hel assignment
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8/13/2019 HEL Assignment
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Assignment
History of English Language
Topic
Indo-European Languages (Celtic, Germanic and Italic)
Topic Contents
Indo-European Languages
Celtic
Germanic
Italic
Studentsname
Imran maqsood
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Indo-European Languages
Geographic
distribution:
Before the 16th century, Europe, and South, Centraland
Southwest Asia; today worldwide.
Linguistic classification: One of the world's major language families
Proto-language: Proto-Indo-European
Subdivisions: Albanian
Anatolian(extinct)
ArmenianBalto-Slavic(Balticand Slavic)
Celtic
Germanic
Hellenic (Greek)
Indo-Iranian(Iranianand Indo-Aryan)
Italic(includes Romance)
Tocharian(extinct)
Countries with a majority of speakers of IE languages
Countries with an IE minority language with official status
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It was Thomas Young who in 1813 first used the term Indo-European, which
became the standard scientific term through the work of Franz Bopp, whose
systematic comparison of these and other old languages
supported the theory. Franz Bopp's Comparative Grammar,
which appeared between 1833 and 1852, is the beginning of
Indo-European studies as an academic discipline.
The generation of Indo-Europeanists active in the last third
of the 20th century (such as Calvert Watkins, Jochem
Schindler and Helmut Rix) developed a better
understanding of morphology.
Franz Bopp, pioneer in the field of comparative linguistic studies.
Classification
The various subgroups of the Indo-European language family include ten major branches, given
in the chronological order of their earliest surviving written attestations:
1. Anatolian (Asia Minor), the earliest attested branch. Hittite texts and
Mitanni from about the 17th century BC.
2. Indo-Aryan or Indic languages, The Rigveda is assumed to preserve intact
recordsvia oral tradition dating from about the mid-2nd millennium BC in
the form ofVedic Sanskrit.
3. Hellenic.Homeric texts date to the 8th century BC.4. Indo-Iranian, circa 1000 BC, descended from Proto-Indo-Iranian (dated to
the late3rd millennium BC).
5. Italic,includingLatin and its descendants (theRomance languages), attested
from the 7th century BC.
6. Celtic, descended from Proto-Celtic. Gaulish inscriptions date as early as
the 6th century BC; Celtiberian from the 2nd century BC; Primitive Irish
Ogham inscriptions 5th century AD.
7. Germanic (from Proto-Germanic), earliest testimonies inrunic inscriptionsfrom around the 2nd century AD, earliest coherent texts in Gothic, 4th
century AD. Old English manuscript tradition from about the 8th century
AD.
8. Armenian.Alphabet writings known from the beginning of the 5th c. AD.
9. Tocharian, extant in two dialects (Turfanian and Kuchean), attested from
roughly the 6th to the 9th century AD.
10.Balto-Slavic,Slavic (from Proto-Slavic), attested from the 9th century AD,
earliest texts inOld Church Slavonic.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Bopphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Bopphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvert_Watkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochem_Schindlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochem_Schindlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Rixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_textshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitannihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium_BChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium_BChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtiberian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_Irishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham_inscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Slavichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Slavichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tocharian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham_inscriptionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_Irishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtiberian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3rd_millennium_BChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2nd_millennium_BChttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pathahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigvedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitannihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hittite_textshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asia_Minorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helmut_Rixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochem_Schindlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jochem_Schindlerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calvert_Watkinshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_studieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Bopphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franz_Bopphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist) -
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In addition to the classical ten branches listed above, several extinct and little-known
languages have existed:Illyrian,Venetic,Thracian,Ancient and some other Languages.
Sub-Division of Main Branches of Proto-Indo-European Languages
Table Showing Proto-Indo-European Languages Tree
Current Status and Some Facts about
Indo-European Language Family
The Indo-European languages are a family of several hundred related languages
and dialects. There are about 439 languages and dialects, according to the 2009
Ethnologue(2) estimate. It includes most major current languages of Europe, the
Iranian plateau, and Indian Subcontinent, and was also predominant in ancient
Anatolia. With written attestations appearing since the Bronze Age, the Indo-
European family is possessing the second-longest recorded history.
Indo-European languages are spoken by almost 3 billion native speakers, the
largest number by far for any recognized language family. Of the 20 languages
with the largest numbers of native speakers according to SIL Ethnologue,12 areIndo-European: Spanish, English, Hindi, Portuguese, Bengali, Russian, German,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_languages_by_number_of_native_speakershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Macedonian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thracian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venetic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illyrian_languages -
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Lahnda,Marathi,French,Urdu,andItalian,accounting for over 1.7 billion native
speakers.
Current distribution of the Indo-European branches within Europe and Asia:
The approximate present-day distribution of the Indo-European branches within their
homelands of Europe and Asia:
Hellenic(Greek)
Indo-Iranian
Italic(Romance)Celtic
Germanic
Armenian
Balto-Slavic(Baltic)
Balto-Slavic(Slavic)
Albanian
Non-Indo-European languages
After a brief discussion about Indo-European Languages. Now we are going to
discuss three major branches of Indo-European Languages in more detail
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahnda_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Indo-European_branches_map.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albanian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baltic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romance_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urduhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marathi_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lahnda_language -
8/13/2019 HEL Assignment
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1.Celtic
2.Germanic3.Italic
History of Celtic Languages
The Celtic languages (usuallypronounced/kltk/but sometimes/sltk/)are
descended from Proto-Celtic, a branch of Indo-Europeanlanguage family. The
term "Celtic" was first used to describe this language group by Edward Lhuyd in
1707.
During the 1st millennium BC, they were spoken across Europe. The spread to
Cape Breton and Patagonia occurred in modern times. Irish were spoken in
Australia before federation in 1901 and are still used there to some extent. Celtic
was the first language with which English came into contact with on the land of
England. Celts were barbarians, having no literature, no civilization and were less
in numbers, so could not influence English much. It took just five words from
Celtic language, out of which England is one.
Territories
of the
ancient
Celts
The Celts in Europe, past and
present:
Celtic Languages
Geographic
distribution:
Formerly widespread in Europe; todayCornwall,Ireland,Isle
of Man,Scotland,Wales,Brittany,PatagoniaandNova Scotia
Linguistic
classification:
Indo-European
Celtic
Proto-language: Proto-Celtic
Subdivisions: Continental Celtic
Insular Celtic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Celtichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Lhuydhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celts_in_Europe2.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nova_Scotiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patagoniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Lhuydhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Celtichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_English#Keyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA_for_Englishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_of_Celtic -
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Areas where Celtic languages are widely spoken
The six most commonly recognized 'Celtic nations'
Maximum Celtic expansion, by the 3rd century BC
Core Hallstead(3)territory, by the 6th century BC
Celts territory During theEuropean Iron Age
Classification
Proto-Celtic divided into four sub-families:
Gaulishand its close relatives Galatian, Lepontic and Noric. Lepontic the
oldest attested Celtic language (from the 6th century BC), is perhaps the first
language to diverge from Proto-Celtic. These languages were spoken from
France to Turkey and from Belgium to northern Italy. They are now all extinct.
Hispano-Celtic;also extinct: Celtiberian, anciently spoken in theIberian peninsula,in parts of
modernAragn,Old Castile,andNew Castile inSpain.
Gallaecian,spoken in north-west Spain and northern Portugal.
Brythonic,including the living languagesBreton,Cornish,andWelsh,and the
extinct languagesCumbric andPictish.
Goidelic,including the living languagesIrish,Manx,andScottish Gaelic.
The distinction of Celtic into these four sub-families most likely occurred any time between
1200 and 800 BC.
Some Characteristics of Celtic languages
Although there are many differences between Celtic languages, yet they show many family
resemblances.
Twogrammatical genders (modern Insular Celtic only; Old Irish had three)
Verbsubjectobject (VSO) word order (probably Insular Celtic only)
Noinfinitives,replaced by a quasi-nominal verb form called the verb noun
Frequent use of vowel mutation as a morphological device, e.g. formation of
plurals, verbal stems, etc.
Infixedpronouns positioned between particles and verbs
Use ofperiphrasticphrases to express verbal tense or voice
Distinction by function of the two versions of BE verbs traditionally labelled
substantive andcopula
Bifurcateddemonstrative structure
Current Status of Celtic Languages
Celtic languages are most commonly spoken on the north-western edge ofEurope,
notably in what is called Six Celtic Nation Areas named Ireland, Scotland,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age#Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtiberian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arag%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Castile_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallaecian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbric_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demonstrativehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periphrasishttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinitivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pictish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbric_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gallaecian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spainhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Castile_(Spain)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Castilehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arag%C3%B3nhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberian_peninsulahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celtiberian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age#Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celts -
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Wales, Brittany, Cornwall, and the Isle of Man and in Cape Breton Island.
There are also Welsh speakers in the Patagonia area of Argentina. Some people
speak Celtic languages in some areas of United States, Canada, Australia and New
Zealand. In all these areas, the Celtic languages are now only spoken by
minorities. Welsh is the only Celtic language that isn't classified as "endangered"
byUNESCO(5)
.
Living languagesSIL Ethnologue
(2)lists six "living" Celtic languages, of which four have retained a
substantial number of native speakers. These are theGoidelicIrish and Scottish
Gaelic descended fromOld Irish,and theBrythonicWelsh and Breton descended
from theBritish language.Cornish andManx,were spoken into modern times but
later died. For both these languages, revitalization movements produced some
native speakers. There were roughly one million native speakers of Celtic
languages in 2000s. In 2010, there were more than 1.4 million speakers of Celtic
languages.
Demographics (1)
LanguageNative
nameGrouping
Number of
native speakers
Number of people
who have one or
more skills in the
language
Main
area(s) in
which the
language isspoken
Regulated
by/language
body
Welsh Cymraeg Brythonic
431,000 (14.6%of thepopulation ofWales)
Around 721,700
Wales:562,000England:150,000Argentina: 5,000
Wales;Chubut
Welsh
LanguageCommissioner
Irish Gaeilge Goidelic
About 94,000people use Irishdaily outside theeducation
system.
1,887,437Republic of Ireland:1,774,437United Kingdom:95,000
United States:18,000
IrelandForas na
Gaeilge
Breton Brezhoneg Brythonic 206,000 356,000 BrittanyOfis Publik ar
Brezhoneg
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Breton_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_language_(Celtic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_revitalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chubut_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chubut_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ofis_Publik_ar_Brezhoneghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Irelandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_Language_Commissionerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chubut_Provincehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Englandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_language_regulatorshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_revitalizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manx_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_language_(Celtic)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breton_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Irishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCOhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Breton_Islandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isle_of_Manhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittanyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wales -
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ScottishGaelic
Gidhlig Goidelic58,552 as of2001
92,400 ScotlandBrd naGidhlig
Cornish
Kernewek Brythonic
600 3,000 Cornwall
Keskowethyans
an TavesKernewek
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_Language_Partnershiphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwallhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brythonic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlighttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goidelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic -
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History
The Germanic peoples(also called Teutonic, Suebian or Gothic in older
literature) are an Indo-Europeanethno-linguistic group ofNorthern Europe,
identified by their use of theGermanic languages.The term "Germanic" originated
inclassical times, when groups oftribes were referred to using this term by
Roman authors. For them, the term was not necessarily based upon language, but
rather referred to tribal groups and alliances who were considered less civilized,
Germanic languages
Ethnicity: Germanic peoples
Geographic
distribution:
In northern, western and centralEurope,Anglo-America,Oceania,
southernAfrica
Linguistic classification: Indo-European
Germanic
Proto-language: Proto-Germanic
Subdivisions: North Germanic
West Germanic
East Germanic(extinct)
Countries where a Germanic language is thefirst language of the majority of the population
Countries where a Germanic language is an official but not primary language
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnolinguisticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Germanic_languages.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnolinguistics -
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than the Celtic Gauls living in the region of modernFrance.Tribes referred to as
Germanic in that period lived generally to the north and east of theGauls.
Expansion of the Germanic tribes
The expansion of the Germanic tribes 750 BC AD 1 (after the Penguin Atlas of World History 1988):
Settlements before 750 BC
New settlements by 500 BC
New settlements by 250 BC
New settlements by AD 1
The Germanic languagesare a branch of the Indo-Europeanlanguage family
spoken byGermanic peoples.The common ancestor of this branch is calledProto-Germanic, which was spoken in Iron Age in northern Europe. Proto-Germanic,
along with all of its descendants, is characterized by a number of unique linguistic
features, most famously theconsonant change known as Grimm's Law.
The earliest coherent Germanic text preserved is the 4th centuryGothic translation
of theNew TestamentbyUlfilas.Early testimonies of West Germanic are inOld
Frankish (5th century),Old High German (scattered words and sentences 6th
century and coherent texts 9th century), andOld English (oldest texts 650,
coherent texts 10th century). North Germanic is only attested in scattered runicinscriptions, asProto-Norse,until it evolves intoOld Norseby about 800.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulfilashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Norse_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Germanic_tribes_(750BC-1AD).pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Norse_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_High_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Frankishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulfilashttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Testamenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonanthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pre-Roman_Iron_Agehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaulshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tribehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France -
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Classification
Around the 2nd century BC, the Germanic varieties are divided into three
branches:
East Germanicwas spoken by peoples who migrated to south Eastern Europe.No East Germanic language is spoken today, and the only written East Germanic
Language that survives is Gothic.
North Germanicevolved into the modern Scandinavian languages of Swedish,
Danish, Norwegian, and Icelandic.
West Germanic is divided into two branches High and Low. High West
Germanic is the ancestor of modern German and Low West Germanic is the
ancestor of Dutch, Flemish, Frisian, and English as is shown in the tree diagrambelow
The East Germanic languageswere marginalized from the end of the Migration
period. TheBurgundians,Goths,andVandalsbecame linguistically assimilated by
their respective neighbors by about the 7th century, with onlyCrimean Gothic
lingering on until the 18th century.
During the early middle Ages, the West Germanic languageswere separated by
the insular development of Middle English on one hand and by theHigh Germanconsonant shift on the other. By early modern times, the span had extended into
considerable differences, the southernmost varieties had completed the second
sound shift, while the northern varieties remained unaffected by the consonant
shift.
The North Germanic languages, remained unified until well past 1000 AD, and
in fact the mainland Scandinavian languages still largely retain mutual
intelligibility into modern times. The main split in these languages is between the
mainland languages and the island languages to the west, especially Icelandic,
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_German_consonant_shifthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Gothic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gothshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgundians -
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which has maintained the grammar ofOld Norsevirtually unchanged, while the
mainland languages have diverged greatly.
Divisions between and among subfamilies of Germanic
CharacteristicsGermanic languages possess a number of defining features compared with other Indo-
European languages. Probably the most well-known are the following:
1.Thesound changes known asGrimm's Law,which shifted the values of all
the Indo-European stop consonants. (For example, original */t d dh/ became
Germanic */ t d/)
2.The development of a strongstress on the first syllable of the word is
responsible for the reduction of most of the Basic English words into
monosyllables. Examples are Proto-Germanic *strangi strength,
*aimaitj "ant", *haubudan "head".
3.A change known asGermanic umlaut,which modified vowel qualities when
a high vocalic segment (/i/, /i/ or /j/) followed in the next syllable. This
change resulted in pervasive alternations in related words still extremely
prominent in modernGermanbut present only in remnants in modern
English (e.g. mouse/mice, goose/geese, broad/breadth)
4.Large numbers of vowel qualities. English is typical in this respect, with
around 1112 vowels in most dialects (not counting diphthongs).Standard
Swedish has 17 pure vowels, standardGerman andDutch 14 andDanish at
least 11.
Other significant characteristics are:
1.The reduction of the varioustense andaspect combinations of the Indo-
European verbal system into only two: thepresent tense and thepast
tense (also called thepreterite).
2.A large class of verbs that use a dentalsuffix (/d/ or /t/) instead ofvowelalternation (Indo-European ablaut) to indicate past tense. These are called
theGermanic weak verbs; the remaining verbs with vowel ablaut are
theGermanic strong verbs.
3.Some words with etymologies that are difficult to link to other Indo-
European families but with variants that appear in almost all Germanic
languages.
Roughly speaking, Germanic languages differ in how conservative or how progressive each
language is with respect to an overall trend toward analyticity. Some, such asIcelandic and, toa lesser extent,German, have preserved much of the complexinflectional
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norsehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%27s_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_umlauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Swedishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Swedishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectional_morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectional_morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_strong_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_weak_verbhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_ablauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apophonyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffixhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preteritehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Past_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_aspecthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_tensehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Swedishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_Swedishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_umlauthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_(language)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimm%27s_Lawhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_changehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Norse -
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morphology inherited fromProto-Germanic. Others, such asEnglish,Swedish, and Afrikaans,
have moved toward a largely analytic type.
Current status
The most widely spoken Germanic languages areEnglish andGerman, with
approximately 300400 million and over 100 million native speakers respectively.
They belong to the West Germanic family. TheWest Germanic group also
includes other major languages, such asDutch with 23 million andAfrikaans with
over 6 million native speakers. TheNorth Germanic languages include
Norwegian,Danish,Swedish,Icelandic,andFaroese,which have a combined totalof about 20 million speakers. TheSILEthnologuelists 53 different Germanic
languages.
The present-day distribution of the Germanic languages in Europe:
North Germanic languages
Icelandic
Faroese
Norwegian
Swedish
Danish
West Germanic languages
Scots
English
Frisian
Dutch
Low German
German
English is an official language ofCanada,New Zealand,Philippines,Puerto Rico
and former British colonies inAsia andAfrica. Furthermore, it is the de factolanguage of theUnited Kingdom,theUnited States,and Australia.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectional_morphologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Germanic_languages_in_Europe.pnghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Stateshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdomhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippineshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Germanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frisian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnologuehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SIL_Internationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroese_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icelandic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Germanic_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germanichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Germanic_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflectional_morphology -
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German is spoken as a secondary language in North and South America, and
African countries, notably the former German colony ofNamibia.
Dutch is only official inAruba,Belgium,Curacao,the Netherlands andSuriname.
Afrikaans is one of 11 official languages inSouth Africa.
Outside Denmark,Danish is an official language in its overseas territory ofFaroe
Islands and is a lingua franca in its overseas territory ofGreenland.
Italic Languages
Ethnicity: Italic peoples
Geographicdistribution:
Originally Italy, today mainly southern Europe, maximum extentworld-wide intermittent (most ofAmerica.Official languages of half
the countries inAfricaand parts ofOceania).
Linguistic
classification:
Indo-European
Italic
Subdivisions: Latino-Faliscan
Osco-Umbrian,formerly Sabellic
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura%C3%A7aohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surinamehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osco-Umbrian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osco-Umbrian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osco-Umbrian_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latino-Faliscan_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languageshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_familyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceaniahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_peopleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenlandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faroe_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Africahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afrikaanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surinamehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cura%C3%A7aohttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belgiumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arubahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Namibiahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Americahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_language -
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History
The Italic languages are first attested in writing from Umbrian and Faliscan
inscriptions dating to the 7th century BC. The alphabets used are based on the Old
Italic alphabet, which is itself based on the Greek alphabet. The Italic alphabets
themselves show minor influence from the Etruscan and somewhat more from
the Ancient Greek alphabet. The intermediate phases between Italic and Indo-European are still in deficit, with no guarantee that they ever will be found. The
question of whether Italic originated outside Italy or developed by assimilation of
Indo-European and other elements within Italy, approximately on or within its
current range there, remains.
Silvestri says:
...Common Italic ... is certainly not to be seen as a prehistoric language that can
largely be reconstructed, but rather as a set of prehistoric and proto-historic
processes of convergence.
Approximate distribution of languages in Iron AgeItalyduring the sixth century BC. (Note: mostof these are not Italic languages.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iron_Age_Italy.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy -
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In addition,Aequian(spoken by the Aequi just east of Rome)
and Vestinian (spoken by the Vestini in northeast Italy) are Italic but too poorly
known to be further classified. Sicelin Sicily was reported to have been similar to
Latin, but too little is known of it to verify that claim.As Rome extended its political dominion over the whole of the Italian Peninsula,
Latin became dominant over the other Italic languages, which ceased to be spoken
perhaps sometime in the 1st century AD. From Vulgar LatintheRomance
languagesemerged.
Proto-Italic language features
Inhistorical linguistics, language families are often considered to be descended
fromproto-languages.Thecomparative method is used for reconstructing a givenproto-language from its descendants.
Phonetics
A partial list of regular phonetic changes from Proto-Indo-European to Proto-Italic
follows. An arrow denotes that the sound after it descended from the sound before
it. Enclosure within slashes indicates a phoneme. An asterisk denotes a following
reconstructed (unattested) form. A number sign indicates a word boundary; at the
beginning, that the sound following is word-initial.
Diphthongs
eu ou within a word
Plosives
Palatovelars merged with plainvelars,a change termedcentumization.
kk
Voicedlabiovelars unround or lenite
or w
Voicedaspiratesbecome first unvoiced, thenfricativize
bp
dt
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kx
kx
Except after a nasal, where voiced aspirates lose their aspiration, becomeb d g g.
p kbefore kin following syllable (e.g. Latin quinque 'five' from PIE
*penke); unchanged elsewhere
t k when before l within a word;[6] unchanged elsewhere
Remainingplosives (b d k k) are unchanged.
Sibilants
s before r
s z between vowels
unchanged elsewhere
Nouns
Retention of masculine, feminine and neutergenders
Retention of singular and plural; reduction of thedual to a few instances
Retention of the nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, ablative, locative and
vocativecases,but loss of the instrumental
Post-proto phases
Further changes occurred during the evolution of the individual Italic languages,
in Latin for example f, b, d between vowels and f at the beginning of a
word.
Importance and Current Status
At present, Latin and its daughter Romance languages are the only surviving
languages of the Italic language family. Latin is also divided into two groups:
One is classical Latinwhich is no extinct.Second group is Vulgar Latin which was the language of common people.
Romance languages group is descended from Vulgar Latin. Romance group of
languages includesItalian, French, Spanish, Portuguese and Romanianlanguages
Italian: It is the only language still is used in the region from where it was
originate i.e. Rome, Italy. It was the language of great philosophers Cicero and
Virgil the poets of 2nd
and 3rd
century. Italian is now used in Italy. The great
literature of its time was written in it.
French: It is spoken in France and it was the language of culture, literature,
education and civilization.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages#cite_note-sylvestri326-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages#cite_note-sylvestri326-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_casehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_(grammatical_number)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatical_genderhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plosivehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italic_languages#cite_note-sylvestri326-6 -
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Spanish and Portuguese: These two languages almost share the same features
and characteristics that a Spanish speaker can understand a Portuguese speaker
and vice versa. Spanish is the language of Spain and Portuguese is the language of
Portugal now.
Romanian:It is used in Romania. It is also spoken in America and Remote partsof Britain.
This group of languages is of interest because of the influence made by i.e. Latin
and then the independent influence of Frenchon English.
Glossary
1. Demographics:are the quantifiable statistics of a given population
2. Ethnologue:is a web-based publication that contains statistics for
7,105languages
3. Hallstatt:was the predominantCentral Europeanculture from the 8th to
6th centuries BC (EuropeanEarly Iron Age)
4. Otter:a small animal that has four webbed feet, a tail and thick brown fur.
5. UNESCO:The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization is a specialized agency of theUnited Nations (UN).
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