission.

    Helicopter hand signals should be usedwhenever possible, but only by personneltrained in such activities. Finally, all

    personnel should stay at least 100 feet awayfrom helicopters, except when loading.

    Helicopter hand signals should be usedwhenever possible, but only by personneltrained in such activities. Finally, all

    personnel should stay at least 100 feet awayfrom helicopters, except when loading.

    Landing Zones(LZs)Landing Zones(LZs)Contrary to popular belief, helicopters donot normally land "on a dime," but ratherrequire or desire a sizable landing zone,particularly at high elevation. Helicoptersgenerally will not take off or land vertically.Rather, they need a landing zone (oftencalled an "LZ", referred to throughout thismaterial as a "helispot") that may behundreds of feet long. The ideal helispot is

    a flat strip 100 feet wide and 300 feet long(roughly the size of a football field). Flatridges and saddles may provide the besthelispots in the field. Highways, streets orroads unobstructed by outlying trees aresuitable as well, but in this case traffic andcrowd control must be available by lawenforcement authorities.

    Contrary to popular belief, helicopters donot normally land "on a dime," but ratherrequire or desire a sizable landing zone,particularly at high elevation. Helicoptersgenerally will not take off or land vertically.Rather, they need a landing zone (oftencalled an "LZ", referred to throughout thismaterial as a "helispot") that may behundreds of feet long. The ideal helispot is

    a flat strip 100 feet wide and 300 feet long(roughly the size of a football field). Flatridges and saddles may provide the besthelispots in the field. Highways, streets orroads unobstructed by outlying trees aresuitable as well, but in this case traffic andcrowd control must be available by lawenforcement authorities.

    A primary reason helicopters need largelanding zones is that a helicopter withengine failure (more common upon takeoffdue to high engine stress) needs extra roomto land safely.

    A primary reason helicopters need largelanding zones is that a helicopter withengine failure (more common upon takeoffdue to high engine stress) needs extra roomto land safely.

    The ideal helispot is a flat strip 100feet wide and 300 feet long (roughlythe size of a football field). Photo:Dave Bathke

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    Remember that "Out of Ground Effect"(OGE) occurs when the rotor wash is notaffected by the proximity to the ground. InOGE, a helicopter is power dependent when

    a hover is maintained. When consideringlanding zones, remember that OGE canoccur near the ground as well, as occurs

    when the helicopter is hovering over tallgrass, water, and certain types of roughterrain. If the pilot is instructed to try toland in these conditions, the helispot should

    be described as an "OGE Helispot."

    Remember that "Out of Ground Effect"(OGE) occurs when the rotor wash is notaffected by the proximity to the ground. InOGE, a helicopter is power dependent when

    a hover is maintained. When consideringlanding zones, remember that OGE canoccur near the ground as well, as occurs

    when the helicopter is hovering over tallgrass, water, and certain types of roughterrain. If the pilot is instructed to try toland in these conditions, the helispot should

    be described as an "OGE Helispot."

    In ground effect explains why somehelicopters can lift less payload by slingthan they can on board.

    In ground effect explains why somehelicopters can lift less payload by slingthan they can on board.

    Helispots should be designed in such a waythat the helicopter can land and take off intothe wind to increase lift. Only as a lastresort, a "hover hole" helispot can bechosen. This is a landing zone where, due tosize restrictions, the pilot must slow to ahover above the landing area and thendescend to the ground. When taking off, thepilot must use all available engine power,

    which leaves no room for error. Thedangers are obvious; therefore "hover holes"

    should be avoided at all costs.

    Helispots should be designed in such a waythat the helicopter can land and take off intothe wind to increase lift. Only as a lastresort, a "hover hole" helispot can bechosen. This is a landing zone where, due tosize restrictions, the pilot must slow to ahover above the landing area and thendescend to the ground. When taking off, thepilot must use all available engine power,

    which leaves no room for error. Thedangers are obvious; therefore "hover holes"

    should be avoided at all costs.

    Since the typical helicopter can kick up rotorwash in excess of 100 mph on takeoffs andlandings (significantly more on Chinooks),the helispot should be free of lightweight

    objects that will blow away. Tall dry grassand shrubs should be avoided to preventpossible damage to the sensitive tail rotor.Tree stumps should be less than 1 foot high.

    A snowfield can make a good helispot, butmarkers such as backpacks must be placednear the helispot to give the pilot somesense of depth perception.

    Since the typical helicopter can kick up rotorwash in excess of 100 mph on takeoffs andlandings (significantly more on Chinooks),the helispot should be free of lightweight

    objects that will blow away. Tall dry grassand shrubs should be avoided to preventpossible damage to the sensitive tail rotor.Tree stumps should be less than 1 foot high.

    A snowfield can make a good helispot, butmarkers such as backpacks must be placednear the helispot to give the pilot somesense of depth perception.

    Night operations are becoming morecommon with the availability of instrumentflight rules. Since night landings and

    takeoffs are significantly more dangerous,SAR team leaders must consider the risks

    vs. benefits of performing night operations.If this is absolutely necessary, the pilot must

    be advised of optimal flight paths to avoidhazards such as trees, peaks, ridges andespecially power lines. At night, the helispotmay be marked by rescuers' headlamps heldon and aimed steady without wavering.

    Night operations are becoming morecommon with the availability of instrumentflight rules. Since night landings and

    takeoffs are significantly more dangerous,SAR team leaders must consider the risks

    vs. benefits of performing night operations.If this is absolutely necessary, the pilot must

    be advised of optimal flight paths to avoidhazards such as trees, peaks, ridges andespecially power lines. At night, the helispotmay be marked by rescuers' headlamps heldon and aimed steady without wavering.

    If the helispot is near any vehicles, twovehicles with headlights on, located 40

    yards downwind and at opposing 45-degreeangles to the proposed helispot, mayilluminate the helispot. The helicopter willthen approach between the two vehicles and

    will land near the intersection of their lights,roughly 40 yards upwind from the vehicles.These vehicles should have lo w beams onso as not to blind the pilot or flood theinstrument panel with light.

    If the helispot is near any vehicles, twovehicles with headlights on, located 40

    yards downwind and at opposing 45-degreeangles to the proposed helispot, mayilluminate the helispot. The helicopter willthen approach between the two vehicles and

    will land near the intersection of their lights,roughly 40 yards upwind from the vehicles.These vehicles should have lo w beams onso as not to blind the pilot or flood theinstrument panel with light.

    Helispots should be defined in sucha way that the helicopter can landand take off into the wind toincrease lift. Photo: Howard Paul

    In the event that the pilot cannot locate theproposed helispot, due to other surface

    lights in the area, emergency vehicle lightscan be illuminated. As the helicopterapproaches, put out all lights except thoseused to illuminate hazards and thetouchdown pad. All strobes and rotating

    beacons must be shut off as well, as this cancause vertigo and affect the pilot's horizon.

    In the event that the pilot cannot locate theproposed helispot, due to other surface

    lights in the area, emergency vehicle lightscan be illuminated. As the helicopterapproaches, put out all lights except thoseused to illuminate hazards and thetouchdown pad. All strobes and rotating

    beacons must be shut off as well, as this cancause vertigo and affect the pilot's horizon.

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    Air-to-Ground andGround-to-Air Radio

    Traffic

    Air-to-Ground andGround-to-Air Radio

    TrafficThe Incident Command Post or AirOperations Branch Director may or may nothave direct radio communications withhelicopters involved in a search or rescue.TV, private, media and med-evachelicopters may or may not be equipped

    with the local/state SAR or EMS channel.Army helicopters (Chinooks, UH-70 Lakotasand Blackhawks) may not be equipped withprogrammable radios and may be required

    to use specialized aviation frequencies orother common emergency frequencies suchas National Law Enforcement Channel(NLEC) at 155.475 Mhz or Fire EmergencyRadio Network (FERN) at 154.280 Mhz.

    The Incident Command Post or AirOperations Branch Director may or may nothave direct radio communications withhelicopters involved in a search or rescue.TV, private, media and med-evachelicopters may or may not be equipped

    with the local/state SAR or EMS channel.Army helicopters (Chinooks, UH-70 Lakotasand Blackhawks) may not be equipped withprogrammable radios and may be required

    to use specialized aviation frequencies orother common emergency frequencies suchas National Law Enforcement Channel(NLEC) at 155.475 Mhz or Fire EmergencyRadio Network (FERN) at 154.280 Mhz.

    Field teams should avoid ground-to-airradio communication unless they havesomething very important to communicate.Even though field teams will likely hear air-to-ground radio traffic, including inquiriesfrom the helicopter crew, they will likely

    have a harder time receiving the traffic fromthe ground.

    Field teams should avoid ground-to-airradio communication unless they havesomething very important to communicate.Even though field teams will likely hear air-to-ground radio traffic, including inquiriesfrom the helicopter crew, they will likely

    have a harder time receiving the traffic fromthe ground.

    On board non-military helicopters, eitherthe pilot or the spotter can communicateover specific radio channels, as dictated bythe pilot. As mentioned earlier, the spottershould minimize unnecessarycommunication with the pilot, since thepilot must monitor additional radio trafficthat the spotter may not hear on his/herheadset. Generally, the pilot will give thespotter specific instructions on how tocommunicate with the Incident CommandPost or ground personnel using the ship'sradio.

    On board non-military helicopters, eitherthe pilot or the spotter can communicateover specific radio channels, as dictated bythe pilot. As mentioned earlier, the spottershould minimize unnecessarycommunication with the pilot, since thepilot must monitor additional radio trafficthat the spotter may not hear on his/herheadset. Generally, the pilot will give thespotter specific instructions on how tocommunicate with the Incident CommandPost or ground personnel using the ship'sradio.

    If a helicopter is used for searching, anddoes not have the local/state SAR or EMSchannel on its radio, the spotter can use ahandheld radio on board. Suchcommunications will generally be poor,

    however, due to magnetic and audible noisethat affects both transmission andreception. Using a headset connected to thehandheld radio in place of the normal

    speaker and microphone can alleviate someproblems.

    If a helicopter is used for searching, anddoes not have the local/state SAR or EMSchannel on its radio, the spotter can use ahandheld radio on board. Suchcommunications will generally be poor,

    however, due to magnetic and audible noisethat affects both transmission andreception. Using a headset connected to thehandheld radio in place of the normal

    speaker and microphone can alleviate someproblems.

    As mentioned earlier the spotter can usuallycommunicate using the helicoptersintercom, although the spotter should avoidunnecessary communication with the pilot,since the pilot will often monitor air-to-ground traffic that the spotter may not hear.

    As mentioned earlier the spotter can usuallycommunicate using the helicoptersintercom, although the spotter should avoidunnecessary communication with the pilot,since the pilot will often monitor air-to-ground traffic that the spotter may not hear.

    Rescuers should minimize radiocommunication with the pilot, since thepilot must monitor additional radiotraffic that the spotter may not hear onhis/her headset. Photo: CharleyShimanski

    In the aircraft itself, rescuers shouldunderstand the concept of a sterilecockpit. This procedure was developed inflight crew management studies done forthe military and air carriers. It mandates noconversation on the aircraft intercom radio

    during departures and arrivals until a safealtitude is reached. That allows the crew tofocus solely on clearing the airspace andcommunicating with ATC.

    In the aircraft itself, rescuers shouldunderstand the concept of a sterilecockpit. This procedure was developed inflight crew management studies done forthe military and air carriers. It mandates noconversation on the aircraft intercom radio

    during departures and arrivals until a safealtitude is reached. That allows the crew tofocus solely on clearing the airspace andcommunicating with ATC.

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    Landings and

    Takeoffs

    Landings and

    TakeoffsLandings and takeoffs are generally madeeasier in the presence of a light, steady

    breeze (such as 10 knots or 12 mph) than instill air. In addition, the pilot may choosenot to take off or land in a wind greater than45 knots (approximately 50 mph) or with agust spread of over 20 knots (23 mph).

    Landings and takeoffs are generally madeeasier in the presence of a light, steady

    breeze (such as 10 knots or 12 mph) than instill air. In addition, the pilot may choosenot to take off or land in a wind greater than45 knots (approximately 50 mph) or with agust spread of over 20 knots (23 mph).

    When landing, a pilot will often make a highlevel pass over the helispot for observationof obstacles and wind indicators and then

    will come in on a "final approach" (a.k.a."final"). Despite the tendency to watchduring this approach, all personnel not inthe helispot should look away to avoidinjury by flying debris kicked up by the rotor

    wash, especially with Chinooks. All groundtroops must hold down any loose gear.

    When landing, a pilot will often make a highlevel pass over the helispot for observationof obstacles and wind indicators and then

    will come in on a "final approach" (a.k.a."final"). Despite the tendency to watchduring this approach, all personnel not inthe helispot should look away to avoidinjury by flying debris kicked up by the rotor

    wash, especially with Chinooks. All groundtroops must hold down any loose gear.

    During final approach, only one groundperson should be in the helispot. Thisperson is referred to as the "parkingtender." With the helicopter some distanceaway, the touchdown point is indicated by

    the parking tender standing upwind withhis/her back to the wind and his/her armsfacing toward the desired landing spot.

    During final approach, only one groundperson should be in the helispot. Thisperson is referred to as the "parkingtender." With the helicopter some distanceaway, the touchdown point is indicated by

    the parking tender standing upwind withhis/her back to the wind and his/her armsfacing toward the desired landing spot.

    During landings on snow, no rescuersshould be in the landing zone at any time.There is always the chance that thehelicopter's weight will cause it to settle inthe snow, which could be dangerous for anyrescuer in the helispot. A similar, nearlyfatal accident occurred on Mount Robson,Canada, in 1981.

    During landings on snow, no rescuersshould be in the landing zone at any time.There is always the chance that thehelicopter's weight will cause it to settle inthe snow, which could be dangerous for anyrescuer in the helispot. A similar, nearlyfatal accident occurred on Mount Robson,Canada, in 1981.

    Parking TendersParking TendersTo a helicopter pilot, the parking tendermay be the most critical person in the field.This guide, designated by the field sitecommander, should be the person mostfamiliar with helicopter operations,including landing zones, ground-to-aircommunications and helicopter safety.

    Once the helicopter is within radio range,the parking tender should make radiocontact with the pilot. Knowing that aknowledgeable parking tender is available

    will ease the mind of most pilots flying intomountainous terrain. As the ship enters thearea of the rescue, the parking tender'scommunication with the pilot becomesessential.

    To a helicopter pilot, the parking tendermay be the most critical person in the field.This guide, designated by the field sitecommander, should be the person mostfamiliar with helicopter operations,including landing zones, ground-to-aircommunications and helicopter safety.

    Once the helicopter is within radio range,the parking tender should make radiocontact with the pilot. Knowing that aknowledgeable parking tender is available

    will ease the mind of most pilots flying intomountainous terrain. As the ship enters thearea of the rescue, the parking tender'scommunication with the pilot becomesessential.

    Knowing that a knowledgeable parkingtender is available will ease the mind ofmost pilots flying into mountainousterrain. Photo: Christiane Leitinger

    Ground-to-Air communicationduring landings and take-offsGround-to-Air communicationduring landings and take-offsRadio communication from rescuers on theground to the helicopter pilot and/or crew isessential for rescuers to safely land ahelicopter at a proposed landing zone. Anypilot on an incoming ship will want to knowthe precise location of the proposed landingzone. The location should be clearlyspecified, using landmarks such as roads.

    Pilots generally do not carry the usual 7.5'USGS quadrangle maps used by groundsearch teams.

    Radio communication from rescuers on theground to the helicopter pilot and/or crew isessential for rescuers to safely land ahelicopter at a proposed landing zone. Anypilot on an incoming ship will want to knowthe precise location of the proposed landingzone. The location should be clearlyspecified, using landmarks such as roads.

    Pilots generally do not carry the usual 7.5'USGS quadrangle maps used by groundsearch teams.

    The helispot should also be clearly defined.This may be an empty parking lot near theIncident Command Post. More likely, itmay be in the mountains and the generalnature of the terrain should be stated. Itselevation should be stated as well as any

    The helispot should also be clearly defined.This may be an empty parking lot near theIncident Command Post. More likely, itmay be in the mountains and the generalnature of the terrain should be stated. Itselevation should be stated as well as any

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    obstructions, including distance and bearing(e.g. "100 foot tower 300 feet SSE ofhelispot"). Aerial wires m u s t bementioned, as these are often unmarked

    and very difficult for a pilot to see (The 1988KUSA helicopter crash that killed pilotGalanis and photographer Hostetler was theresult of unmarked power lines. Today,those same lines have "floaters" on them.).

    Wind indicators and obstacles must also bepointed out as the ship approaches.

    Most all pilots may requirelongitudinal/latitudinal coordinates whenattempting to find a helispot. Any teammember proficient in reading topographic

    maps should be able to provide thisinformation (CAUTION: DO NOT confuselongitude/latitude coordinates with UTM'sor the helicopter may end up in Bolivia!).

    Once the parking tender has the helicopterin sight, it should be easy to direct the pilotto the proposed helispot. This is done usingthe clock method. Imagine the helicoptermounted on the base plate of a clock. Thehelicopter's nose points to twelve o'clock, itstail to six o'clock. Using this orientation,

    you can easily guide a pilot to your locationby telling him or her, for example, "Thehelispot is at your 2 o'clock." Combiningthis orientation with an estimated distancefrom the ship to the helispot will greatlyassist the pilot.

    Finally, weather conditions must bedescribed. The "ceiling" is the distance fromthe ground to the lowest clouds, and should

    be stated in feet. "Visibility" is stated in

    miles. Temperature is very important, as isan estimate of wind velocity, direction andgust spread ("gust spread is the spread

    between the lightest gust of wind and theheaviest, e.g. 10-25 mph). Parking tendersshould make note of this information whilethe helicopter is en route and read fromtheir notes to the helicopter pilot as s/heapproaches.

    Under the difficulty of mountain operations,providing indication of wind direction and

    velocity to pilots is one of the most valuabletasks that the parking tender can perform.

    While some groups use small film-canistersize smoke grenades, many do not. Mostteams avoid using smoke grenades of anykind because of the extreme fire dangerinvolved. The heli-spot managersobservations and trail tape streamers are

    just as effective and a lot safer. Streamersor plastic flagging in bright colors may betied to rocks, bushes, trees or poles.

    If smoke grenades must be used, theparking tender should activate themdownwind of the helispot, and to one side ofthe approach pattern, as the helicoptermakes its high level pass over the helispot.If wind is light (under 10 mph) and variable,smoke may obscure the helispot and

    become more of a hindrance than help.Commercial smoke grenades, usually aboutthe size of a film canister, will work for lessthan a minute, so don't get too anxious

    when using them. Also, parking tenders

    should wear gloves when activating them.Most military grenades cannot be hand-helddue to the heat they generate.

    Wind indicators should be placed as close tothe edge of the helispot as is safe, so thepilot gets a true picture of the groundcurrents at the site. Make certain thatstreamers or flagging are secured so they arenot dumped by the helicopter's rotor wash.

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    Parking tenders or other rescue teammembers should establish these windindicators well in advance of helicopter'sarrival.

    Parking tenders or other rescue teammembers should establish these windindicators well in advance of helicopter'sarrival.

    Keep in mind that wind coming over a ridgecan change. Positioning some flagging to thesides of the LZ on the ridge top may providemore valuable information as well.

    Keep in mind that wind coming over a ridgecan change. Positioning some flagging to thesides of the LZ on the ridge top may providemore valuable information as well.

    If no experienced parking tender isavailable, it is important that some rescuemember still establish communication withany incoming helicopter. A pilot will easily

    be able to ask the right questions of theuntrained person to determine the landing

    conditions. To a pilot, an inexperiencedground contact is much better than noground contact at all!

    If no experienced parking tender isavailable, it is important that some rescuemember still establish communication withany incoming helicopter. A pilot will easily

    be able to ask the right questions of theuntrained person to determine the landing

    conditions. To a pilot, an inexperiencedground contact is much better than noground contact at all!

    Hand SignalsHand SignalsIf the pilot is to be given hand signals by arescuer, the pilot must be told where thisperson is and what s/he is wearing. Therescuer must be familiar with the standardhand signals or should stay away. This is notime to use arbitrary signals that could bemisinterpreted by the pilot. For example,

    guide a helicopter pilot to a landing zone bywaving your arms back and forth and thepilot may avoid you like the plague. You seethis signal is the universal "Wave-off" signalthat tells the pilot not to land! In a recentSAR mission, field team members who wereexpecting a helicopter ride back to theIncident Command Post were left in thefield because they used the "wave off" tocatch the pilot's attention. The pilot d id seethem, and interpreted this as a signal toleave the area, and he did so. The result... a

    long walk out for the field team. Theproblem with the "wave off" signal is that itis the instinctive reaction to alert ahelicopter of your location. Be careful not touse it unless you are using it appropriately.

    If the pilot is to be given hand signals by arescuer, the pilot must be told where thisperson is and what s/he is wearing. Therescuer must be familiar with the standardhand signals or should stay away. This is notime to use arbitrary signals that could bemisinterpreted by the pilot. For example,

    guide a helicopter pilot to a landing zone bywaving your arms back and forth and thepilot may avoid you like the plague. You seethis signal is the universal "Wave-off" signalthat tells the pilot not to land! In a recentSAR mission, field team members who wereexpecting a helicopter ride back to theIncident Command Post were left in thefield because they used the "wave off" tocatch the pilot's attention. The pilot d id seethem, and interpreted this as a signal toleave the area, and he did so. The result... a

    long walk out for the field team. Theproblem with the "wave off" signal is that itis the instinctive reaction to alert ahelicopter of your location. Be careful not touse it unless you are using it appropriately.

    When a helicopter is landing at any heliportor helispot, it may be necessary to have aSAR team member acting as helispot

    parking tender, guiding the pilot to thehelispot with hand signals. These handsignals are as follows. First, as thehelicopter makes its high level pass and as it

    begins its final approach, the helispotparking tender stands at the end of thehelispot, with his or her back to the wind.The arms are extended towards the landingarea, which means "Land here, facing me,my back is to the wind." Then, as thehelicopter approaches the helispot, theparking tender extends his or her armsoutward with clenched fists, which means,"Hold your hover."

    When a helicopter is landing at any heliportor helispot, it may be necessary to have aSAR team member acting as helispot

    parking tender, guiding the pilot to thehelispot with hand signals. These handsignals are as follows. First, as thehelicopter makes its high level pass and as it

    begins its final approach, the helispotparking tender stands at the end of thehelispot, with his or her back to the wind.The arms are extended towards the landingarea, which means "Land here, facing me,my back is to the wind." Then, as thehelicopter approaches the helispot, theparking tender extends his or her armsoutward with clenched fists, which means,"Hold your hover."

    The "Wave-off" signal tells a pilotNOT to land due to hazards. Photo:Charley Shimanski

    As the helicopter skids or wheels get withinseveral feet of the ground, the arms areslowly swept downward, indicating "movedownward." As the helicopter skids or

    wheels touch the ground, the parking tendershould hold the arms extended outward at a45 degree angle to the ground with thethumbs pointing downward. This says tothe pilot "Hold your helicopter on theground. Then, if the helicopter is to come tofull rotor stop the parking tender crosses theneck with the right palm facing down (a.k.a."kill it"). This means "Shut down yourengine(s)."

    As the helicopter skids or wheels get withinseveral feet of the ground, the arms areslowly swept downward, indicating "movedownward." As the helicopter skids or

    wheels touch the ground, the parking tendershould hold the arms extended outward at a45 degree angle to the ground with thethumbs pointing downward. This says tothe pilot "Hold your helicopter on theground. Then, if the helicopter is to come tofull rotor stop the parking tender crosses theneck with the right palm facing down (a.k.a."kill it"). This means "Shut down yourengine(s)."

    Mountain Rescue Association www.mra.org

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    If the parking tender is confident that thepilot is on final approach to the desiredh