“A Momentary Lapse of Reason”: Media Frames of Bush Administration Policy Issues

Caroline Heldman

Occidental College

Primary Topics

Phase I: White House Marketing/ media coverage of the Iraq War.

Phase II: White House Marketing/ media coverage of Bush policies pre-9/11.

Phase III: White House Marketing/ media coverage of Bush policies post-9/11.

Phase I: Iraq War Analysis

How did the White House “sell” the recent Iraq War to the American public?

How did mainstream print media cover the Iraq War?

What does this analysis tell us about presidential power?

Trends in the Presidential-Press Relationship

Presidents “going public”

Increasingly inter-dependent relationship

Rally Around the Flag post-9/11

Media Effects

Agenda-setting

Framing

Priming

Methods

Content analysis used

Entailed major coding

Two datasets generated: 1. White House communications regarding Iraq

2. Print media coverage of Iraq

White House Dataset

All press releases, press conferences, press gaggles, presidential speeches, and presidential radio addresses that included the word “Iraq” from September 12, 2001, to May 8, 2003.

361 communications included in the White House Dataset.

Media Dataset

Every other article mentioning the word “Iraq” in Time, Newsweek, and U.S. News and World Report from September 12, 2001, to May 8, 2003.

Good sources because of broad circulation, readership accessibility, and the ideological range of their editorial positions.

412 articles in the Media Dataset.

The “Selling” of the War

Terrorist Frame: Saddam Hussein sponsors terrorism

WMD Frame: Hussein’s WMD pose an imminent threat to the U.S.

Liberation Frame: Liberation of the Iraqi people from an evil dictator

White House Use of Three Frames

17.2%

33.8%

49.1%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

TerrorismFrame

LiberationFrame

WMD Frame

White House Frames During War

4.5%

75.0%

20.5%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

TerrorismFrame

LiberationFrame

WMD Frame

White House Mention of WMD

No Mention of WMD24.9%

Mixed Message about WMD

1.1%

Iraq/Hussein has WMD

74.0%

Effectiveness of White House Campaign

69% of Americans thought Iraq was involved in 9/11 attacks in August, 2003.

22% believed WMD had been found in August, 2003.

Support for the Iraq War much higher among Americans who harbored misperceptions (86% compared to 23%).

Support for the War in Iraq

A majority of Americans supported the war in Iraq when the White House proposed the idea in 2002, until February, 2005.

Extended “Rally Around the Flag” Effect (until April, 2004)

Role of press coverage?

Framing

17.2%

14.2%

33.8%

30.7%

49.1%

29.8%

8.0%5.8% 4.4%

3.1%2.20% 1.80%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

TerrorismFrame

LiberationFrame

WMD Frame ImperialismFrame

DemocracyFrame

PoliticalGain Frame

DefenseIndustryFrame

Oil Frame RevengeFrame

Agenda-Setting

50

35

0

117

2

33

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

Sep-01

Oct-01

Nov-01

Dec-01

Jan-02

Feb-02

Mar-02

Apr-02

May-02

Jun-02

Jul-02

Aug-02

Sep-02

Oct-02

Nov-02

Dec-02

Jan-03

Feb-03

Mar-03

Apr-03

Months

Nu

mb

er o

f Co

mm

un

icat

ion

s/ A

rtic

les

White House Media

Priming: Terrorist Frame

8.0%

22.2%

11.1%

5.9%

12.5%

35.7%

15.7%12.5%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

Pe

rce

nt

of

Co

mm

un

ica

tio

ns

/Art

icle

s w

ith

T

err

ori

st

as

Pri

ma

ry F

ram

e

White House Media

Priming: Liberation Frame

52.9%

25.9%

44.4%

20.6%

67.5%

37.1%

28.9%

15.0%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

Per

cen

t o

f C

om

mu

nic

atio

ns

/Art

icle

s w

ith

L

ibe

rati

on

as

Pri

mar

y F

ram

e

White House Media

Priming: WMD Frame

39.1%

51.9%

44.4%

73.5%

20.0%

27.1%

55.4%

72.5%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Quadrant 1 Quadrant 2 Quadrant 3 Quadrant 4

Per

cen

t o

f C

om

mu

nic

atio

ns/

Art

icle

s w

ith

W

MD

as

Pri

mar

y F

ram

e

White House Media

Framing Pre-War to During War

19.2%15.7%

4.5% 4.3%

27.2%

35.5%

75.0%78.7%

53.6%48.8%

20.5%17.0%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

TerroristPre-War

Terroristin War

LiberationPre-War

Liberationin War

WMD Pre-War

WMD inWar

Primary Frames Pre-War and After

White House Media

WMD Mentions

Mixed3.0%

Assumed 89.6%

Existence Questioned

3.7%

Do Not Exist3.7%

Phase I Findings

Media coverage uncannily reflected White House attempts to set the agenda, prime, and frame coverage of the Second Gulf War.

Print media articles overwhelmingly reported that Saddam Hussein possessed WMD without questioning this “fact.”

Phase I Discussion

New York Times and Washington Post mea culpas substantiate findings.

Complicit coverage: Media reporting that conveys the White House position, typically using White House language and frames, without counter arguments, discussion of alternative frames, or noting opposition to the policy at hand.

Phase II: Pre-9/11 Coverage Research Questions:

1. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s policy agenda reflect the framing presented by the White House pre-September 11, 2001?

2. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s policy agenda reflect the priming presented by the White House pre-September 11, 2001?

3. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s public policy agenda reflect complicit coverage prior to September 11, 2001?

Pre-9/11 Policy Agenda

1. Tax Reform

2. Education Reform

3. Faith-Based Initiatives

4. Rebuilding the Military

5. Social Security

6. Medicare

WH Tax Reform Frames Government Spending Frame

Working Class Frame

Class Warfare Frame

Small Business Frame

Marriage Penalty Frame

Economic Stimulus Frame

WH Education Frames

Local Control Frame

High Standards Frame

Accountability Frame

WH Faith-Based Frames

Compassionate Frame

Community Building Frame

Family Frame

Needy People Frame

Love Frame

Secular Frame

WH Rebuilding Military Frames

Post- Cold War Frame

Strong Military Frame

Clear Mission Frame

Legitimacy Frame

WH Social Security Frames

Honoring Commitment Frame

Preservation Frame

Young People Frame

WH Medicare Frames

Dignity Frame

Choice Frame

Cost Frame

Percentage of White House Communications Mentioning Policy (n=124)

69%

25%

12%

27%

20% 22%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

Tax Cuts Education Faith-Based RebuildingMilitary

SocialSecurity

Medicare

Complicit Coverage Pre-9/11

Non-Complicit Coverage,

84.6%

Complicit Coverage,

16.4%

Phase III: Post-9/11 Coverage

Research Questions:1. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s

policy agenda reflect the framing presented by the White House post-9/11?

2. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s policy agenda reflect the priming presented by the White House post-9/11?

3. Did a majority of print media coverage of President Bush’s public policy agenda reflect complicit coverage after 9/11?

Percentage of White House Communications Mentioning Policy Topic (n=480)

12.5%

3.1%

1.9%

10.8%

17.3%

0.8%

8.3%

2.1%

14.0%

36.7%

0.6%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Clear Skies Initiative

Economic Stimulus

Energy Policy

Estate Tax

Faith-Based Initiative

Healthy Forest Initiative

Medicare Reform

Missile Defense

Tort Reform

Trade Promotion Authority

Social Security Reform

Energy Policy Framing/Coverage

36.6%

0.0%

15.5%

4.4%

2.9%

14.9%

16.4%

52.2%

0% 20% 40% 60% 80%

Reduce ForeignReliance Frame

Economic Stimulus

Find New SourceFrame

Business Incentive

White House Media

Percentage of Complicit Print Media Articles Pre- and Post-9/11

16.4%

13.0%

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

14.0%

16.0%

18.0%

Pre-9/11 Post-9/11

Democratic Implications

“Rally effect” erodes media watchdog function.

“Rally effect” will influence policies linked (even rhetorically) to crisis.

Complicit coverage emerges during times when critical coverage is most needed.

Presidential Power Implications

Persuasive Presidency Theory

Imperial Presidency Theory

New Model of Imperial Persuasion

Imperial Persuasion

The president is able to sway the hearts and minds of Americans through skillful selling of ideas through mainstream media during times of national crisis.

The End