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THE " FLUXITE'WINS" AT WORK" After you, Cecil, old boy."" No, after you, Claude,"

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See that FLUXITE is always by you in the house-garage---workshop wherever speedy soldering is needed. Used for30 years in Government works and by leading engineersand manufacturers. Of ironmongers- in tins, 4d., 8d., 1/4and 2/8. Ask to see the FLUXITE SMALL SPACE SOLDER-ING SET complete but substantial- complete with full in-structions, 8/7. Write for Free Book on the ART OF "SOFT"SOLDERING and ask for Leaflet on CASE -HARDENING

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MYFORD ENGINEERING COMPANY LIMITED,DEESTON, NOTTINGHAMTelephone Beeston 54969.

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May, 1942 NEWNES PRACTICAL MECHANICS 225

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M.T. shank, 1319.DELIVERY FROM -STOCK

" ZYTO" Twist Drill Grind-ing Jig. Indispensable in theworkshop for accurate grindingof twist drills. Capacity 1/16 in. to'in. drills, 1816. Larger size for

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ENGINEERINGWORKSHOP PRACTICE

Recent developments in engineering workshop practicehave been so rapid that it has been found necessary toproduce a new and revised edition. This new editiondeals with the underlying principles, craftsmanship,machines, tools, measuring processes and machiningmethods of to -day, and it will prove indispensable tothe engineer, draughtsman, mechanic, apprentice andengineering student. Its scope extends from simplehand tools and machines to the latest elaborate machinesand methods employed for mass -production purposes.

SOME OF THE SUBJECTSFiles, Chisels, Scrapers, Shears, Punches, Burnishers, Hand

Screw -cutting Tools, Spanners, Vices, Various Measuringmethods. Verniers, Micrometers, Gauges, Optical Devices,Flute and Twist Drills, Grinding Angles, Drilling Data,Small and Large Drilling Machines, Eleatic Drills, PracticalLathework in all its branches. Machining of Metals andSynthetic Materials. Tungsten -carbide and Diamond Tools.Lapping, Honing, Cleaning, Polishing and Rust -protectionof various metals. Grinding Operations and Machines,Milling Operations, Cutters and Machines. Planing, Shaping,Slotting and Broaching Operations. Special Machines forProduction Purposes. Plate and Bar Machines. Gears andGear Cutting Methods. Templates, Jigs and Fixtures,Overhauling and Adjusting Machines, Millwright Work.Welding, Brazing and Soldering Metals. Forging Work.Sheet Metal Work. Foundry Work. Patternmaking Practice.Press Work. Engineering Steel and other Metals ; theirProperties, Testing, Hardening, Tempering and Annealing,Engineers' Drawings. Workshop Calculations, Data, Hintsand Recipes. British and Foreign Screw -thread Tables.

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ENGINEERING POCKET BOOK In order to make the work even more comprehensive wehave brought out a pocket book, which is supplied free to allpurchasers. It contains many useful tables of Screw Threads,Tapers, Angles, Drill Speeds and Sizes, etc.

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226 NE \A'NES PRACTICAL MECHANICS May, 1942

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PRACTICALMECHANICS

Owing to the paper shortage " The Cyclist," " Practical Motorist," and " Home Movies " aretemporarily incorporated.

Editor : F. J. CAMM

VOL. IX. MAY, 1942 No. 104

lines to permit of sub -editorial corrections.The name of the contributor should appearon the top left-hand corner of the first pageof the manuscript, as well as on each roughsketch. Headings should be inserted at every200 words or so. Intending contributorsshould also note our style. We use in. forinch and inches, ft. for foot and feet, yd. foryard and yards. Where article& describethe construction of a device, a photographshould be sent to indicate that the devicehas been made. Accepted articles are promptlyused and promptly paid for, and a stampedand addressed envelope should be enclosedfor the return of unsuitable manuscripts.-And to QueristsWILL querists please note that queries

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being we are unable to undertake anyfurther orders for the binding of the volumesof this journal. Indexes will continue to beissued, and readers should get their issuesbound locally. An announcement will be madeas soon as we are able to resunie our previousbinding arrangements.ProductionTHE eighth report of the Select Committee

on National Expenditure contains someinteresting conclusions. It says that notenough attention has been paid to the import-ance of greater specialisation, and to distri-buting contracts so that each manufacturermay concentrate on a limited number ofproducts suitable to him, thus providing asufficient run on each type to make possiblethe most economical mass -production methods,with the further advantage of reducing thetotal amount of tooling required throughoutindustry as well as of skilled labour. In manycases manufacturers have been asked to make

BY THE EDITOR

too many varieties of articles ; nor has enoughattention been paid to directing contracts,labour and materials to the most efficientfactories. There is a vast amount of efficientmachinery which is not being used for any-thing near 24 hours in the day. The properregulation of sub -contracting capacity stillrequires urgent attention. Main contractorsare in many cases not kept sufficiently in-formed about Government plans such asimp -ending changes which would enable themto prepare new lines of production in advance ;nor sufficiently consulted on programmes anddesign which are under consideration. Thisresults in lack of continuity and work, andleads to waste of time and energy in researchfor new work and the preparation oftenders which are often abortive. Non-essential industries are still not properlyregulated and man -power is absorbed inpushing sales of non -essential products.

At all points can be seen the importance ofappreciating that industry is run by humanbeings, not mechanical units. There is ageneral symptom of so-called idle time whichhas attracted widespread public attention, andmany newspapers have referred to this asslacking. This idle time is usually caused bychange of design, and a certain amount ofinterruption is inevitable. Other causes areair raid damage, accidents, interruptions ofshipping or inland transport, and there areinterruptions to flow of production due tofaulty work of sub- :ontractors, failure by sub-contractors to deliver components, or bydepartments to supply materials. Other causesare lack of balance in the labour distributionbetween various undertakings, and lack ofcontracts.

There cannot be adequate efficiency inproduction without a programme plannedsufficiently far ahead so that a proper flow ofmanufacturing processes can be organised.Each part of the programme must fit in to anational plan, to settle which cannot be thefunction of any single department.

Another suggestion which is commendedfor consideration is that each importantindustry or industrial group should have aliaison officer to work with the three mainsupply departments, and that these depart-ments on their side should be arranged so thatthe liaison officers would have definite pointsof contact, through which they could obtain,without delay, either decisions or information.This suggestion might help, not only to siftout important points from mere trivial andembarrassing complaints, but also to givemanufacturers a real understanding of theposition and relieve them of that baffledfeeling, which is so common, of being ableneither to get explanations nor decisions.

228 NEWNES PRACTICAL MECHANICS May, 1942

The Central Telegraph Office about 1920.here to the

"

SEND Vs."The request from onetelegraphist to another had

to do with propaganda.

morsenothing

Nti coattev of the Poetikaatel'-Gerlertli.Messages in Morse were transmitted from

South Coast.

replaced this instrument, and elaborate andsometimes highly polished cabinet workencased these early pieces of apparatus.Shorter needles introduced in 1862 were

By courtesy of the Postmaster -General

Considered to be suitable for the purposeof tuning up faulty receiving apparatus, theletter " V ' (three dots and a dash) hasalways been used since the birth of morsekeys and sounders.

Early Needle InstrumentsYou might perhaps think that machine

telegraphy-such as teleprinters-displacedmorse within the last decade; and youwould be right.

" Then why raise the point ? " you willask. Well, since 1844, the astounding factis that morse and machine have been in-dulging in a thrilling neck -and -neck race.For in that year a printing telegraph operatedbetween Nine Elms and Wimbledon-adistance of six miles.

And it was only seven years previouslythat the first electrical telegraph workedbetween Euston and Camden Town, spanningone and a quarter miles. This " modelused five wires. An earlier piece demanded35 !

Five needles, however, were sufficientto convey telegraphic sense on the Euston -Camden Town line.

The wires were laid in grooves in baulks ofoak and slips made from the same tree securedthe baulks. This was satisfactory as long asthe ground kept drv, but when it rained,trouble started. Insulation failed and renderedthe system useless.

Early in 1840, however, the double needle

(Left) Wheatstone'sA B C " step-by-step" transmitter asused about 1839.(Below)Wheatstone'sA B C telegraphinstrument - about

1840.

By courtesy of the Postmaster -General.

responsible for an increase in speed fromseven to 45 words in five minutes !

Signals were transmitted by means ofhandles-one for dashes, the other for dots.

Prior to 1864, M. Bonelli, of Turin, in-vented a telegraph which printed the messagein roman type. Roughly speaking, the typeswere set up from a fount in much the sameway as an old-time compositor would operate.Five metal teeth, connected with copper wires,passed over the type and sent out currents.

At the other end of the line, a strip ofpaper, steeped in chemical solution, passedunder five metal points. The sending tele-

"V" FORAn Interesting

Early Telegraphgraphist was responsible for producing veryfair imitations of roman characters on thestrip of paper. The system worked success-fully between Liverpool and Manchester,and Paris and Boulogne.

Pollak-Virag TelegraphWe now come to the year 1898, when

about 600 words a minute were transmittedby the Pollak-Virag telegraph.

The writing of the original apparatus wasin morse characters, and consisted of curvesabove and beneath a central line whichrepresented the conventional " dots " and" dashes " of the telegraphic alphabet. Ofcourse, it required the services of a skilledtelegraphist, but because of this the inventorsconcluded that their rapid telegraph was" too fast." Nothing daunted, however,they set about making the machine write inordinary Latin characters, and by 1900 wereable to announce that they could transmitwritten characters readable to the man in thestreet at the rate of over 30,000 wordsan hour ! They were eventually able to send40,000 words an hour, or nearly 700 words aminute 1

The Pollak-Virag instrument actuallyworked between London and Glasgow at aspeed of over 600 words per minute. Butbeyond a trial between London and Paris,for some reason, nothing more seems tohave been heard of this marvellous 'speed

apparatus.Time marched on,

and with it the strugglefor telegraphic supre-macy became moreacute.

The TelewriterAlthough its use has

always been verylimited, we must notforget yet anotherspectacular piece ofwork called the tele-writer. The instrument is exactly whatits name implies-awriting telegraph-andit is very simple tooperate.

By courtesy of the Postmaster -GeneralSingle needle telegraph instrument -1819.


VELOCITYDescription ofInstruments

Using a stylo attached by metal arms to thebody of the apparatus, the sender writes onpaper which covers an electrically chargedplate.

At the receiving end, a pen, also supportedby metal arms, reproduces exactly what thesending operator is doing-writes, scribblesand draws. At the will of the transmitter, iteven dips its pen in an inkpot, always followingthe action of the pen at the distant station.

Telewriters are controlled through anautomatic exchange operated by a privatecompany. The system does not belong to thePost Office.

ABC TelegraphAll police stations were once interconnected

by the ABC telegraph. Like the teleprinter,it was " untappable. The writer remembersvisiting a station when about 12 years ofage and watching a policeman operating oneof these instruments. I gazed at him in wonderand awe, as he proceeded to inform theinspector that a certain gentleman was onhis way to the station. After 34 years oftelegraphic duties, this accomplishment,although still interesting, would not havesuch an effect on me to -day.

Incidentally, the ABC telegraph oncefunctioned in the Post Office. Not so manyyears ago, the instrument could be seen atthe C.T.O. One worked to Scotland Yard,and another to a well-known West End firm.The apparatus could also be seen in many avillage post -office, where the postmaster wasproprietor of the local store. On one occasion,one of these gentlemen received a visit fromthe Head Postmaster of the district. He (thesub.) was engaged at the moment on thetelegraph instrument. The Head said " Goodmorning " and was ,proceeding to speak aboutsome official detail, when his subordinatetestily remarked, " Don't interrupt. Can'tyou sdit I have two or three messages in myhead ? "

Single Needle TelegraphThis instrument was also read at sight.

The needle went to the left for dots and to

13y courtesy of the Postmaster -General.Direct inker telegraph instrument -1854.

the right for dashes. Signals were sent bya handle or tapper. Very often the clickingof the needle was sufficient for the telegraphist.He could hear the dots and dashes and wrotethe message without looking at the instru-ment. This was a serious offence and strictlyforbidden, until it wasfound that the opera-tors could do theirwork more accuratelythat way.

Up to a short timeago all British rail-ways made great useof the single anddouble needle, be-cause of the largenumber of telegraphstations that could beworked on one wire.

Making a noisesimilar to a morsesounder, the double

By courtesy of the Postm isle r -General.A modern teleprinter with cover removed.

By courtesy

plate was more difficultto read. I could neverunderstand the thing my-self. The railways usedthis instrument quite alot, and it was also used inthe Post Office and SouthAmerica.

The single currentmorse key was mostlyused on telegraph wiresthat ran a short distance,or where there was notlikely to be a lot of tele-grams.

But if a wire connected a large town orcity, a double current morse key would beused. Whenever the traffic increased, theoperators would work duplex-that is, onesent and one received at each end of the line ;four in all at the same time. Technical im-

of the Postmaster -General.

By courtesy of thePostmaster -General.

(Above) A Wheatstonetransmitter of 1867.(Left) A Baudot opera-tor gumming up a tele-

graph message.

provements eventuallyallowed for simul-taneous despatch ofa greater number oftelegrams over onewire.

Thousands of PostOffice operators havehad to send 26 wordsper minute on theinker. This is a morsekey connected to a

recording tape. It showed us what our 'dotsand dashes were like ; good or bad.

Wheatstone TransmitterAlthough it took only a few months to

learn to send and receive at this speed, therewere other jobs which had to be done beforea telegraphist could be fully qualified. Oneof these little jobs was operating the Wheat-stone instrument named after the inventor.

Before a message could be sent by thisprocess, a slip had to be prepared. Theseslips were perforated by what were knownas punching sticks and the stick perforator.

The operator, with a stick in each hand,


perforated at a speed of 25 words per minute.The slip contained a number of messagesor a long newspaper message. It might,therefore, be several yards in length. Whencompleted, the slip could be run through aWheatstone transmitter to six or seven townswhich were on the same wire. The sticks wereeventually replaced by pneumatic perforators.These instruments perforated as many aseight slips at once, so that the messagecould be sent to, perhaps, 48 places at thesame moment.

At the receiving stations the signals cameout in morse on a blue paper tape at anythingup to a working speed of zoo words perminute through a Wheatstone receiver. Thereceiving telegraphist used to tear off everyfew messages, which were handed to another

operator to write up into telegrams from thedots and dashes.

Creed Re -perforatorBut another instrument

took the place of thisreceiver. It was knownas the Creed Re -perfora-tor and Printer. Insteadof being received as morsecharacters, a perforated

(Above) A Wheatstonetransmission slip. (Right)An undulator slip for wire-less or cable as receivedfrom a Wheatstone slip at

the transmitting station.

Gell, to perforate theWheatstone slips.

Morse telegraphistshave been very proudof their work, andsome were betteroperators than others.A few could send 42words per minute, andsome have writtenthis down from asounder.

Humorous errorshave often occurredthrough the morse,but, fortunately, themessages have alwaysbeen corrected beforethey reached theaddressees. A tele-

$ 0*

0 N

By moles!, f the Postmaster-6e,eral.A double plate sounder of 1836.

Wheatstone slip came out. This was putthrough the printer and the messages werethen printed in roman letters and figures onanother piece of slip, which was gummedon to a telegraph form.

In their turn the pneumatic perforatorswere gradually replaced by machines whichlooked like typewriters. This seems to havebeen the inventor's idea-to turn everythinginto a typewriter. Thus, we had an instru-ment called the Kleinschmidt, and then the

misra0NINENNINIMMINOS

D 0 N breakBy coarlay of the Postmaster -General.

graphist was once astounded toknow that " The Almighty hasordered two new bruisers." Hadthis been allowed to reach FleetStreet, the Admiralty, no doubt,would have felt flattered. Cruisersmight very well. be called" bruisers," too.

Some telegraph stations werenot usually joined up to eachother. Sometimes one had a lot ofmessages, or a long message foranother, and they were thenconnected by means of a repeater.This saves a lot of time, as themessages did not have to be takenoff and sent again. It also releasedtwo operators for other duties.Band of Transmitters

About 50 years ago morseoperators were introduced to amarvellous instrument which isnot worked on the dot and dash

By ecurteey of the Postmaster -General.The Gell perforator telegraph instrument

of 1906.

principle. It was invented by a Frenchmannamed Baudot, and eight operators can workthis instrument at each end of the line,apparently simultaneously. In appearance

it is like five piano keys. The opetator pushesthese keys down with the first, second andthird fingers of the right hand, and the firstand second fingers of the left hand. Theinstrument itself is controlled by what iscalled a distributor, which sends a cadence toeach key. The distributor is made so as todeliver the cadence at different moments,and the operator must keep time with theknocking every time he sends a letter. Manyhundreds of these cadences are put to eachkey per hour, and the operator can send6o short messages in that space of time.The Teleprinter

Morse, Wheatstone and Baudot havegone to make way for the 'eleprinteii whichis now the chief instrument fot sending andreceiving telegrams. An operator must beable to send 70 -messages per hour. Thereceived messages are printed on a tape, andthis is gummed on to a telegraph form.

Old-timers are proud that the letter " V" inmorse has been ingeniously used as a simpleyet most effective piece of propaganda.

By coortexy of the Postmaster -General

Hughes' Printing telegraph instrument.


The World of AviationNew American Fighter : Plastic Trainers The Heinkel 113 : All -Canadian Training

An Amphibian Aircraft

Lysander 'planes dropping containers by parachute to advancing troops. Thesecontainers hold ammunition and other supplies.

New American fighterSPECIMENS of a new Rolls-Royce Merlin

aircraft engine in large production atthe Packard Works in America have

arrived in Britain, and have won approval fromthe experts. This is one of the first practicalresults of the interchange of blue -printsbetween British and United States aircraftindustries. The engine is similar to that inproduction here. Big contracts were placedfor the production of the engine in America.According to American reports, one of thefirst 'planes to be equipped with the engine isthe Curtiss Hawk P4oF-the new fighterrecently disclosed by the United States WarDepartment. This machine is a developmentof the Kittyhawk. The new Rolls engine hasincreased the speed of the Curtiss Hawk P4oFby at least so miles an hour. The 'plane hasalso more formidable fire-power and a higher" ceiling."

Twin-engined FightersAN aircraft which has attracted the

attention of designers for some timepast is the twin-engined fighter, the WestlandWhirlwind. This machine has four cannonand a reasonably good range. Both in thiscountry and the United States the twin-engined fighter has always been regarded asoffering certairl special advantages. Theseadvantages consist of suitability for nightwork, great range, and to the carrying of aheavy load of cannon armament. Anothertwin-engined fighter is the Bristol Beaufighter,which is not so fast as the Whirlwind, .butinstead it has more powerful armament and agreater range. Also, we must not forget theLockheed Lightning twin-engined fighter,which is in production in the United States.

The Lancaster BomberAMACHINE which we will soon be hear-

ing a lot of is the Lancaster bomber,which is now in quantity productiop in Canada.Little is yet known about this bomber, but it

is considered to be the fastest of the heavybombers. As they are produced thesemachines will presumably be flown across theAtlantic to this country.

The American MustangA NEW American machine which is now" in operation with the R.A.F. is theMustang. It is a single-engined fighter fittedwith the ordinary bicycle and tailwheelundercarriage. The radiator of the Mustangis situated under the centre part of thefuselage.

Plastic TrainersTRAINER aircraft made entirely of moulded

plastic plywood are to be turned out atthe rate of 500 a month by the LangleyAviation Company of America and other U.S.aircraft firms. Very great economy in priceand quickness of construction will be effectedby using the plywood. No nuts or bolts arerequired in the assembly, and America has anunlimited supply of the necessary wood. Theresult should be a strong and efficient primarytrainer. Twin-engined machines of this typehave been tested over New York withcomplete success, and the Langley firm hasan ambitious programme for a post-warswitch -over to private aircraft of this build tosell at less than £20o each. The " moulded "trainer will be used both by the U.S. AirForce and the R.A.F.

Woman Test PilotMISS ALMA MEFLIN, of New York, is

the only woman test pilot in America.She tests the 'planes of the Piper AircraftCorporation before they are passed on to theU.S.A. army. To -day she has more than',too flying hours to her credit, and has, fora while, held the altitude record for smallaeroplanes, one of which she took 21,050 ft.over the Rockies.

New Machine for LuftwaffeACCORDING to official reports the

Heinkel rt3 is considered one of thebest machines in use with the Luftwaffe. It issaid to have a speed of nearly 400 m.p.h., andits armament consists of two cannon and twomachine-guns. This otherwise good machineis vulnerable to wing hits, however, where itscooling system runs. All German fightersnow carry the formidable new Mauser cannon,possibly the best cannon in the world exceptfor the Russian Schpitalmy tank -bustingcannon.

A close-up view of the two starboard engines of the Douglas B-19 bomber. Eachengine develops 2,000 h.p.


The Dornier 217, Germany's newest long-range heavy bomber. This machine is an improved " Flying Pencil,"having a range of 4,500 miles and a speed of 300 m.p.h.

The Versatile HurricaneOF all the fighters now operating in this

war the Hurricane must be consideredthe most versatile. These fighter-bombermachines with their terrific fire-power haveaccounted for more enemy aircraft than anyother type now in service with the R.A.F.

Torpedo BomberMR. A. V. ALEXANDER has stated that

a new type of torpedo bomber is nowcoming into active production. It is a successorto the Swordfish and the Albacore; but ismuch faster than either of these machines. Itis thought that the new machine will operatefrom aircraft carriers.

All -Canadian TrainingTHE first all -Canadian advanced trainer to

be built in any quantity in Canada is theFleet 60, which is now known as the Fort.No doubt, the 'plane gets its name from FortErie, where these machines are being builtby the Fleet Aircraft, Ltd. The Fort is of all -metal construction, and is a two-seater low -wing monoplane. The rudder, fin, flapsand ailerons have fabric coverings and themachine has a fixed undercarriage.

An Amphibian AircraftTHE Goose, which is the R.A.F. name for

the Grumman G -21B, is one of thefew amphibian aeroplanes operating in thiscountry. It is a high -wing monoplane witha wing span of 49ft. and has a maximumspeed of just over zoo m.p.h. It is used by theR.A.F. as an ambulance for Air -Sea RescueService. It has a crew of four, is armedwith two machine-guns (one fixed, the othermobile) and bomb racks can be fitted underthe wings. This machine is also used bythe Royal Canadian Air Force for coastaldefence work.

Examination of Aircraft PartsENGINEERS were not slOw to realise the

value of X-rays in the examination ofmetal parts, and this technique is now quite

common to. arger manufacturers. The latestdevelopment is the installation at the Triplettand Barton Laboratories, U.S., of fully auto-matic units, to examine as a routine thecastings used in Lockheed Hudson 'planes.Four machines are in operation, and radio-graph zo,000 castings a day, mainly lightalloys, such as those of aluminium andmagnesium. The castings pass on a conveyortable under the X-ray beam, the latter unitbeing raised and lowered by a robot controlto deal with each casting separately. Themovement of the parts being examined issynchronised with the switching on of thebeam. one negative a minute being produced.

This mass examination technique has madeit possible for Lockheed designers -to legislatefor more castings in their 'planes, an objectionin the past being the difficulty of checking upon every small part for freedom from flaws.Ordinary inspection would not be able todetect internal flaws, at least not without adetailed examination. Steel and bronze partswhich are too bulky for the automatic unitsare taken to manually -operated X-raymachines. But to examine castings of deepsection it is necessary to use X-rays ofconsiderable penetrating power, and with thisobject in mind the above Laboratories haveinstalled a 440,000-yolt X-ray outfit.

A naval airman receiving instruction in the Link Trainer, a device for traininga pupil airman on the ground, under flying conditions. The Link Trainer is a safemethod for teaching blind flying, and a naval airman can learn the rudiments of this

art before he takes to the air.


THE AIRAcOBRA

The U.S. Army Air Corps' newest fighting 'plane, the

THE illustration shows the newest fighting'plane of the United States Army Air

Corps-the Airacobra. It is manufacturedby the Bell Aircraft Co., of Buffalo, N.Y.,and is designed for a speed of goo miles perhour at an altitude of 36,000ft. In addition tofour machine-guns, the 'plane carries a 37 mm.cannon firing high -explosive shells, and allare operated automatically by a push-buttonin the pilot's cockpit.

Seven years ago the Bell Aircraft Co.laid it down as a policy that powerful cannonswere necessary to give decisive fire power to

single -engine defensive fighters. Centre -linefiring-firing through the nose of the 'plane-is the most accurate method, and so in the Aira-cobra the cannon is rotated where the engineis normally placed. The exceptional speed, thefiring power of the 37 mm. cannon added tosix of the usual .3 and .5 calibre machine-guns,the adaptability to volume production andmany other features have proved the sounddesign of the Airacobra. The machine isbeing made for the United States and theBritish Air .Forces, and it is appropriatelyknown as the " Cannon on Wings." It will be

Airacobra.

seen from the photograph that the pilot hasexcellent vision, and tests show that the 'planeis easily manoeuvrable, and that a high degreeof streamlining has been adopted. It is fittedwith tricycle landing gear which was pioneeredin this country and developed more recentlyby General Aircraft, Ltd.

The Airacobra is the American counterpartof the latest Hawker Hurricane and Typhoon,which are fitted with cannon. Other detailsof the machine are not yet released forpublication. It is expected that technicaldetails will soon be available.

Efficient Gas FiringA Brief Description of Turbulent Burners

FOR the gas firing of furnace settings of alltypes, large and small, in the engineering

and metallurgical industries, whether usingproducer gas, coke oven gas, blast furnace ortown gas, of outstanding value for economicalworking are the range of latest design " Gako "turbulent burners supplied by Liptak FurnaceArches, Ltd., of London (68, Victoria Street,S.W.t). These are available in a considerablenumber of sizes and modifications, althoughthe basic principles of the design are the same.

Essentially they consist of separate andindependent valve control of the gas and airsupply, which are also split up in the burnerinto a number of independent thin layers orstreams, each of which is given a twistingor whirling motion by means of spiral guides or

passages. The result is an extremely intimatemixing of the gas and the air with rapidcompletion of the combustion, giving a shortglobular flame with high CO2 and little excessair. Another feature is that the operation isunder low pressure conditions, generally,

w.g., which eliminates all " stratifica-tion," that is, non -uniform furnace tempera-ture.

Simplicity and AccessibilitySpecial features of all the designs are the

simplicity and accessibility, with no movingparts of any kind, while all that is necessary isto open a hinged door for cleaning and fullinspection without disturbing the burnercasing and the pipe connections. Because ofthe design, resulting from extensive experienceof a large number of installations, two gasesalso of different qualities can be burnedseparately or together, such as town gas, coke

Fig. t (Left).-A "Gako" burnerfor coke oven gas, town gas, orother gas and pressure air supply,the gas and air control valvesbeing connected together by link -

work.

Fig. 2 (Right).-A " Gako" gasburner of the forced draught typewith automatic control and integralmotor -driven fan for operating

steam or hot-water boilers.(Liptak Furnace Arches,

Ltd., London.)

oven gas, producer gas, and blast furnace gas.Cold or preheated air can also be used,either at atmospheric pressure or slightlyabove, say up to 4in. w.g., already mentioned.

It is emphasised that no one design ofburner will give the best results for all furnaceconditions, and the main advantage of" Gako " construction is the range of modifica-tions available, one or other of which will givemaximum efficiency for specific installations.In this connection the long experience of thefirm is also particularly valuable.

Another important development is theintroduction of automatic control equipmentincluding an integral electric motor supplyingthe low pressure air, which gives not onlyextremely efficient combustion of the gas, butenables both the latter as well as the air to beautomatically regulated without difficulty,varying the speed of the motor and degree ofopening of the gas supply valve. Automaticoperation can be controlled by the temperatureat any specific point in the furnace setting,and also in the case of steam boiler plant bythe pressure.


TheWHILE the principle of converting the

potential energy of steam intomechanical power, by means of a

steam engine, remains the same as it was inthe days of Richard Trevithick, there has beena steady improvement in the design of thispower unit over the intervening two centuries.The reciprocating piston and the crankshaftis still there, but to stand in front of a modernhigh-speed engine is to realise how muchheadway has been made ; if is silent, smooth,and offers no external indication that steamis the source of power. One sometimesassociates little jets of escaping steam withsteam engines, and, indeed, leakages past thepiston rod or from valves have not been anuncommon feature of them, but imperfectgland packings are signs of inefficiency inother quarters to -day, and can hardly beattributed to the design of engine.

That the steam engine should have beeninvented by a British subject is not surprising,and its development in a country where coalis indigenous is natural. Nevertheless, onemay be excused for thinking that better usecould be made of our coal supplies in thegeneration of steam and its use for mechanicalpower than has been the case, and steamengines should not be allowed to make way sowholeheartedly for diesel power. It is possiblethat the plentiful supply of fuel may havetaken away some of the incentive to greaterefficiency in steam generation, and made low-pressure steam rather more commonplacethan it should have been in Great Britain, butin later years much progress has been madetowards tightening up the outlook in this field.

8(a)

8

Fig. 2.-Diagram of a crankshaft for afour -cylinder unit.

To -day the British steam engine ranks amongthe best in the world, both for design andworkmanship.Basic Principles

One may be excused for being at firstpuzzled as to how steam operates an engine,until it is realised that the former is reallyenergy in, as it were, gaseous form. Toconvert water into steam a considerableamount of heat must be put into it, and theheat, which is a form of energy, passes intothe molecules of water, and causes them tovibrate and expand. So one can think ofsteam as molecules of water which haveacquired a considerable amount of energy.There is a tendency for these molecules torevert back to their liquid state, or contract towater again. Thus, if steam is brought intocontact with a cool surface the agitatedmolecules give up their energy to that surfacein the form of heat, and revert to the contractedstate ; that is to say, they condense to water.It is not difficult to regain the heat -energyfrom steam, in the sensible form, in this way.

But in the steam engine the heat is notreccit cred completely, but only in part. Letus assume that the steam enters the cylinderat 40o deg. F., or 235 lb. per sq. in. pressure.Now that pressure will drive the piston downin the usual way, and in doing so it will,naturally, expand, the idea being shown

Steam EngineIts History and Development

diagrammatically in Fig. 1. When a gas-andsteam may be considered as a gas-expandsit cools, and so the steam falls in temperature.In effect, it has lost some of its thermalenergy, that energy being yielded up as internal

1I Vot

Fig.i.-Diagrams representing the expansionof steam in a steam-engine cylinder.

work. In this way the potential energy, orheat, is translated into work. If the expansionhas resulted in a drop in steam pressure from235 lb. per sq. in. to, say, too lb. per sq. in.gauge, the theoretical fall in temperaturewould be about 6o deg. F. In practice theamount of heat lost would depend also on therate of conduction away from the cylinder,

d such factors as the piston stroke andpeed.

Fig. 3.-A typical indicator diagram.

General TypesSteam engines fall roughly into two major

classes : vertical and horizontal. The formerare often of the high-speed type, and smallerthan the horizontal ones. These two broadclasses can then be subdivided into single -cylinder engines, compound, tandem -compound, and, a later development, theUniflow engine. The steam may have itsenergy extracted more fully by what are calledtriple and quadruple expansion engines, which,as their names imply, expand the steam inthree and four stages respectively. Thisenables as much of the energy to be utilisedas possible, the steam being brought down toa low pressure for condensing to atmosphericpressure and return to the boiler as water.Reference to condensing brings one to afurther division of engines into condensingand non -condensing types. The former passthe exhaust steam through a cooling device,and so enable it to go back to the boiler, thusconserving water, while the latter pass thesteam into the atmosphere or to a process,without attempting to recover the water. Thenon -condensing engine usually consumesup to 50 per cent. more steam than thecondensing type. Reference to the Uniflowengine will be made farther on in this article.Some Design Considerations

Certain types of engine are more suited to

particular work, although they may not offerthe best mechanical and thermal efficiency.Thus, for rolling mills, simple or tandemcompound units are often employed, whilefor the generation of electricity small, high-speed engines are clearly .indicated, it beingpresumed that the dynamo set is not large.This type, where it is a compound engineand fitted with Corliss valves, is . highlyefficient. Then again, certain types of valvesare more suited to work of one class thananother. There are poppet, slide, piston andCorliss valves, all of which may possess theirown special advantage. The valve is a veryimportant part of any engine, for it can makeor mar efficiency, as will readily be understood.It is not sufficient to arrange for steam to beadmitted to a cylinder and to drive the piston.The steam mint have an unrestricted outlet,and it is here that the valve must operatecleanly, have a quick response and, of course,show minimum wear with time. Muchthought has been devoted to this aspect ofengine design, particularly with high-speedunits.

It is not possible to do more than glimpseat the problem of engine design, and by wayof example, the crankshaft of, say, a four -cylinder unit will be considered. Clearly, iffour cranks arranged as in Fig. 2 are allowedto rotate there will be primary and secondaryforces to deal with as well as couples. Thesecan be balanced by arranging for the crankweights A to bear a certain ratio to the innercrank weights B. The cranks will be arrangedso that they make angles with each other asshown in Fig. 2 (b), which is an end view ofthe crankshaft. In addition, there will be anoptimum distance between each crank orweb along the crankshaft. When balanced,with the pistons also taken into account, anengine should run with little or no vibration,and where the latter is present to any extentit is an indication that insufficient attentionhas been giVen to the matter, although to -day,

_ sufficient is known about the subject to enabledesigners to produce quite smooth -runningengines, even at high speeds.

In slow -speed horizontal engines theproblem of balancing crankshaft and pistontends to be simpler, but, owing to the greatermasses involved, care has to be exercised.For large pistons of long stroke it is usual toprovide guides for the piston rods, calledcrossheads, while slippers and guideways canalso be brought in to help in the smoothfunctioning.

/2"./././Zr'z'Fig. 4.-Section of a slide -valve.

Hollow valve stein

Steam cy/ff'clel

Fig. 5.-Sectional view of part of an enginecylinder showing a piston valve for controlling

the distribution of steam.


How Efficiency is MeasuredGenerally speaking, the thermal or overall

efficiency of an engine is measured by the ratioof steam input to power output. The mechani-cal efficiency ranges between 7o per cent. and90 per cent. approximately, which representsthe ratio of brake horse -power to indicatedhorse -power. The latter can be obtained froman automatic record of the pressure cycle inthe cylinder, and a typical indicator diagram,as it is called, is shown in Fig. 3. The steamis admitted to the cylinder at a particularpressure, represented by the height on thegraph, or indicator, AB. The piston is drivenforward, the inlet valve -being open, and thepressure remains sensibly constant to C. Thevalve then closes and the piston is drivenforward by the expanding steam, which isunable to make its escape. The expansionbrings about a fall in pressure as seen fromC to D, when the exhaust valve opens. Thepressure now falls to a minimum value at E,when the exhaust stroke proper begins, thepressure remaining at a roughly constant lowvalue until the exhaust valve closes at F, whenthe inlet valve admits a new charge of steamfor the next cycle. The pressure rises rapidlyto the maximum steam pressure being used ;that is, back to B, for the whole process to berepeated. The area of the enclosed space ofthe indicator diagram so formed enables theI.H.P. to be calculated. The record of thesepressure variations is plotted or traced on acard by means of a pen actuated by a link,which is in turn connected to the cylinder ofthe engine.Power

The horse -power developed by an engine isproportional to the stroke and diameter of thecylinder, the steam pressure on the pistonand the number of strokes per minute. Inother words, the calculated horse -power, orI.H.P., is expressed by :PLAN

I.H.P.=--33,000

where L =stroke, in inches, A=area ofpiston, in inches, P -= pressure of steam,lb. sq.in., and N =number of strokes perminute, while the denominator is the con-version factor for these values into horse-power, one h.p. being equivalent to 33,000ft.lb. per minute. It will be seen that size andspeed are the objects for which to strive ifpower output is the main consideration, butboth of these are limited by design. Inpractice it is often found that a small high-speed engine is more suitable than a larger,

Exhaust/filer

CrankshaftEccentrk

Flywheel

Fig. 7.-Section of a single -cylinder verticalsteam engine, showing the chief working parts.

low -speed one, for the latter would not onlyentail greater cost to manufacture but wouldtake up more room. The above equation holdsfor a single cylinder engine, but in a multi -expansion engine, that is to say, where thesteam is fed into a succession of cylinders,each operating with a lower pressure than theprevious one, the value of P is computed fromthe mean effective pressures in all of thecylinders.

Steam pressures vary according to theclass of engine, and may be as low as 3o lb.

Fig. O.-The Watt -type governor, nowsuperseded by the spring -loaded governor.

per sq. in for single -cylinder condensing unitsup to hundreds of pounds for multi -expansionengines. The first, or high-pressure cylinder,will take steam at about the pressure of theboiler in which it is generated, and theintermediate d low-pressure cylinders maybring it dowto one-half and one-thirdrespectively. Thus, if the boiler pressure is_fir._

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GovernorsBefore discussing engines themselves a

brief mention should be made of the governor,which is intended to regulate the speed ofthe piston. In effect, it is a device thatthrottles the steam when the engine speedpasses a pre -arranged figure, and if the inletpressure should fall slightly it opens the steamsupply valve to compensate. The earliestkind of governor employed the centrifugalprinciple, in which the engine was linked to apair of balls arranged as in Fig. 6. Thehigher the speed the farther out would movethe balls, and this would result in the collarbeing raised. This collar, being attached to afurther linkage, would actuate the supplyvalve. The Watt governor has been modifiedsince its introduction, to make it a sensitivepiece of equipment, but the principle remains.Other designs have been adopted in more recentyears, but space forbids a description of them.Some Engine Types

Having discussed some of the essentialsof a steam engine, we can now examine theengine itself. As stated above, there are manyclasses and types and, for convenience, onlythree will be referred to, including theUniflow, which embodies original ideas. Asimple, single cylinder unit is shown insection in Fig. 7, from which the resemblanceto an internal-combustion engine will be quicklyapparent. The piston operates a crank,which is coupled tO a flywheel. In modernengines of this type, usually high-speed,lubrication is effected by filling the crankcasewith oil, and feeding the lubricant to thecylinder by splash. Another method is toinject the lubricant into the inlet steam line,by means of a special lubricator, which atom-ises the oil, or breaks it up into fine droplets,so that it is swept by the steam into the

Fig. 8.-Part-sectional elevation of a horizontal steam engine.

zoo lb., sq.in., the low-pressure cylinderwould receive steam at about 75 lb./sq.in.Valves

Reference has already been made to theimportance of the valve in an engine. Thethree commonest types in use ate slide, pistonand poppet, the Corliss pattern also beingwidely employed. A typical slide -valve isillustrated in Fig. 4 from which it will beobserved that, by one member or face slidingover the other, the steam port is exposed.This design offers the advantage of simplicityand ease of maintenance, but its fundamentalcharacteristics sometimes preclude it from useon high-speed engines, although no generaldictum can be given in this respect. A pistonValve is shown in Fig. 5, which explains itself.The Corliss pattern may take more than oneform, and may consist of a cylindrical valveface or a disc type, but its operation is charac-teristic, in so far as the valves are opened andclosed by an eccentric, the closing of theinlet, however, being effected by a triggermechanism.

cylinder. Nowadays the steam fed into avertical engine is usually superheated, andcylinder jackets, as in the internal-combustionengine, are seldom employed. The idea ofthe jacket is not to cool the cylinder, as withthe petrol unit, but to keep it hot and preventcondensation. This trouble is surmountedby the use of a high degree of superheat andthe fitting of steam traps. In some instancesthe steam is led first of all around the cylinder,so that any condensate may be led away beforethe steam passes into the cylinder.

Fig. 8 gives an idea of a larger horizontalengine, of the type widely used in the past.The connecting rod is supported, as it were,by a cross head, and slippers run along slidesas the piston moves to and fro. The speedis often low, and whereas a vertical enginemay run at 2,000 r.p.m., the larger horizontalengine will sometimes have a speed of only5o r.p.m. Lubrication is carried out as arule with drip oilers, and a feature of theseslow -speed units is their longevity and freedomfrom Maintenance.


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Fig. 9.-Section

The Uniflow EngineThis represents a new departure in design,

and has brought about an appreciable in-crease in efficiency in steam power generation.In the usual type of engine the steam flows intothe cylinder on the power stroke and is thenpressed back over the same path and throughthe exhaust valve, on the exhaust stroke of the

of the

Ern a u s r

cylinder of a Uniflow engine.

piston. In other words,the steam flows over

A the cylinder wallstwice ; when it is' hotand when it has per-formed its work and isbeing exhausted. Butin the Uniflow enginethe steam flows in onedirection only. Thisis obtained by havingan inlet steam port ateither end of a two-sided piston, as in Fig.9. The exhaust portsare arranged around thecentre of the cylinderw a 11 circumference.The sequence of opera-tions is then as follows :

steam enters at the port or valve A and drivesthe piston forward, until it uncovers theexhaust ports at B, through which the steammakes its exit. At this position the pistonwill have completed its stroke, when steammakes its entry at the port C, and drives thepiston back, until the exhaust ports at B areagain uncovered, making its exit therefrom.

It will be seen that the steam always flowsin one direction ; that is, from inlet tooutlet, but never comes back over the samepath. Hence, the name Uniflow for this typeof engine. This arrangement makes for betterexhaustingand other features. The engine ischaracterised by its smooth operation, and amoment's consideration will show that, be-cause the inlet ports or ends of the cylinderare never traversed by exhaust steam, they arealways hotter and, likewise, the exhaust portsare constantly cooler. Such factors arereflected in a better thermodynamic efficiency ;that is, a higher outbut of power for a certaininput of steam. Another point about theUniflow engine is that its indicator is not likethat for other engines, but more resemblinga diesel diagram.

Continued progress is being made in thefield of steam power, and just as the Uniflowengine represents a step forward in enginedesign, so one might expect yet furtherdevelopments. Coal there is in plenty in GreatBritain, while the engineers also are indigen-ous, so one might reasonably expect that thiscountry will maintain its lead in this field.

Points About ScissorsTHERE are many points about the con-

struction of scissors which it is wellto know if they are to be put to any

special uses. A good pair of scissors will, ofcourse, cut better than an inferior pair of thebazaar type.

Simple TestsOne of the first things to look for is whether

the cutting edge on each blade is properly" set " ; that is, it should " stand up proud,"as the cutler calls it. Not only should thetwo surfaces of the blades that cross eachother in the act of cutting be hollowedslightly, as arises from the curvature of thegrinding wheel on to which they had beenpressed, but in addition the edge can be " setup " by a blow from the setter's hammer,correctly given to increase the rising up ofthe edge.

1.-Two pairs of ladies' cutting -out scissors.

- A Few Interesting TestsHold an ordinary pair of scissors by one

handle, vertically ; open it by lifting the otherhandle, which you then release. The scissomwill shut of its own accord, but the point ethe test is, how far does it shut ? A cheappair of scissors will practically close itself, forthe simple reason that the " binding " of theone blade upon the other is so slight, andloose, that the scissors close almost to the tip.

Try the test on a better make of scissors,and it will be found that the edges are in suchcontact, from the verystart near the screw,that the scissors remainopen. In other words,the cutting action hasno slackness, due tothe nature of theworkmanship.

Sheffield -madeScissors

- Fig. t shows twopairs of ladies' cutting -out scissors from alarge selection madeby an old -establishedSheffield house,Christopher Johnson(Cutlers), Ltd. Thefirm's range includesscissors for all kindsof purposes, includinghairdressers' scissorsfor gents or ladies,made from speciallyhigh-grade steel, with smooth, easy -workingcutting edges. In the " C.J." mark, thefirm -have attained a standard in weight, shape,balance and cutting qualities equal to the bestimported lines, so proving that Sheffield canproduce a hairdressers' scissor of first-classmerit.

In ordinary household shears, in the usualsizes from 4iin. upwards, 'the styles are inheavily plated nickel silver or in steel finish.The heavier type of shears, with cranked orstraight japanned handles, runs from 6in. totwin. -overall, the largest size giving a 6iin.cut. Varieties in these shears give theoption of nickel -plated blades or nickel -plated bows and shanks.

In Fig. 2 are shown two types of scissors ;the Bodkin, distinguished by its round blade,

and the Double Bow, used for heavier workwhere two fingers are needed.

Description of PartsThe following description should be noted

with reference to the various parts indicatedin the illustration.

Bodkin.-Type of scissors havingblade with rounded point.

Double Bow.-Large enough to allow two

Score For- Side

Double PinchBow Neck End

Fig. The

Screw Hole Flat

The Cut

Flat tilade Back

VigoPoint

names of the various parts of scissors are givenin these illustrations.

fingers instead of one. Chiefly in tailots'scissors for extra leverage.

Fore Side.-Bevelled edge of screw holeflat.

Neck End.-Wherethe blade.

Pinch.-The step down between the screwhole flat -and the thin portion of the blade.

Score.-A line or nick scored on scissors,sometimes with a file, to give a little decora-tion or relief.

Tup Shanks of scissors grow out of theblade to join the bows, like the horns of atup or ram.

Vigo Point.-Straight or strong point.Probably from Latin : Vigor-strong. Chieflyused on tailors' and heavy scissors.

neck of shank joins

HAVING considered some methodswhereby " thin " negatives can beimproved by intensification, let us

now turn our attention to the treatment ofthose which constitute the opposite class,namely, too " thick." This fault usuallyarises through over -exposure or over -de-velopment, and gives unsatisfactory printslacking in tone or gradation; it is also advisableto include in this group those negativesstrong in contrast which yield prints with apaucity of half -tones, and consequently ofvery little value for the making of pictorialprints.

Most amateurs will have some negativeswhich are so dense that they are almostopaque when viewed by transmitted light,and when attempts are made to print them itis found that either a very strong light or muchtime is required in the exposure to get eventhe semblance of an image on the paper,yet when the negative is held to a stronglight and can be seen through, it is possible todiscern an image which gives one the impres-sion that it will or can produce a reasonablygood print.

Howard -Farmers' ReducerThe conclusion is that it requires some

general reduction ; it has got to be made' thinner " so as to give the operator somemeans of making a print. For this work themost satisfactory formula is that known as theHoward -Farmers' Reducer, sometimes re-ferred to by its chemical contents as theFerricyanide formula.

There are two solutions required, and theseare made as follows :

(r) Soda hymn, 24 ozs. ; water to make20 OZS.

(2) Potassium ferricyanide, 2 ozs. ; waterto make 20 ozs.

This reducer is particularly fast in its action,and therefore has to be closely watched toguard against excessive reduction ; further,the mixed solution will not keep for morethan a few minutes at most, consequently ithas to be prepared just when it is requiredfor use. To prevent the action going too farthe work should be done near a tap whererunning water can be used to flood the chemi-cal solution from the surface of the filmoccasionally, in order to watch the progress.The effect should be noted in the shadowdetails as the action is slightly quicker on theweak deposits than on the denser parts.

Thorough Soaking EssentialAs with all after -treatment methods the

negatives to be reduced must be well soakedbeforehand to ensure even action over thewhole surface.

Take r oz. of the hypo solution No. iand add to it about 4o drops of the ferri-cyanide solution, No. 2. The colour of themixed liquid should be yellow, about thedepth of a lemon colour ; pour this over thefilm and rock the dish, and at the end of

minutes make an inspection. If not com-plete return the film to the dish for a shorttime and inspect again ; when you are satisfiedthat the negative has been reduced sufficiently,wash for 20 minutes, then dry it by hanging itto a shelf.

Should you desire to speed the action ofthis bath it is only necessary to add more ofthe No. 2 solution, up to 6o drops ; on theother hand, for slower work, reduce it to 25

May, 1942

PHOTOGRAPHY

NEWNES PRACTICAL MECHANICS 237

Improving Faulty NegativesThe Process of Reduction Explained

By JOHN J. CURTIS, A.R.P.S.

drops, but always remember that the mixedsolution does not retain its activity more thana few minutes.

It is quite easy to see when the solution isno longer functioning, for it changes itscolour to a blue green tint, and at this stageit is useless ; a fresh bath must then be madeif more negatives are to be treated. Do notuse the same bath for more than one negative.

Should you have the misfortune to fog afilm, either through light or chemical action,and this fog is over the whole of the negative,then it is possible to make a considerabledifference to it by treating it with thisHoward -Farmers' Reducer. If the work isdone carefully the fog can be so remqved asto make the negative quite printable, but donot carry it too far, otherwise the image willalso be reduced.

H. W. Bennett's FormulaThe second method or formula, is that

known as the Persulphate Reducer, the mostuseful for those negatives which are termed"hard," because they give contrasty prints,patches of black and others of almost white,the shadows printing right out, while it is

and pour the mixed solution on and watchits action. This can easily be detected, for aslight milkiness will appear, which is theresult of the reaction of the persulphate onthe silver image ; at this stage it is very rapid,so, after a few seconds, remove and examine thefilm, and if you are satisfied that the reductionis sufficient, place the film in a weak fixingbath made up of hypo 4 oz. dissolved in 5 ozs.of water. Leave the film in this for oneminute only, and then wash it for r5 minutesin running water, and allow it to dry.

Most of you by now will have realised thatit is not always easy to judge the density of awet negative as to how it will appear when itis dry; this is apparently even more difficultwhen using these after -treatment processes.Therefore, a word of warning : do not be afraidto stop the work before going too far, forwith most of the methods, certainly with thoseI have explained, it is possible to repeat theintensification or reduction if found to beinsufficient when the time comes to printfrom the treated negative. If the reductionhas been taken too far it is possible to intensifyby the redeveloper process, and, in fact, someworkers will, if a negative is too contrasty, use

A pleasing print from a negative

impossible to get anything out of the high-lights ; it is these latter which have got tobe reduced, so it is necessary to find a reducerwith a selective action, and persulphate willbe found to respond in this manner. It mustbe remembered, however, that it will alsooperate on the shadows if there is any silverimage on which it can work. The formulawhich is given below is one that is known asH. W. Bennett's formula, and is generallyaccepted as the best. If made up as given itserves as a stock solution, and will keep for along time, but for use you must dilute onepart of this with one part of water, and in thisdiluted state it will not keep.

Formula : Ammon persulphate, 240 grains ;soda sylphite cryst., 45 grains ; acid sulphuricxo per cent. solution, A oz. ; water to maketo ozs.

For a film 33 by 21 take r oz. of this solution,add i oz. of water, and having soaked thefilm for an hour in water pass it to the dish

after reduction: -

the persulphate reducer, and then intensifyin order to put more body into the image.

Negative DyeIn one of the articles I made mention of a

preparation known as Johnson's Negative Dye.I believe that with a bottle of this and one ortwo good brushes, say a number oo, o, r and2 sable hair quality, we can add to the work ofreduction and intensification, or even at timesdispense with those processes. Let me givean example : a negative which is contrastyyet has a fair amount of detail; in the ordinaryway such a negative would want a bath ofpersulphate reducer, but if it was given onlya very short time in this it would reduce thosehigh -lights without affecting the shadows.When the film was dry it could be placed inthe retouching frame, and with a very weaksolution of the negative dye a wash could beplaced carefully over the shadows so as tohold back the printing of these parts.


THE MONTH IN THE WORLD OF

Science and Invention

A sound -locator, with its crew of three, at an anti-aircraft stationsomewhere in England. One man works the course -finding bowl,whilst the other two listen -in on the large sound detectors.

Life-saving Suit4R. THOMAS METCALFE, who is in

v charge of life-saving appliances, WarTransport Ministry, has invented a. brightyellow suit of rubberised material, which isclaimed to have saved many lives at sea. Thecolour makes -the wearer easily seen fromrescue ships or aircraft.

New Type of FurnaceAN American engineering firm has marketed

a new type of furnace for nitridingio,000 tank track pins at a time. It is gas -fired and measures 38in. diameter by 54in.deep, ammonia gas being admitted throughthe cover. Losses due to radiation are cutdown by circulating air at high pressure andspeed. A specially -designed cylinder has thetrack pins stacked on it in five rows of 2,000tech.

A Flaming Bomb.THE Japanese are now using a new type

of bomb. It is one which bursts in theair, and emits huge flames.

Magnetic Oil FiltersA MAGNETIC oil filter has been produced

which effectively removes iron particlesfrom lubricating -oil systems of internal

enbustion engines and reduction gears. Theme nets, it is stated, are made of " Nipermag,"

alloy of nickel-aluminium-titanum-iron.A series of grids, made. from a high-per-m.shiiity alloy, and between these magnets,are enclosed within a pair of bronze tubes,which are used to direct the flow of oil.

Magnetic particles ofiron flowing into thefilters are held eitheron the magnets or onthe large grid area,which is magneticallyenergised by the flux ofthe magnets. Cleaningis rapid and !is facili-tated by the fact that.the grids become non-magnetic when re-moved from the proxi-mity of the magnets,allowing the iron par-ticles to be removedeasily.

Synthetic RubberA NUMBER of well-

known Americanrubber manufacturingfirms have laid downplants for the produc-tion of 12o,coo tons ofsynthetic rubber peryear. In order to makethis possible U.S.chemists are at presentinvestigating the ex-traction of rubber fromthe cactus, whichoccurs very widely inthe Southern States,and which, it is de-clared, could possiblyyield vast quantities.A Mexican cactusplant called lguayuleis being developed atexperimental farms inArizona, Texas andCalifornia.

Augmenting PetrolAPPARENTLY powdered coal is not of

much use in augmenting petrol, accord-ing to an American scientist, who has carriedout a number of experiments in this field.He found that there is a tendency to detona-tion with 2 per cent. of coal in the petrol,the particle size ranging from 1-74 microns,and an excessive amount of carbon and taris formed in the cylinder. The engine testedwas a four -cylinder unit running at 1,200r.p,m.

Aircraft ArmourTHE limitations on aircraft weight necessi-

tate the armour plate being made aslight as possible, consistent with effectiveresistance, to projectiles. Thus, aeroplanearmour, according to an Air Ministry Abstract,ranges up to 44in. by 44in. by ;lin., most of itbeing in in., din. and !,1in. thicknesses.Armour plate is essentially a nickel -alloy steel.It must be exceedingly hard on the exposedside ; tough but more ductile on the interiorside.

The requisite hardness is obtained bycarburisation of the exposed surface. Asmuch as 5o hours may be required for acomplete heat for tin. plate. In the newBreeze process, three heats can be carried outin 24 hours. The carburising treatment isaccomplished with a liquid salt bath in anelectric furnace. This equipment enables thework to be charged and removed quickly,brings the plates up to the desired tempera-ture quickly and makes accurate control ofthe temperature possible.

" Singing " PropellersACCORDING to an article in Fairplay' it seems certain that the nuisance ofthe singing propeller-which was practicallyunknown Until bronze propellers of aerofoilsection came into general use for ships-iscaused through vibration of the propellerblades. A device which is claimed to dampout the vibration which causes singing in thepropeller blades consists of small flangesattached to the tips of the blades. It is alsoclaimed to improve the propeller thrust bydirectirig the column of water from thepropeller straight astern.

New Type of ExtensometerAN extensometer, to measure the increase

of length of small lengths of materialsubject to strain has recently been perfected.Four wires are fixed to the specimen, whichare strained when the latter increases itslength. Their electrical resistance alters as aresult, and by employing a Wheatstone bridgeand using a balancing arrangeiperrt in thewires, the extension of the specimen of aslow as a millionth of an inch can bemeasured.

Steel of Tinfoil ThicknessAS aluminium is becoming increasingly

short in America, the steel industryover there has produced a paper -thin high -tensile stainless steel for use in aircraftconstruction. It is similar in appearanceto tinfoil, but has a tensile strength of185,000 lb./sq. in. From official reports it islearned that it is three times as strong as thealuminium alloy now used for making aero-planes. This paper -thin steel will not rust;is not affected by the degree of heat at whichaluminium melts, and is twice as difficult tobend as duralumin. It has one drawback,however, as it is expensive, costing aboutk2oo a ton, which is about twice as muchas aluminium.

Automatic WeldingAFIRM of electrode manufacturers have

recently taken out a patent for a newmethod of automatic welding. Plates to bejoined have their edges bevelled in the usualway and a long covered electrode is laid in thegroove. Over the joint is placed a heavybacking section, the protruding part of theelectrode being accommodated in the longi-tudinal recess. A carbon pencil is used forstriking the arc between the electrode andthe plates, and the welding process continuesautomatically until the electrode is finished.It is stated that welds up to Soft. in length canbe made successfully by this method, thewelding speed being about iftenm.

Bridge Types174OLLOWING the destruction by storm of

the Tacoma bridge, American engineersare reviewing the designs of several othersuspension bridges. From the official reportit is evident that the bridge was too light andflexible to withstand aerodynamic effects, andthe new bridge is, to be wider and heavier,with higher towers and the bridge deck at alower elevation. Two new types of suchbridges have been deveLpc(1 by engineers ofexperience, and the United States Armyengineers have developed plans for portablecableways for military nurnoses.


New Types of Electrical GaugeTHE General Electrical Company, Sche-

nectady, have developed an electricalgauge for measuring the thickness of non-magnetic metals when only one side of themetal is accessible. Accurate to within5 per cent., the gauge measures thicknessesup to in., and can be used for measuringthicknesses of non-magnetic metals that arebacked by magnetic metals.

Large Hydro -electric PlantTHE Grand Coulee Dam, on the Columbia

River, in the State of Washington, hastaken eight years to build, and is reputed tobe the largest plant of its kind in the world.It is designed to supply power for operatinghuge water turbines connected to electricgenerators having a total maximum output of1,974,000 kilowatts.

This power is furnished by 18 of the world'slargest generators, one of which recentlycommenced to operate ; it develops 1o8,000kilowatts and will help to supply power foraluminium works and other industries in thenorth-west area of the United States.

It is significent that the lake formed behindthe Grand Coulee Dam extends for iso milesto the border of Canada ; this lake willirrigate over one million acres of land whichis now barren and dry.

Auitralian Tommy GunTHE Owen gun, invented by an Australian,

and being mass produced in Australiafrom Australian materials, has proved underthorough tests to be the best light sub-machine-gun of the war. With a lowertrajectory over 300 yards, it is far more, deadlythan other sub-machine-guns, and fires withgreater ,velocity, deeper penetration and lessrecoil. It is mud -proof and sand -proof. Intests it maintained a hail of fire when chokedwith sand and smothered with mud. Underparallel tests a Thompson gun stoppedworking and a Sten gun blew up.

The Owen gun can fire 3o rounds in threeseconds. A flick of the finger gives eitherautomatic or trigger control. Ingenious butextremely simple catches allow spent maga-zines and hot barrels to be replaced in aninstant. The Owen gun weighs tol lb. andcosts only a fraction of the price of theThompson sub-machine-gun. The gun'sinventor, 27 -year -old Evelyn Owen, a mortarmixer before the war, was on point of sailingwith an A.I.F. contingent when the value ofhis remarkable invention was recognised.Extreme simplicity and unequalled efficiencyare the features of this revolutionary Tommy

gun, which proves thevast Empire arsenalthat is Australia cannot only make warweapons equal to theworld's finest, but caninvent better ones.

Light BuoyTHOSE in peril on

or in the sea haveadopted many methodsto attract the attentionof passing ships. Wehave previously de-scribed in these pagesa number of marinerescue appliances, yetanother has now hovein sight.

The new apparatusis the device of aninventor who pointsout that he is awareof the existence of alifebuoy with a self -igniting flare in whichcalcium carbide isemployed as a sourceof gas which, when lit,provides both light andsmoke. Consequentlythe signal is visibleday and night. Hementions the fact thatone objection to sucha signal is that, owingto its self -ignitingcharacter, it is asource of danger to aninflammable carg6 onthe ship which is fittedwith it. For t ha treason a signal deviceof this description isnot permitted o nvessels such as oiltankers.

Smoke Signal

Illuminating the target. R.A.F. flare bombs-one of which isseen going into the chute-enable our heavy bombers to register

hits on vital German targets at night.

THE inventor also acknowledges the exist-ence of a buoy or float with an auto-

matically operated electric light. While thiscertainly has the advantage of not being solikely to cause fires, it is practically invisibleby day.

His idea is to combine with a float anelectric light signal and a device for emittingsmoke without producing externally a tempera-ture tending to cause combustion of inflam-mable liquids and gases.

The Owen gun can be fired either from the shoulder or hip.

He mentions that, in order to make thesmoke signal appear,, various means can beadopted. For example, there may be con-tained in separate receptacles a strong solutionof ammonia and one of hydrochloric acid.An arrangement may be provided to causethese solutions to mix automatically when thefloat is set adrift from a vessel. This resultsin heavy, dense white fumes which are easilyseen by day. If preferred, there may beemitted nitrogen peroxide-a dark brown gas.

Mechanical TinkerTHE travelling tinker is not now a common

object in our streets. Nevertheless, weknow one of these itinerant craftsmen whohas passed the alleged allotted span. Hisworkbench on - wheels is refulgent withpolished brass, and we have more than onceentrusted a penknife to him, and in a fewminutes its edge has been delightfully keen.But, as far as one branch of his work isconcerned, he now has another rival in theform of an improved mechanical knife -sharpening machine. This is the productionof an inventor whose aim has been to devisean effective knife -sharpener which is easy towork and one requiring little skill tomanipulate expeditiously.

This knife -sharpener comprises a rotary -driven abrading wheel, the power beingderived from an electric motor. There is aguide for receiving the blade of the knife andpresenting the edge to one side face of theabrading wheel.

The machine is capable of adjustment bymeans of which the life of the abrading wheelis prolonged. It has few working parts andknives of different size and character may besharpened.


The Fourth Dimension !

A telescopic view of a star cloud far out in the depths of space.journeying in three-dionetii ioned space, it would never bepossible for us to reach interstellar regions, but by voyaging inthe fourth dimension such a feat might one day become possible.

ACCORDING to mathematical con-ceptions, a point is merely a positionin space. It has neither length nor

breadth nor thickness. A moving point willgenerate a line.

Now, a line has one dimension-that oflength. It has no breadth, neither has itdepth or thickness.

Surfaces have two dimensions, viz., lengthand breadth. A straight line moving parallelto itself may be imagined to trace out a surface.

A little reflection, however, will convincethe reader that mere points, lines and surfacesare intangible things, for, after all, it isextremely difficult to imagine a point whichhas no dimensions whatever, or a line whichis totally devoid of breadth. The finest pencilline which can be inscribed on paper has bothbreadth and thickness, for it is composedessentially of a string of heaped -up carbonatoms, each of which can be proved to possessvery definite length, breadth and thickness.Points, lines and mere surfaces, therefore, aremathematical abstractions which can he realenough to the theoretical mathematician, butwhich are nowhere to be come across in ourordinary experience.

Three-dimensional ObjectsIt is obvious that every material thing must

be three-dimensional in nature. That is to

A

Fig. 1.-Showing how a two -dimensioned squfolding -up a one -dimensioned Ii

say, it must exist in three separate dimensions-length, breadth and thicknesS. We cannotpossibly imagine a material thing which isdevoid of any of these dimensions. Further,

Aare is obtained byne.

" Hyper -space and its PerplexingProblems

we cannot even imagine aspace which is not possessedof these dimensionalattributes.

The tiniest electron con-stitutes a definite particleof something. What exactlythis something is we arenot yet perfectly sure. Butif an electron is a particle,it must have size, that is tosay, size in three dimen-sions. It must possesslength, breadth and thick-ness. And if, by an effortof the imagination, oneconceives an electronrapidly growing in sizeuntil eventually it fills thewhole of interstellar space(for example, until it be-comes of infinite size), evenwhen it attains that in-commensurable magnitudeour Former electron particlewill still exist in threedimensions.

It would seem thatexistence in the three di-mensions is in no wayconnected with a body'sactual size. An atom existsin three dimensions. So,too, does the largest starof which we know. Both ofthem have the property ofbeing material, and it isjust this property which sig-nifies their existence in threedimensions. Y o u cannot

have a material substance withoutits existencein three dimensions any more than you canhave a solid body without mass or weight.Hyper Solids

Such facts are, of course, entirely in-controvertible. There are, however, scientificthinkers who havealmost instinctively re-fused to believe that onlythree dimensions areavailable or possible formaterial existence. Suchindividuals have postu-lated the existence of afourth dimension, a dimension extra tolength, breadth and thickness, which solid,material bodies can exist in. Needless to say,this postulation involves the necessity ofimagining a new type of space for four-dimensional bodies to exist in. Such ahypothetical space is nowadays termed (forwant of a better word) hyper -space, and thematerial things which are supposed or assumedto be capable of existence in it are referred toas hyper -solids.

The supposition that a fourth dimension ispossible has, from time to

E C time, given rise to a greatdeal of scientific con-troversy, and even toconsiderable ,vientificvehemence and bitterness.The existence o f thefourth dimension has beenattacked. a n d defendedwi t h icrimony by the

contending factions. Even the psychical re-search workers and the spiritualists have, attimes, affirmed their beliefs in the existenceof a fourth dimension, since it has been

considered that such a variety of space maywell constitute the abode of intelligent spiritsand other 'dynamic entities.Tim e as Fourth Dimension

Some people have been apt to imagine thatTime constitutes the fourth dimension. Theysay that all material things must have length,breadth, thickness-and Time. That is quitetrue, because Time appears to be an entirelyessential attribute of material things. Youcannot, for instance, imagine a timeless cube.Any cube, for example, which you care tobring to mind, must have length, breadth,thickness and Time for the simple reasonthat without these attributes the cube simplycannot exist in our ordinary world_

But Time is no more a dimension of anobject than the actual colour or hardness orsoftness of the latter. The three dimensions,length, breadth and thickness, are all at rightangles to one another. But you cannot saythat Time is at right angles to thickness or todepth. As a material (or extra -material)dimension, Time has nothing to do with thecase in point. Time is simply a non -dimensional attribute of material things, andit might be quite possible for even non-material creations to exist in Time.

Clearly, the fourth dimension (if it exists atall) must bear some definite relationship tolength, breadth and thickness. The case forits existence rests mainly upon argumentsfrom analogy. The arguments are these :

Imagine a surface which is populated withintelligent two-dimensional beings, that is tosay, with creatures which are possessed ofonly length and breadth. The name " Flat-land" has been given to such an entirelyimaginary world. Now, these beings havelength and breadth only. They have nothickness whatever. Their bodies may takethe form of squares, rectangles, triangles,

circles, etc., but they are notsolids, for the reason that a solidr equir es a three-dimensionalworld in which to exist.

I-c--........._______...-.

Fig. 2.-A three -dimensionedcube formed by the folding -upof a two -dimensioned pattern

or figure.

Well, our race of " Flatlanders ". willnaturally be utterly unconscious of theexistence of any third dimension. They willbe inherently unable to comprehend thenature of space as we ourselves know it, for,of their very nature, they are two -dimensiondwellers, inhabitants of Flatland, able tomove freely enough backwards and forwards,right and left, but not up and. down, since upand down implies a third dimensional spacewhich simply does not exist for them.

The " houses " of our imaginary race ofFlatland creatures will consist of straight orcurved lines. Such " houses " might verywell be thousands of square miles in area or,alternatively, their areas might be onlymicroscopical in magnitude. But the pointto note is that if, for example, a refractoryFlatland dweller were confined to a " prison "comprising merely a square, a triangle, orsome other figure made by an enclosure oflines he would not be able to get out of it.


If one of us, however, tieing three-dimensionalbeings, were to descend upon Flatland wecould readily enablz the imprisoned Flat-lander to break out of his place of confinementsimply by lifting him up into our three-dimensional space and by thereby removinghim beyond the extent of the enclosing lineswhich confined him.

To his Flatland gaolers, the prisoner wouldappear to have been spirited away, for theenclosing " doors " would still remain closedand the "walls " of the prison cell would havebeen untampered with.

If, by any chance, a human being wereseen during a visit to Flatland, he wouldappear as a sort of ghost, as an apparition,for he would be able to reveal himself withinthe Flatlander's houses without havingactually passed through their walls. Ofcourse, the Flatlanders would not see ourhuman earth -dweller as he actually was. Beingrestricted to acting and thinking and per-ceiving things in two dimensions only, thescared Flatlanders would merely see theoutlines of successive cross -sections of thehuman Visitant's body. The whole lanifesta-tion would, indeed, be one Of the highestmystery, and, to the poor Flatlanders, nomatter how intelligent they were, it wouldcomprise a wellnigh insoluble problem.

Now, arguing from analogy, it has beensuggested that if there exists a fourth dimen-sion, we must inherently be almost asincapable of clearly apprehending its realnature as our hypothetical race of Flatlanddwellers would be of appreciating the realitiesand the spacial arrangement of three dimen-sions.

Certainly, it would seem that if a three-dimensional prisoner in his cell knew how tomove about in the fourth dimension he wouldat once be able to make an unimpededescape from his place of confinement withoutactually passing through its walls. Formovement in the fourth dimension does notimply motion in either length, breadth orthickness. The fourth dimension does not(if it exists) lie, as it were, alongside ordinaryor three=dimensional space. It transcendssuch space, and it must Surely be able toexist within and without the three-dimensionalworld of ordinary solid bodies in which weourselves live.

A Formidable ProblemHow are we to get al fourth dimensional

space ? How are we even to attain tbpartial comprehension of the character ofthis supposed " hyper -space " ? The problemis, indeed, a highly formidable one, yet itsalmost unassailable perplexities have engrossedand fascinated many clever minds, with theresult that some highly ingenious methods ofattaining a knowledge of hyper -space " (orfour-dimensional space) have, frorii time totime, been put forward.

Imagine a line (which is a one-dimensionalunit), AB (Fig. t). If to this line we add ateach end of it another line of equal length(BC and AD) and then one more line beyondit (CE), we obtain the figure DABCE. Now,this figure or line (which, theoretically, existsin one dimension, having length only) can,by folding, be converted into a clearly two-dimensional figure, to wit, a square, havinglength and breadth.

Take, now, a square, which is two-dimen-sional in nature. If this square is " developed "in the same way as the line was, that is to say,if the square has one additional square de-veloped on each of its sides, and if, then, onemore square beyond is added to one of thedeveloped figures, we obtain the figureillustrated at Fig. 2. This figure is clearlytwo-dimensional, and, by a race Of Flatlanders,it could never be conceived as being anythingelse. Our own experience, however, indicatesthat it is readily possible for us to fold thistwo-dimensional figure up into a three-

dimensional pattern and so to form a cube.By so doing, we convert a two-dimensionalobject into one of three dimensions.

Now, by exact analogy, the fourth -dimensionenthusiasts contend that just as it is possibleto " develop " from a two-dimensional squarea figure or pattern which, when correctlyfolded up, will produce' a three-dimensionalfigure (a cube) so, also, is it possible to" develop " from a cube the three-dimensionalfigure or pattern of a fourth -dimensionalentity.The " Hyper -cube "

Thus, by " developing " an additionalcube on every face of an existing cube, andthen by adding one more cube beyond, weobtain the figure shown in Fig. 3. To thismysterious geometrical figure the names" tesseract " or " hyper -cube " have beengiven, and it is considered to be an exact

Fig. 3.-The " Tesseract" or hyper -cube,.which is considered to be a three-dimensionalplan of a fourth -dimensional ohiect, correctlyfolded up, this figure should produce a fourth

dimensional solid. Can you do ft?

counterpart of the two-dimensional plan ofthe three-dimensional cube shown. at Fig. 2.

The analogy, of course, is a perfect one.But,unfortunately,the difficulty arises in thatwe do not know how to fold up the tesieraetcorrectly in order to form the required four-dimensional figure. In this respect, we arelike the imaginary race of Flatland dwellersConfronted with the " plan " cube shown atFig. 2. If such a race of beings had anyclear notions of the " up and down " natureof three-dimensional space, their difficultieswith regard to the correct folding of the" plan " cube (Fig. 2) would vanish. So, too,in regard to ourselves. It is considered that ifwe could attain to some perception of theintrinsic character of four-dimensional space,the correct folding up of the " hyper -cube "or " tesseract " would at once becomechild's play to us.

And here, from a practical standpoint,at any rate, is where our present knowledgeof the fourth dimension ends. Many seriousscientists assail the whole question of such adimension on the grounds that the analogiesdrawn from hypothetical two dimensionalbeings and "Flatlanders " are false ones.They say that existence in two dimensiorr,alone is not merely impossible, but, also, un-thinkable. Such conclusions, however, areby no means wholly satisfactory.

Again, if one concedes the existence of afourth dimension, contend these opponents,why stop there ? If there does actually exista fourth dimension in some way connectedwith our well-known three dimensions, why,then, should there ritt exist a fifth dimension-and a sixth and a Seventh and even an eighthdimension ? In fact, why should there notexist an nth dimension, which means, of course,why should there not be an infinitude ofdimensions all capable of existing within theothers and each successively higher dimensiontranscending its previous 'ones ?

To all Silbh tlueries that answer echoes-mockingly, Perhapg--io' hy not ? Questions suchas these seem to transcend the borderlandof our human reasoning powers. Seemingly,if a fourth dimension exists (it is certainly apossibility) there is really no reason whyan nth dimension should also not exist.

An ExCiting PossibilityThe world nowadays is far too busily

engaged in severely practical concerns toadmit of much time for speculative andapparently highly impracticable thinking.Yet, sooner or later, the entire subject will beresurrected and re-examined once again, for,in regard to this fourth -dimension speculationthere is at leasi this one almost excitingpossibility : that 'With the proof of theexistence of fourth dimension and someknowledge of its Mfinipulation and essentialcharacteristics, we might, once and for all,become able to master the long -dreamt -ofproblem of space -voyaging. To travel fromthe earth to the stars out in space, even at thespeed of light (186,000 miles per second), wouldtake, in many instances, hundreds and evenhundreds of hundreds of centuries. If, how-ever, by some means or other, we could stepinto the fourth dimension (assuming that itexists) we might conceivably be able toperform that journey in an instant. Wemight even be able to travel in Time, andperhaps, indeed, even to overtake Time !

But all such ideas are only wildly imaginativeones. The intellect of mankind will neces-sarily have to advance considerably beforeany such problems can be attacked. Yet,instinctively, one is inclined to believe in thepresence of actual possibility behind all suchimaginings.

New South African StampTHE tremendous part arc welding is playing

in the war effort of the Union of SouthAfrica has been recognised by the issue of aspecial postage stamp. This indicates thatthe Union is not lagging behind other countriesin the use of this new industrial giant in theconstruction of her ships, tanks, aircraft andsimilar equipment.

Afrikaans and EnglishThe photographs, supplied by The Lincoln

Company Ltd., of Welwyn Garden City,Herts, show two of the stamps which are of6d. value. Each stamp is printed both inEnglish, as shown on the right, or Afrikaans,as on the left. This is the case with allstamps issued in South Africa. The stampdepicts a welder using modern shieldedelectric arc equipment, and dressed in pro-tective head shield, gloves and other specialclothing.

Lincoln Electric officials say that, as far asthey know, this is the first time that such astamp has been issued in the histoty of eitherstamps or welding.

5ouin Atria

The new South African stamp printed inAfrikaans. and English.

242 NEWNES PRACTICAL MECHANICS May. 1942

The Story of Chemical DiscoveryNo. 14-Madame .Curie and the Discovery of Radium

AFRAIL -LOOKING, somewhat dim-inutive, woman was Madame Curie,a personage who not unfrequently

gave the impression of having been perman-ently saddened in her life. Yet, within a fewshort years, her towering scientific abilitytook her to the front ranks of the world'sscientists and resulted in her name becomingalmost a " household word " among theeveryday rank -and -file of scientific workers.Madame Curie was one of the very first offemale scientists. Others, nowadays, followin her footsteps, but none of them has everapproached her pinnacle of fame.

Madame Curie, although she brought therevolutionary knowledge of radium and ofradioactivity generally to the world, despite,indeed, the benefactions which her pioneeringand indisputably brilliant work conferredupon science in general, and upon chemicaland physical science in particular, lived a hardand at times a drear life.

Madame Curie was a Pole. She was bornin Warsaw'n 1867, her unmarried name beingMarie Sklodowska. Her father was a poor,underpaid, hard-working teacher, and afterreceiving a high-school education in hernative town, she immediately began to givelessons herself as a means of eking out thescanty exchequer of her family.

Arrival in ParisIn 1895, after having displayed a rather

dangerous interest in Polish political affairs,she decided to join her sister and her brother-in-law in Paris. In that city she began tostudy mathematics, physics and chemistry inreal earnest. Her 'life at that period wasnothing if not frugal. Listen to what MarieSklodowska herself has to say about it

" The room in which I lived was agarret, Very cold in winter, for itwas insufficiently heated by. a smallstove which lacked coal. During aparticularly rigorous winter it wasnot unusual for the water to freezein the basin at night. To be ableto sleep I was obliged to pile allmy clothes on the bed -covers. Inthe same room I prepared my mealswith a -spirit lamp and a few kitchenutensils. These meals were fre-quently reduced to bread with acup of chocolate. I had no help inhousekeeping, and I myself carriedthe little coal I used up the sixflights of stairs to my room."Yet Marie Sklodowska somehow

managed to keep cheerful throughoutthis drab existence. In 1893 sheobtained her degree in physical science,and, in the following year, in mathe-matical science.

It was in 1894 that Pierre Curiefirst came into the picture.. He was apoor scientist, a teacher, yet, likeMarie, he had a brain which he had,kept well out of the scientific rut ofthe day. The acquaintance betweenthe two deepened. Each admired theother's ability. In the July of 1894,Pierre and Marie married, the latterthereby becoming the now world-famous Madame Curie.

Fame, however, had not come to theCuries at that stage of their existence.Pierre Curie was a teacher of physicsin the City of Paris School, and Marieassisted him in his laboratory. In thisoccupation she received ample dis-couragement. The presence of women

in the colleges and universities was, if any-thing, definitely frowned upon by theacademic authorities of the period.,

Madame Marie Curie.Radioactivity

Fortunately Pierre Curie lived to changehis views, for, although his name is coupledwith that of his wife in their subsequentinvestigation of the mysteries of radium andradioactivity, it was undoubtedly MadameCurie herself who displayed the greater genius

Typical apparatus for the extraction .of " eManatimfrom radium salts and compounds.

i"

in the discovery of radium, and the greaterinsight and perception in her subsequentinvestigations of the many strange andremarkable properties of this new element.

Radium constitutes one of the landmarksof chemical science. Its discovery introduceda new epoch into chemistry and into physicsalike, for, by investigating radium and theextraordinary phenomena of radioactivity, itbecame possible to penetrate still deeper intothat fundamental mystery, that of the exactconstitution or make-up of the atoms ofmatter.

The history of radium, begins in 1895, theyear following the marriage of Pierre Curieand Marie Sklodowska. A French chemist,Henri Becquerel by name, fired to a pitch ofenthusiasm by Professor Rontgen's thenrecent announcement of his strangelypenetrating ray (which, for the want of abetter term, and to signify their unknownconstitution, he dubbed X-rays "), drewattention to the fact that the compounds ofuranium also evolved mysterious rays whichwere capable of affecting a photographic plate.The Curies were particularly interested in thematter, and they decided to take up Becquerel'sline of investigation, and to search for othetray -evolving compounds. Madame Curieherself, performed most of the work, for hexhusband was more absorbed in his ownresearches in physics.

Madame Curie took advantage of thefacts that the " Becquerel rays " evolved byuranium compounds have the property ofionising or rendering electrically conductiblethe air in their vicinity. She therefore deviseda special type of gold -leaf electroscope withwhich she was able to obtain an approximateestimate of the actual intensity of the rays.

She proved that heat and light had noeffect whatever on these rays and thattheir intensity was solely dependentupon the quantity of metallic uraniumpresent in the compound under review.

Thorium RaysShe next examined other elements

to see whether they exhibited thisstrange phenomenon. Only one otherelement, however, was found to evolvesimilar rays, and that element wasthorium. Here again, Madame Curiefound that the thorium rays weredependent for their intensity solelyupon the actual quantity of metallicthorium present in the compounds.

The emission of tangible " rays "by uranium and thorium compoundswas an entirely new phenomenon.Madame Curie searched around fora suitable term to describe the neweffect. She coined the word " radio-activity " for this purpose, a termwhich, of course, has, for many years,become universally recognised andused. It should be noted, however,that the expression " radioactivity"was invented by Madame Curie beforeshe had any real conception of theexistence and nature of the elementradium.

The next step which Madame Curietook in her search for more intensesources of the mysterious Becquerelrays was to investigate certain mineralscontaining uranium and thorium. Shediscovered that all such mineralsevinced a greater ray -emitting powerthan did pure thorium or uraniumcompounds themselves.

" I then Made the hypothesis," wrote


Madame Curie, in after years, " that the oresof uranium and thorium contain in smallquantity a substance more strongly radio-active than either uranium or thorium. Thissubstance could not be one of the knownelements, because these had already beenexamined ; it must, therefore be a newchemical element. I had a passionate desireto verify this hypothesis as rapidly as possible.And Pierre Curie, keenly interested in thequestion, abandoned his work on crystals tojoin me in the search for this unknownsubstance."

PitchbleneThe Curies selected pitchblende as the

mineral most likely to contain appreciableamounts of the new element, since this orewas at least four times more radioactive thanuranium itself.

Then followed a programme of intensivechemical extractive work by the two Curies,husband and wife.

" We passed our days in the laboratory,"records Madame Curie, " often eating asimple student's lunch there. A greattranquillity reigned in our poor, 'shabbyapartment. Occasionally, while observing anoperation, we would walk up and down,talking of our work, present and future.When we" were cold, a cup of hot tea, drunkbeside the stove, cheered us. We lived in apreoccupation as Complete as that of a dream."

Discovery of "Polonium" and "Radium"The chemical process of decomposing the

uranium ore (pitchblende) and of separatingit into various portions or " fractions," eachone of which was separately tested for its ray -emitting powers by means of the Curieelectroscope, was a tedious one in the extreme.Thousands of separate operations wererequired. Eventually, however, the Curieswere able to show that there actually didexist in pitchblende an unknown elementwhich was many times more powerful as aray -producer than either uranium or thorium.This element Madame Curie discovered inJuly, 1898. She called it " polonium " inhonour of her native country.

In the December of the same year, MadameCurie announced the existence of anotherelement in pitchblende. This she happilynamed " radium " (from the Latin, radius," a ray ") in view of its extraordinary ray -emitting power.

At this stage, the work of the two Curiesseemed likely to finish prematurely, for theirscanty stock of pitchblende ran out, andthey did not possess the financial means toacquire more of the valuable ore. Thewhole of the supplies of pitchblende of thatperiod came from a mine at Joachimsthal, inBohemia, which was owned by the AustrianGovernment, which worked it for the extrac-tion of uranium. Through the good offices ofthe Vienna Academy of Sciences, the AustrianGovernment sold a few tons of their pitch,blende ore to the Curies, who provided aproportion of the purchase price of thematerial themselves-the remainder of theamount being subscribed by several interestedbodies in Paris.

For two whole years, the Curies workedincessantly upon their stock of Austrianpitchblende, concentrating it and graduallyextracting from it the precious elements,polonium and radium. The ap,artment inwhich all this work was carried out was a dis-used storeroom in one of the Paris colleges,the scientific equipment of which was practi-cally non-existent.

Success, however-and, frequently, bril-liant success-has a habit of supervening uponwork carried out under great difficulties. Thecase of the Curies proved to be no exceptionto this well -recognised rule. Eventually, theirlong months of tedious and super -exactingtabour resulted in their gathering together a

few grains of a radium salt in a chemicallypure state. This they began to study without

. delay.

Radium SaltsThere was no doubt that Madame Curie's

new element, " radium," constituted a mostremarkable entity. Even its salts were more

A quantity of radium bromide contained in asilica basin. This photograph was taken bymeans of the luminescence emitted by the radium

salt.

than a million times more radioactive thanthe salts of uranium. One ton of pitchblendewas, shown to contain substantially less thanhalf a gram of radium (about o.37 gram, to beexact). From this figure, the amount ofchemical processing and extracting carriedout by the two Curies during their pioneerwork on their few tons of Austrian pitch-

, blende can be imagined. Superhuman effortswere, indeed, required of them, endeavourswhich only scientific ardour and enthusiasmof the very highest and keenest order couldever hope to bring to asuccessful conclusion.

After the sensationaldiscOvery of radiumby the . Curies, thewhole of the scientificworld became, as itwere, " radium crazy."Radium salts " andtheir properties wereminutely examined bythe Curies and bynumerous other in-vestigators. It wasshown that, uninflu-enced by any externalinfluences, a fragmentof radium salt steadilyevolved three types ofrays : the alpha rays,which were found -tocomprise positivelycharged helium ions ;the beta rays, whichare electron streamsshot out from theradium atoms, and the gamma rays, whichare very much akin to X-rays.

Furthermore, it was quickly noticed thatradium salts and compounds, besides beingperpetually luminous, spontaneously evolveheat, so much so that a quantity of radiumsalt is always a little warmer than its im- ,mediate surroundings. Measuring this evolvedheat, it was found that, a quantity of radiumsalt evolves during half an hour sufficientheat to melt its own weight of ice.

One by one the many mysteries of radiumand of radioactivity were mastered. It becameobvious that, in radium, we are confrontedwith an element which is, actually under-

going violent decomposition under our owneyes. A radium atom is virtually an explodingatom. The alpha, beta and gamma rays whichit hurls out from itself are the atomic " flak "of its explosive disintegration.

Pierre Curie happened to spill a little of theprecious radium salt on to his hand. Itproduced a burn which took many monthsto heal. And Henri Becquerel, parent ofthe " Becquerel rays " emitted from uraniumsalts, carried about in his waistcoat, pocket atiny tube of radium bromide which hadbeen given to him by Madame Curie.- Theradium rays burned a hole clean into hi& skin,and it was a long time before the woundhealed completely.., Looking at this fragmentof radium salt in after years, Becquerel waswont to exclaim : " I love it, but I owe it agrudge ! "

Honours now began to fly fast to MadameCitric and her husband. The scientificinstitutions of the 'world competed with oneanother in showering their most covetedawards upon the Curies. Even the parsi-monious French Government asked the Curieswhat official decorations they would like tohave. To which Madame Curie replied :" I pray to thank the Minister and to informhim that I do not in the least feel the need ofa decoration, but I do feel the greatest needfor a laboratory ! "

Personal SorrowAt the height of her scientific triumphs

a great personal sorrow suddenly descendedupon Madame Curie. On April 19th, 1906,her husband, Pierre Curie, was knocked downby a motor vehicle and killed instantly.

Courageously, his widow refused to aban-don her scientific work. Despite the fact thatshe was left with two small children tobring up and to educate, she struggled bravelyon, attending to both- her family and herscientific duties. But she was not alone inher efforts. A special laboratory (known asthe Curie Institute) was built and equippedfor her in Paris, and here she continued to workalmost daily until her death in- 1934. Her

Heavily lead -lined processing booths in a radium factory: In theseisolated apartments radium salts are progressively concentrated by

chemical means.

scientific work she gave freely to theworld, and, in return, the world, or, rather,the scientific world of Paris, just managed tomaintain her in frugal comfort to the end ofher days.

As she grew older, Madame Curie, stillharbouring the sadness consequent upon' theearly death of her husband, became em-bittered. Radium, for her, brought littlematerial rewards, although others prosperedexceedingly out of it.

Marie Curie died a disappointed woman,despite the fact that through her discoverya new era of chemical and of physicalscience was entered into.


FiltrationMetafilters-Their Uses in Various Industries

Fig. 3. T.8 Portable Metafilter Unit. Can deal with 8o, too g.p.h. of trans-former or carbonised switch oil. Oil is completely clarified and maximum

B.D.V. obtained with one passage through the filter.

FILTRATION is of interest, in varyingdegrees, to every trade. Chemicalmanufacturers, engineers, oil com-

panies, laboratories, electric supply corn-panies, brewers, and hospitals are a few of theconcerns which have their filtration problems.Water filtration is another example of wideapplication, as clean and pure water is anecessity in many and diverse circumstances.Mineral -water makers, chemists, dairies,hotels, domestic users-all these immediatelycome to mind as requiring pure water.

Varnish, insulating andlubricating oil must befiltered before it is readyfor use.

Various forms of filtershave been in use forcenturies, but the simpleand efficient filtersmanufactured by TheMetafiltration Company,of Hounslow, Middlesex,are the product of manyyears of chemicalresearch.

Renewable Bed FiltersOne of the earlier

models of the Metafilteris known as the RingType, in which the filter -bed is held on an im-movable foundation, butis easily thrown off forreforming. The rings(Fig. r) are not morethan rin. diameter, andare of great mechanicalstrength. There areabout 3o rings to eachinch of length, eac hring having an internal

Fig. r, A filter unitconsisting of a packof rings built up on acentral drainage rod.

and external dia-meter of I in. and

in. respectively.It is necessarythat there shouldbe a regularchannel betweeneach ring, andthese channels areobtained by form-ing a numberof embossings oneach side ofalternate rings. Acolumn or pack ofrings built up inthis manner on acentral drainagerod or tube maybe a filter whencovered withfilter-bed and fitted in asuitable container;or may be one pfa number, eachof a predeterminedlength, mountedon a drainagemanifold, and con-tained in the filterbody (Fig. 2), for-ming a larger filter.

Filter BedsT h e materials

forming the filter -bed s in a Meta -

filter are selected with great care to ensurethat the best results are obtained. A largevariety of materials is available, includingpowdered charcoal, Kieselguhr, decolorisingcarbon, magnesium carbonate and silica.There is also a specially selected filter -bedknown as Metasil, of which there is a gradefor every class of filtration undertaken.

Filter -bed FormationThe formation of a filter -bed on the Metafil.

ter strip frame or ring packs is simple and fool-proof. A suitable material is mixed with theliquid to be filtered, the already filtered liquid,or other liquid, such as water, oil, or solvent,as circumstances permit. It is necessary tokeep the filter -bed in suspension and pass itthrough the Metafilter units, by pressure orunder vacuum. As the liquid and suspendedfilter -bed endeavour to pass through theaccurate spacings between the rings orstrips, the suspension is evenly strained out,and leaves a perfectly even bed over thesurface of the strong retaining structure.If the liquid used is different from the prefilt,it may be drained from the filter body, leavingthe filter -bed securely held in position andintact, and it is only necessary to commenceforcing the liquid to be filtered through thebed. Where the bed has been formed with theprefilt the operation of filtering is straight-forward and the run need not be stopped untilthe bed is completely choked.

The filter -bed will withstand very highpressure, but normally it is economical to forma new bed when the pressure required to passliquid through reaches 100-rso lb./sq. in.,but this may be modified in specialcircumstances.

Filtration of OilsThe regular periodic filtration of trans-

former and switch oils is necessary in order to

eliminate water, and to maintain their correctacid value.

Transformer oil contaminated with mois-ture, dust, sludge, and microscopic fibres iscommon. The oil must be relieved of theseimpurities to retain its high electric strength.Moisture alone has little effect on the break-down voltage of an oil, but in conjunctionwith other impurities-especially if hygro-scopic-it reduces the electric strength ofthe oil to a low and unsafe figure.

Switch oils may have the same character-istics as transformer oils and the impuritiescollected in them may be practically the sameas in transformer oils, except for one importantfactor-the effect of continuous circuit break-ing and the opening of switches on heavyoverloads. In this case, and particularly withoverload operation, some portion of the oil iscracked-leaving the oil in the chamber Con-taminated with carbon and metal particles.The carbon is very finely divided and part ofit is in the colloidal state. This impurity is ofsuch a character that it is difficult to removeby ordinary methods, but ;t is essential tomaintain the oil entirely free from suspendedimpurities. Centrifuges, filter presses, paperfilters, and chemical methods all have dis-advantages, but the Metafilter Can restore theoil to its original condition in a single, simplefiltration.

Metafilters are built having a wide range ofoutput -:.-from io gallons per hour to 1,066gallons per hour. The smaller sizes, WhichCin be portable, are

Thesuitable for faefOries

or sib -stations ; the larger units are designedspecially for power stations or sub-slations

latai tot tan 4.1., mg mi. flto

7; 1Ir.

Fig. 2, Part section of a Metafiltershowing internal construction. Note the

long filter packs in the top chamber.

May, 1942 NEWNES PRACTICAL MECHANICS 245 -

with heavy transformer and switch gearrequiring filtration plant capable of dealingwith large quantities of oil.

Constructional DetailsIn Fig. 3 is shown a portable unit for dealing

with transformer, or carbonised switch oil.The general construction of the unit is asfollows :-

A cylindrical upright mild steel containeris divided, by a sloping plate, into the filterchamber above, and the mixing chamberbelow. The filter chamber is providedwith a quick -opening sludge door for filter -bed and sludge removal. In the filter body ismounted the requisite area of filter pack togive the desired output. The filter packs areconstructed in brass and the filtered oil is

NEW SERIES

IN most small houses there, are severalsimple plumbing jobs which can easilybe carried out by the householder, such

as remedying faults in cisterns, renewingtap washers, repairing ball valves, and clearingsink traps.

Adjusting a Ball ValveWhen water persistently drips from the

overflow pipe of a flushing tank or watercistern (Fig. i) it indicates that the ballvalve has failed to cut off the water when it

Overflow

WaferLevel

Ball Float

delivered through a mild steel division plateat the top of the filter into a mild steel headerwhich is equipped with a sight glass anddelivery pipe with sampling tap. The mixingchamber is provided with a Metasil intro-duction port and measuring scoop and hashanc1.71)perated mixing gear. A silent pumpis supplied driven by an electric motor.

A water separator is also fitted, and this isseen on the left, in Fig. 3. This separatoris arranged to be on the suction side of thepump to prevent emulsification of water withoil and thus facilitate settling in the separator.Final dehydration of the oil is ensured by theabsorptive qualities of the special filter -bed.As filtration proceeds, and removed impuritiesaccumulate on the filter -bed, the pressure willrise ; when this has reached a desirable

maximum (too lb./sq. in.) the filter -bedshould be discarded, the filter cleaned, anda new bed deposited, if necessary. Theremoval of a filter -bed and extracted impuritiestakes a few minutes only. The filter is simplybackflushed with a small quantity of clean oil,the filter -bed with collected impurities fallingto the sloping base of the filter chamber andbeing discharged froth the sludge door.

Low Running CostsThe cost of filtration is very low. The

only power required is the small motor fordriving the pressure pump, which forces theoil through the filter. The cost of the filteringmaterial Metasil is only a fraction of a pennyper gallon, even when dealing with heavilycarbonised oil.

Odd Jobs in House and Garden2.-Ad usting Ball Valves, Renewing Tap Washers,- and Cleaning Sink Traps

By " HANDYMAN "

and preventing the tank from filling to itscorrect capacity. In this case it is necessaryto slightly bend the ball lever upwards.

Leaky Ball FloatThe bzill float is made of thin spun copper

and a small pin -hole is sufficient to allowwater to enter which has the effect of counter-acting the buoyancy of the float and renderingit useless. This fault is usually indicated whenthe ball is noticed very low in the water,as when in good condition it 'floats well above

the water level. To makegood the leak, remove theball and arm, and slightlyenlarge the hole with thetang of a small file to drainall the water out. Place theball arm in a vice, as inFig. 3, and after cleaningwith fine emery cloth,apply a little flux and run aspot of solder on the holeto seal it.

If the repair is water-tight, the ball when replacedin the tank' should float inits correct position above thewater level, and not below it.

Inlet

Syphon

Fig. i.-Sectional view of a flushing cistern showingball -float and syphon.

reaches the correct high level. This may bedue to a faulty washer, or the arm of the ballvalve may require bending down so that thewater supply will be cut off earlier.

The first thing to do is to .turn off the watersupply to the tank, and remove the cover.Take out the split pin at the hinge end of theball arm, which can then be lifted out. Asimple method of bending the arm is to putone end in a dresser drawer, opened about3in.' as shown in -Fig. 2. Do not press onthe ball, but hold the arm as shown in thediagram, and carefully press downwards.After slightly bending the arm, replace it inthe tank and turn the water on. If it stilldoes not shut off the water soon enough, takeit out again and repeat the bending operation.

Insufficient flush of water indicates that theball valve is shutting off the water too soon,

Fitting a New WasherWhen a valve in a flush-

ing tank or water cisternfails to shut off the waterproperly when the ball floatis in its highest position,a faulty washer is indicated.The replacing of this is avery simple matter. Turnoff the water supply, as

before, remove the ball arm, and withdrawthe plunger. Fig. 4 shows a section ofa cistern valve with the plunger A in

Fig. 2.-A simple dodge forbending the arm of a ball -float.

position. Remove the old washer from thesocket in one end of the plunger, and press in

new one. These small washers are of hardred rubber, and a obtainable at any iron-monger's shop. Alter replacing the ball armand pushing in the split pin which holds it inposition, the water should shut off properlywhen it reaches the correct level. Whenfinally inserted in place, the ends of thesplit pin should be slightly opened out witha screw -driver to prevent the pin working out.All the moving parts should be well greasedbefore being replaced.

Renewing Tap WashersReplacing a faulty tap washer only takes

a few minutes, provided that a spanner of thecorrect size, or an adjustable one, is at hand.

Fig. 3.-A leaky ball -float canbe repaired by applying a spot

of solder.In the case of a tap with a domed top, apair of pipe grips will be necessary.

After turning off the water, Unscrew thenut A (Fig. 5) with a spanner, and removethe top half of the tap with the handle andscrewed spindle B. Pull out the " jumper "C, and remove the worn washer by unscrewingthe small nut which holds it in place. Slip ona new washer, tighten up the small nut, andafter replacing the " jumper," turn the taphandle to full open position, and screw on thetop part of the tap again, fairly tightly. Turnon the water supply, and then turn the tap" off" slowly. After the tap is completelyshut down there should then be no sign ofleakage. The washers are obtainable witha central hole ready for fixing. Brass" jumpers "complete with a thick hard rubberwasher, as shown at D, are also obtainable.Sink Traps

The purpose of sink traps is to preventbad -smelling gases from coming up the waste


Fig. 4.-Detalls of a cistern valve with plungerand washer in position.

pipes into the house. There are many formsof trap, but the principle of all of them is thesame. A small part of the waste water remainsin the trap, as shown in Fig. 6, thus sealingthe waste -pipe and preventing any bad odoursfrom entering the house. It is important thatthese traps should be periodically cleaned, asthey are liable to become coated with greaseand other substances. A good method ofcleaning the trap is to dissolve r lb. of washingsoda in a quart of boiling water, and pour ththot solution down the waste pipe. Allow thesolution to remain in the trap all night, andflush out with water the next morning. Un-screw the plug which is just below the bend,and scour the inside of the trap with a smallwire brush. Replace the plug, and fill thetrap again by turning on the water tap.Rainwater Gullies

In addition to the traps connected withthe ordinary sanitary fittings of a house, therainwater pipes outside the house dischargeover gullies which are also connected to thedrainage system. Gullies are also providedto carry off the waste water from baths; andthese gullies are trapped in the usual way,and are liable to become unsealed, owing toevaporation, during long spells of dryweather, especially in the summer months.To remedy this, water should be poureddown the gullies occasionally. The grids

covering the gullies should periodically, becleared of dead leaves and other refuse whichcollects on them. If they are left too longwithout attention the rainwater cannotdrain away quickly enough, and will overflow,

Fig. 5.-Sketch of a domestic water tap showingworking parts.

thus causing the brickwork of the house atthat particular spot to become damp.

Cleaning CisternsWater from a cistern in the loft of a house

is sometimes used for filling saucepans orkettles, as the subsequent boiling sterilisesthe water. It should always be borne inmind, however, that dirty sediment forms inthe bottom of such cisterns unless they arecleaned out at regular intervals.

Items ofFast Piston BuffingA NEW automatic polishing machine fot

buffing an aluminium aero engine pistonin rs seconds, instead of the usual so minutestaken by hand, is announced by the UdyliteCorporation, Detroit. It consists essentiallyof a circular index table fitted with twelvechucks for holding the pistons. The tablerevolves and a piston is brought opposite theappropriate buff, which is fitted at such anangle as to buff either the top of the piston orthe side, the latter being revolved slowly asthe table turns. There are six buffing pedestals,the wheels being operated from V -beltdrives.

To Fortify FootballsTN one respect a football resembles a bicycle

tyre ; it has an inner rubber ball and anouter case. The victim of innumerable kicks,the cover requires to be sufficiently strong toresist the rough treatment it receives. Wehave Seen a football kicked over a fence on tothe road, where a brewer's dray has passed overit. There occurred a report resembling afeeble imitation of an exploding bomb. It istherefore essential that the outer cover shouldbe fortified against perpetually " getting theboot."

To attain this end there has recently beendesigned a football casing specially qualified toresist rough usage, and it is the subject of anapplication for a patent in this country. Thecasing -consists of at least 13 sections, themajority of which are tee -shaped. When sewntogether they are arranged to form zig-zagseams.

It is a good plan to clean out a roof cisternat least once a year. Turn off the water at themain, then open one or two taps and emptythe cistern in the usual way. Before disturbingthe sediment plug the pipe -holes with tight-fitting corks, and then remove the sedimentand any remaining water in a pail. After thisuse a heavy cloth and a pail of clean water forswabbing down the inside of the cistern.Finally, remove the corks, and give thecistern a good flushing down with a couple ofpails of clean water, before turning on thewater supply again. Another important pointto remember is that a loft cistern shouldalways be fitted with a cover of wood, or othermaterial.

Noisy FillingSome cisterns fed direct from the water

main are ,often under such pressure that therushing water can be heard all over thehouse when the cistern is filling. A simpleremedy is to always keep the supply tap inthe kitchenonly half turn-ed on. Failingthis, anothergood plan is tofit a length ofpipe on to theoutlet of thecistern valve.The pipeshould be suffi-ciently long toreach to withina couple ofinches of thebottom of thetank, where theend is sooncovered withwater, hnd therushing soundconseque n t 1 yreduced.

*AV'

J-3,1

--"}1 To PlugPrain

Fig. 6.-Section of a sinktrap showing the water seal.

InterestHay LifterFOR many centuries the

pitchfork, with itstwin prongs and long ashhandle polished by the toilof the farm labourer, wasthe sole implement forlifting hay on to the farmer'scart and rick. In timesof rebellion it was occasion-ally diverted from itspeaceful avocation to becommandeered as a weaponin civil war. Eventually itwas superseded by themechanical elevator, whichfacilitated and expeditedthe lifting of the hay. Aninventor now contends thathe has improved upon thiscontrivance.

The new invention com-bines a framework withground wheels, an endlessconveyor furnished withtines and carried to pul-leys, and an inclined troughalong which hay can bemoved by the tines fromthe ground to a dischargeposition. There is a blowerwhich delivers a blast ofair under the bay for en-gaging it with the tines.And means are providedfor driving the blower andconveyor.

WaterSeal

A.T.S. girls, training for radio work in the West of England,are here seen starting up a Diesel generating plant which sup-

plies current for the radio apparatus.


MASTERS OF MECHANICSNo. 74.-The Brothers Montgolfier and the Beginnings -of Ballooning

THERE lived in Italy towards the end ofthe 17th century a Jesuit missionary,Francis de Lana by name, who was

keenly interested in the possibilities of humanflight.

A stone drops to the ground, reasonedde Lana, because it is decidedly heavier than.air. Obviously, therefore, anything which islighter than air must tend to rise in the air.Hence, if you could contrive a number ofvessels containing something lighter thanair and attach these to a light structure, itought to be possible to get the latter to ascendinto the atmosphere.

De Lana's "Flying Machine "What, however, would be lighter than air ?

De Lana considered that a vacuum (since itwas devoid of air) would necessarily belighter than anything else obtainable. Conse-quently, he drew up a plan for making avessel to sail in the air. The projected aircraftwas to comprise a sort of light sailing -boathaving three or four thin copper globesexhausted of air. This, in the main, wasde Lana's flying machine.

But de Lana himself- was aware that hisairship proposition was full of snags, andeventually he indulged in some remarkablepredictive philosophy concerning artificialflight in general.

After his death few, if any, serious projectswere put forward for the construction of flyingmachines for at least a century.

We now come to another clergyman, theRev. Joseph an Englishman thistime, who in, the i8th century made a namefor himself as a chemical pioneer. He was asort of reactionary, in that he sided with theFrench Revolutionists, which in those dayswas about as bad as siding with Hitler. ,Conse-quently, for. such opinions Priestley hadeventually to emigrate to America and to endhis days there.

Among the several brilliant discoverieswhich Priestley made was that of oxygen,the vital gas of life. This energetic clergymanand experimenter wrote several scientifictreatises, one of which was entitled " On theVarious Kinds of Air." This became afamous book and was translated widely, oneof its translations being into French.

It was this French translation of Priestley'streatise on Air and Gases which happened,about 1782, to fall into the hands of Josephand Etienne Montgolfier, sons of PierreMontgolfier, a rich paper manufacturer ofVidalon-lez-Annonay, in the French Depart-ment of Ardeche. The brothers were activelyengaged in the paper -making business.Joseph was the elder of the two, having beenborn in 1740, five years before the birth ofEtienne.

Both the Montgolfier brothers were vitallyinterested in physics and mechanics, forboth these branches of science were constantlycropping up in their family trade of paper -making. Joseph, in particular, was impressedby the Rev. Joseph Priestley's book on thedifferent kinds of " air." He was especiallyinterested in Priestley's observation that itwas possible to make a gas (afterwards called

hydrogen ") which was the lightest thingknown, being only 114th as heavy as air.

The Montgolfiers' ExperimentsA year or two previously, the two Mont-

golfiers had amused themselves by variousconjectures concerning the practical' possi-bility of flying. They had tried to makeclouds-by means of steam-and to enclose

these in large paper bags, but naturally,owing to the condensation of the steam, suchendeavours were hopeless failures.

Then Joseph -Montgolfier conceived theidea of generating some hydrogen and ofsealing it up in a bag. The brothers generatedthe hydrogen by the action of vitriol (sul-phuric acid) on iron filings, but somehow orother the experiment was not successful.The hydrogen -filled balloon failed to rise inthe air. In all probability the little paperballoon was only half filled with very impure

Portrait of the brothers Montgomer reproducedfrom a contemporary medallion -plaque.

hydrogen gas, the experiment being done ina very rough and haphazard manner, whichwas really a pity, for it robbed the ingeniousbrothers of the chance of making themselvesthe joint inventors of the gas balloon, whicheven to -day has its many important and,indeed, vital uses.

The Montgolfier brothers, however, werenot the people to lament over small failures.Joseph-who was always the more active of

The "flying machine" suggested by Francis deLana about 1670. It was to be supportedthe air by means of four vacuous copper spheres.

the two-had. another brain -wave shortlyafter. It occurred to him that smoke risesand that if he could seal smoke within acanvas bag, the bag itself might be caused torise. The brothers, therefore, acting at once,constructed a spherical balloon out of taffeta,and when it was finished to their satisfactionthey filled it with smoke generated by theslow burning of sheep's wool and dampstraw.

This time, the experiment was quitesuccessful. The balloon (and other subse-quent ones which they made) rose gracefullyto the ceiling of their room and remainedthere for some time.

The Montgolfiers were at a loss to accountfor the rise of their balloons. Electricity

' was coming into scientific fashion at thatperiod, and for this reason the enterprisingbrothers may, perhaps, be excused foralluding to the " electric smoke " whichheld up their balloons. For a long time,however, they failed to realise the fact thatit was not any " electricity " of smoke whichwas the cause of their balloons' ascents, butsimply the relative lightness of heated air.

The initial Montgolfier balloons succeededjust as well in the open air as they did indoors.They even got a balloon to rise to a height ofabout 3ooft.

First Public DisplayThe Montgolfier brothers then decided that

they must have a public display of theirballoons. Their first " entertainment " washeld in the Montgolfiers' native village ofAnnonay, on June 5th, 1783. A large,paper -lined sack was, in the presence of aconsiderable number of people, held, bymeans of a frame, over a fire in which wooland straw were allowed to smoulder.

Gradually, the sack was filled with heatedair and as it became distended it slowlyswelled into the shape of a globe. As theproceedings progressed it took more andmore men to hold the balloon down, andwhen, eventually, the smoke -filled spherewas released, it shot up instantly in the airto a height of several thousand metres, so thatit eventually appeared little more than a tinyfloating speck in the sky. After a short careerin the clouds, the balloon gracefully descendedand landed a mile or two away from theplace of its ascent.

So far as history records, this " entertain-ment " of June '5th, 1783, is the first authen-ticated instance of a balloon ascent. Theactivities of the two Montgolfiers rapidlybecame noised about, and the news concern-ing them quickly reached Paris. That citybecame agog with excitement and the Pari-sians demanded a balloon exhibition of theirown. Before long, they were treated to such ademonstration by Professor Cesar AlexandreCharles, of the French Academy of Sciences,who used a hydrogen -filled balloon whichascended successfully and spectacularly inthe presence of many interested and enthu-siastic spectators.

Charles, being a professional scientific man,had succeeded in filling a balloonwith hydro-gen, whereas the Montgolfier brothers, mereamateurs in science and mechanics, hadstrangely failed in that task.

The fame of the Montgolfiers, however,quickly spread, despite the progress of thecompeting Professor Charles. Etienne wassummoned to Paris to give lectures beforethe French Academy of Sciences, whilstJoseph stayed at home and built a largerhot-air balloon, which was 72ft. high, gift.


in diameter and weighed aboutr,000 lb.The exterior of this balloon (as afterwardsbecame the general rule) was very finelydecorated with brilliantly -coloured designsand emblems.

Balloon Ascent with LoadIt was taken to Paris and, on September

12th, 1783, it was exhibited before themembers of the French Academy of Sciences.Loaded to the extent of between 40o and 500lb., the balloon ascended easily, althoughin its descent it was damaged.

The ascent of the balloon with a con-siderable load attached to it was indicativeof the fact that balloons of this type werecapable of taking human cargo with them intothe air.

The Montgolfier brothers, however, heldback from being the first human beings toascend into the air. Perhaps the possibilityof some unexpected failure in their " aero-static machine," as they termed it, was thereason for their lack of daring in this respect.Instead, therefore, of going up into the airthemselves, they decided, first of all, to adoptthe principle of " trying it on the dog."

The balloon ascents in Paris had interestedthe French Royalty in this new branch ofscience. The Montgolfier brothers weresummoned to Versailles to give a demonstra-tion before the King and Queen of Franceand the members of their Court. This timethe brothers placed " on board " a duck, acock and a sheep. The balloon ascent wasperfectly satisfactory and all the animalslanded safely and unharmed in a countryfield about two miles away.

It was now obvious to all that if anyprogress was going to be made in the techniqueof ballooning, somebody must volunteer torisk their lives in an ascent in a balloon.

It was not long before volunteers for aballoon ascent presented themselves, andthe first human being to ascend into the airby means of a balldon was a young French-man, Francois Pilatre de Rozier by name.This individual made several 3ooft. ascentsin captive balloons in order to satisfy him-self as to the general buoyancy of the balloon.

First Balloon PassengersIn his first " free " flight, de Rozier took

with him another enthusiast, the Marquisd'Arlandes. For this purpose the Mont-golfiers built a special balloon. It was 74ft.high and 48ft. in diameter. The bottom open-ing of the balloon (through which the heated airfrom the fire rose into it) was i5ft. across,and this opening was surrounded by a gallery,made of light wickerwork. A brazier wa,ssuspended below the balloon by means ofwrought -iron chains. Into this it was theduty of the balloohist to throw fuel from timeto time, for the Montgolfiers had now realisedthat, in order to keep their balloon in the airfor any length of time, the supply of hot airmust be maintained.

It was on November 21st, 1783, that thehistoric balloon ascent took place. Thebrothers Montgolfier had found ways andmeans of dissolving rubber and of impregnat-ing their balloon fabric with it, therebyimparting a greater degree of impermeabilityto the fabric. The balloon ascent wasperfectly successful, and even, it would seem,enjoyable, to the world's first airmen, theMarquis d'Arlandes and Pilatre de Rozier.Afterwards the Marquis d'Arlandes gave abrief account of this aerial trip :

" Our departure was at fifty-four minutespast one, and occasioned little stir among thespectators. Thinking that they might befrightened and stand in need of encouragement,I waved my arm. M. de Rozier cried, Youare doing nothing, and we are not rising.' Istirred the fire and then began to scan the river,but Pilcitre cried again, See the river. Weare dropping into it ! ' We again urged the

fire, but we still clung to the river. PresentlyI hear a noise in the upper part of the balloon,which gave a shock as though it had burst. Theballoon by now had many holes burnt in it, andI cried out that we must descend. My com-panion, however, explained that we were overParis and must now cross it. Therefore,

- '

11111111111111114v,

The Montgolfier fire -balloon used by theMarquis d'Arlandes in 1784. (From a con-

temporary print.)

raising the ,fire once more, we turned southtill we passed the Luxembourg, when, raking outthe flame, the balloon came down spent andempty."

A Giant BalloonThe prosperous silk town of Lyons was the

next to catch the ballooning craze. Thetown authorities collected funds for theacquisition of a large Montgolfier balloon.Even Montgolfier senior, parent of Josephand Etienne, was called into the project, and

The ascent of Joseph Montgolfier in a fireballoon from Lyons, on January 19th, 1784.

(From a co:rimporary print.)

eventually the Montgolfiers produced anenormous balloon having a capacity of abouthalf a million cubic feet. On January 19th,1784, this balloon ascended with sevenpassengers on board. Actually the monsterwas capable of lifting about 18 tons deadweight. It ascended to about 3,000ft., andat that height the fabric developed a largerent. Fortunately, the envelope managed tohold together, but the occupants of theballoon were given an ultra -rapid descent.

As the science of ballooning extended, thereevolved a technique of balloon constructionand also one of balloon manipulation. Thebrothers Montgolfier concentrated all theirattention on the construction and improvingof their fire -balloons, leaving others to attendto the actual technique of aerial voyaging.

That the Montgolfier brothers were emi-nently successful there is little doubt. Theywere granted free Letters Patent by theFrench king. Honours were showered uponthem from all over the world. Even Napoleonappointed them to various official offices.They wrote a few technical works on thetheory and construction of balloons. " LesVoyageurs Aeriens," published in 1784, wasthe best known of these.

Despite the greater convenience, to saynothing of the greater safety, of the hydrogenballoon, initiated by Professor Charles, thevogue of the fire -balloon ----dubbed for manyyears the " Montgolfier "-persisted.Record Flights

Many record flights were made with" Montgolfiers " of varying types, and it was,indeed, for the most part these crude fire -balloons which performed the pioneer workof exploring the earth's atmosphere.

Ultimately, of course, the Montgolfierfire -balloons became completely obsolete, butsuch a state of affairs did not set in beforethe fire -balloons had, despite their almostalarming insecurity and hazards, done muchto initiate " air -mindedness " among manynations of the world.

The younger Montgolfier-Etienne-diedin 1799, just before the close of the 18thcentury. His elder brother, Joseph, lived onuntil 181o.

Books ReceivedAero-engine Theory Simply Explained :

Aero-engine Practice Simply Explained.By Group Captain Coats. Publishedby Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.38 pages. Price 6d. each.

THESE two small handbooks are writtenespecially for those who have inclina-

tions towards flying, and the author assumesthat the reader has no previous knowledge ofthe subject. The first book covers in simplelanguage what may be termed the A B C ofaero-engine theory, and deals with suchsubjects as : What an Engine Is ; ElementaryHeat Engine ; the " Four-stroke Cycle" ; theCrankshaft ; Compression Ratio ; BrakeHorse Power ; Supercharging ; and Ignition.

In the second book practical points in thedesign and working of the modern aero engineare explained, and an interesting insight isgiven into its component parts, testing,maintenance, and overhaul.Aerobatics Simply Explained. By Wing -

Commander R. Cravell. Publishedby Sir Isaac Pitman and Sons, Ltd.4o pages. Price 6d.

THIS useful little book tells you all aboutaerobatic flying which, to -day, is

acknowledged to be an essential part of everypilot's training. The author explains thevarious manoeuvres in an interesting mannerand explains the precautions which have to betaken to bring the aircraft again on its normalcourse. The book is illustrated with severaldiagrams.


OurEasier ShavingTHE fashion of the clean shave imposes

upon mankind a daily self -performedminor operation, and since the morning scrapecannot be avoided, it is important to have aneffective razor.

To keep the safety razor blade in con-dition is the object ,of an improved strop,which has been submitted to the BritishPatent Office. It consists of a curved sheet ofleather or other appropriate flexible material,mounted on a similarly curved backing sheetof cardboard or like substance, covered withany suitable material such as leather cloth orpaper.

The inner face of the leather sheet con-stitutes the operative surface. One part ofthis is grooved, scored or roughened andtreated with abrasive paste to produce a'sharpening surface. The other part presents asmooth, velvet -finished strop. If desired, thegrooving may be dispensed with and thewhole of the inner face be used as astropping medium.

Bandied Bird

ASURVEY of inventions recently sub-mitted to the British Patent Office does

not reveal anything of a ,striking, originalcharacter, but there is a steady attempt toimprove existing devices. These inventionsare by no means restricted to the subject ofthe war. I note that players- of games havebeen catered far. That oscillating member ofthe feathered world, the shuttlecock, has beenconsidered capable of improvement. In thecourse of its aerial career to and fro; theshuttlecock should be qualified to put upwith many hard knocks. Occasionally itendures the indignity of being trodden upon.At the same time it must be as light as Ariel.

In order to fit the shuttlecock for itsexacting experiences, an inventor has soformed the body of the " bird "-as it issometimes termed-that it will immediatelyreturn to its normal condition when distortedby undue pressure. He has further providedan improved arrangement, for anchoring thefeathers in the elastic body of the " bird.

The shuttlecock, as is well known, plays animportant role in the game of badminton,and it has, for many generations, been

-associated with the battledore.

De-icing Device

AN improved method of preventing ice -formation on aeroplane propellers is the

subject of an application for a patent in thiscountry.

The inventor remarks that the formation ofice on the spinners of aeroplane propellersinterferes in a marked degree with the move-ment of propellers, particularly those of thevariable pitch blade type. This, he states, isowing to the fact that, when flying under ice -forming conditions, liquid particles in theair -stream congeal on the spinner. They alsotend to collect and solidify around the rootsof the propeller blades, preventing properfunctioning of the pitch -changing mechanism.Moreover, ice on the spinner and nose of thefuselage materially augments head resistance.And, as a result, the speed of the aeroplane isdefinitely retarded.

To obviate this obstruction, the inventorprovides for surfaces exposed to ice -formingconditions a flexible shield mounted forrotation.

Busy InventorsBy' " Dynamo"

Darning Needle ThreaderA HANDY appliance, which is very wel

come at the present time, is a darningwool needle threader for which a patent in thiscountry has been applied. The gadget is asimple device consisting of a thin strip ofsteel having a narrow hooked end capable of

The information on this page is speciallysupplied to " Practical Mechanics " byMessrs. Hughes & Young, Patent Agents, of7, Stone Buildings, Lincoln's Inn, London,W.C.2, who will be pleased to send free toreaders mentioning this paper a copy of theirhandbook, " How to Patent an Invention."

being thrust through the eye of a needle. Thehook is double clawed, and the operation iscompleted by engaging the hook with thewool, which is then drawn through the eyewithout any difficulty. Preferably the hookshould be made of rustless steel.

Anti -blast BricksTHE sandbag, a common object in our

streets during the present war, is notimpregnable against the relentless attrition ofthe weather. To obviate this drawback is oneof the aims of an inventor who has devised aprotective brick. It is made by looselypacking together in a mould a number oflaminations of plastic clay, e.g., strips shaved

from a block of clay or clay rods, bars orstrips formed by extrusion or other method.This formation is afterwards fired or baked.

It is maintained that a structure erectedwith these bricks will be unaffected by weatherconditions, and will indefinitely retain itsoriginal shape. The structure will remain dryand, as a consequence, will he far morehygienic than one built with sandbags.

A further advantage claimed is that amissile striking the erection will be deflectedin many different directions. This is due tothe loosely packed and irregular disposition of

the laminations. The effect will be that themissile will lose its impetus and, as a result,there will be greater protection than is thecase with a barricade of sandbags.

Land and Water Vehicle

A RECENT invention is an improvedamphibious vehicle which can be used

on land or water for war purposes, but is alsosuitable for commerce.

This vehicle combines a buoyant body'having a power unit and propelling wheels,an endless track arrangement, and means topropel the vehicle through the water, alldesigned to be operated by the power means.and the propelling wheels are qualified tomove the vehicle over soft ground.

Landing Gears for 'Planes

AMONG recent applications for patents inthis country concerning aircraft is one

relating to landing gear. It particularly hasreference to a ski apparatus.

The inventor has aimed to construct a skiunit which may be easily and rapidly attachedto the ordinary undercarriage without neces-sitating the removal of the wheels. He assertsthat hitherto an objectionable characteristic ofthis type of ski is that, although the principleapplied has usually been correct, the involvednature of the construction has inevitablyproduced structural weakness, excessiveweight, and similar handicaps. It is one of theobjects of the design to overcome theseundesirable features.

A sectional model ofthe giant 2.00-incbtelescope observatoryerected on MountPalomar, in SouthernCalifornia. In theillustrationSamOrkin,he creator of the

observatory, is seenpointing out the work -rugs to Charles. Correl.

A further object is to retain the shock -absorbing qualities of the undercarriage andpneumatic tyres.

The inventor havalso had in view facility inthe replacement of parts, low manufacturingcost, and a maximum of streamlining inconjunction with a maximum of strength.

The ski mechanism includes a yoke hingedto the wheel axle of an aircraft undercarriageat one end and hinged to a ski at the oppositeend. There is a cable practically plumbbetween the wheel axle and the ski. And foreand aft of the ski are cheek cables.


THE WORLD OF MODELSBy "MOT ILUS"

The Mayor of Northampton introducing the First Lord of the Admiralty, the Rt.Hon. A. V. Alexander, on the occasion of Northampton's Warships Week.

WAR Savings Weeks and War WeaponsWeeks are the feature of every city,town and village in the United

Kingdom to -day, and I suppose there neverwas such a demand for the loan of models ofwarships to stimulate the efforts.

Unfortunately, commercial model making,except on work of national importance, isnow at a standstill, and most goods that werestock have long since been disposed of, so theonly models available are those privatelyowned.

Some towns, as, for instance, Northampton,featured a full-size model of the deck of awarship. Our illustration shows the quarterdeck of H.M.S. Laforey, which was built upon the Market Square at Northampton.The Warships Week was opened by a visitfrom the First Lord of the Admiralty, thethe Rt. Hon. A. V. Alexander, who addressedthe huge crowd assembled, from the bridge.

Another idea that has quite recently beendeveloped is the promotion of competitionsamong schools in the district for the makingof model warships, aircraft and other warweapons which lend themselves to modelling.

A Fine Model DisplayAt Rushden-a small town in Northampton-

shire-a really fine display was made. Entriescame from four Rushden schools and three

A Display of Ship Models forWarships Week

destroyers, mine -layers, cruisers, submarinesand other small craft. The drawings for thiscompetition were supplied by the NationalSavings Committee of London, and havebeen issued specially for use in competitionsof this sort. The drawings I have seen are ofthe Ark Royal, a naval sloop, a motortorpedo-boat, and a trawler. They are verycarefully laid out, and the instructions on theback of the drawing contain useful informa-tion.

Two of the illustrations on this page give afair idea of the Rushden display, which wasjudged by Mr. W. J. Bassett-Lowke and Mr.H. W. Franklin, of Bassett-Lowke, Ltd.Mr. A. Woodhead, H.M. Inspector of Schools,and Alderman C. W. Horrell were present atthe judging, and the six pounds prize moneywas the gift of Mr. Horrell and Mr. A. Miles.

The prize -winners were : Over 14-Kenneth Sugars, of Higham Ferrets ;13 years-Gordon Wilby, of Rushden AlfredStreet School ; 12 years-Frank Tandy, ofRushden Intermediate School ; t / years-A. Lomas and W. Baegan, of Raunds ; and

Some of the prize-winning Models at Rushden's Warship Week.

others in the district, with the result that forthe Warships Week there were over 1so shipmodels-all made by scholars from II to 14years of age-and including all manner ofwarships, aircraft -carriers, sloops, corvettes,

A zeneral view of the 4ne model display at Rushclen,

under I 1-Brian Tarry and Margaret Spencer,of Rushden Alfred Street School.

The display was on for a week only-withcopper for admission-and raised over tenpounds. It was evidently a very popularfeature, and it appears that scores of smallchildren compelled their parents to attend !

The organiser of the exhibition was Mr.S. A. Lawrence, headmaster of the AlfredStreet School ; and the total amount raisedduring the week was over k200,000, and thedestroyer H.M.S. Quorn was adopted.

In addition to models in wood and metal,there were also book -ends and titles from theAlfred Street School pottery class, featuringships or parts of them. There were alsomodels of aircraft loaned by the R.A.F., andship models loaned by the Rev. Macklin, ofIver, Bucks.

Now, here is a splendid idea by which theeducation authorities can help the WarshipsWeeks in providing exhibitions, and also atthe same time instruct boys at school in theuseful hobby of model making.War -time Offer

Some of my friends who are not " 00 "gauge enthusiasts, but still cling to gauges /and 2 (which certainly have " points " wherespace is available), complain that it is time theyhad a war -time offer of goods rolling stock.So I thought it rather opportune when I wasin Bassett-Lowke's Holborn shop the otherweek that they were offering some pre -grouping 2 -inch scale model goods brake vans


When taken from the mould this hull wasgiyen two coats of good lead paint inside andout. A transom was fixed inside the bottomof the hull to save " breaking its back."Bulkheads were fitted, and also stringersalongside the hull, held in position by girdersand columns. These were spaced to allow thebatteries and motor to come into position.Everything on these models has been madefrom scrap, -using all manner of material;the decks were made from piano sound -boxesand lined out with indian ink. The funnelswere made on a former. They are banded, andhave eyes for stays in quite the correct way. Alllifeboats have blocks and tackle, each one hasa in. propeller and removable rudder ;each winch has seven pieces, and to put thesetogether is quite an enjoyable job. Theventilators are built up with grid fronts, andthe fairleads and bollards are also built up ;the model took nearly two years to complete.The only., things bought were the hand railwire and Stanchions from Bassett-Lowke's atNorthampton. The model was launched bythe Mayoress of High Wycombe on July 1st,I939-some 4,000 people being present.

Launching of a model "Queen Mary " by the Mayoressof High Wycombe. This is one of the models built by

Mr. I. R. L. Aldridge, of High Wycombe.

at the very attractive price of 14s. for threevehicles-their to -ton G.W.R., L.N.W.R.and M.R. goods brakes-plus postage. Certainof the vehicles they are offering separately at5s. each, plus postage. Although these aregauge 2 scale, they can also be supplied withthe wheels altered to gauge 1 without extracharge. They are the standard pre-warlithographed tinplate vehicles fitted withcast wheels, and are excellent value.Two Fine Model Liners

This war has seen the loss of many largeand beautiful ships, the most recent being theFrench super -liner Normandie. At thetime of writing it is not certain whether she

The model "Queen Elizabeth," built by Mr. 3. R. L. Aldridge.

and steel 4 in. x in. thickshaped to the correct curve, and all plateswere soldered to this, making a very strongjob. For a distance of 18 ins. from the stema double bottom was plated and made water-tight-a fine job taking months to do."

r r

The three 2 -inch gauge wagons which were being offered at a bargain price.

will become a total wreck or whether America'sworkmen will be able to salvage and re-condition her for war purposes.

There are two ships we hope will survivethe war, and these are the Cunard -WhiteStar liners Queen Mary and Queen Elizabeth,and here are models of them made by Mr.Joseph R. L. Aldridge, of High Wycombe, toa scale of -I. in. to the foot.

My. Aldridge tells me his Queen Marymodel was begun on Whit Monday in 1937.He says : " I first made a large wood mould-semi-solid-of old timber taken from a housethat was pulled down in the village. I then cutsome stout tin ribs, about in. wide, and fixedthem on to the mould, starting on the sternand spacing them 2 ins. apart. When I hadworked, on these to the extent of about 3 ft.I obtained some tins from a friend, cut theminto strips and shaped_ them to fit, solderingthem on to the ribs, each plate overlapping theother. When I came to the stern I cut a kerfwith my hand -saw right down the centre line,

" Queen Elizabeth " ModelWhen Mr. Aldridge decided to make a

Queen Elizabeth model there wasn't a.drawingavailable, but he saw in the papers thatBassett-Lowke, Ltd., had made a large modelfor the British Pavilion at the World's Fair inNew York. He wrote to them immediatelyfor assistance, and they sent him six photo-graphs of their model during its various stagesof progress. With these he set to work on hismodel, and the result shown on this page is asplendid effort -1i ft. long and 191 ins.in the beam. Her Majesty Queen Elizabethhas accepted a similar picture of thismodel..

Mr. Aldridge is 58 years old, and served inthe last war in the R.F.C. His latest effort is ato ft. 6 in. destroyer, which his wife presentedto the naval cadets at High Wycomberecently. His Queen Mary and QueenElizabeth models have been on exhibitionmany times for war charities.

Melting AluminiumA. READER, D. Cook, of Victoria, Australia, writes

as follows :Fine -ground" I noticed in a recent Charcoal

issue, in the Queriesand Enquiriescolumns, that a readerwanted to know how tomelt aluminium, and alsobrass. I have not yettried to melt any othermetal. The, accompany-ing sketch gives detailsof the electric furnace Iused. Trusting thisinformation will helpmany other readers."

Carbon Rod

BoxFire Clayor Cement

Section through a simple electric furnace for melting aluminium.

Beakers/Porcelain

/ or Fire ClayDetachable rap

0--1.2"H

Carbon Rod

Waal2" Throb

12Sa

252 NEWNES PRACTICAL. MECHANICS May, 1942

QUERIESoonENQUIRIES

CY,

Ballasting a Model ShipIAM making a model of an old-time

sailing ship and I want advice on howto ballast it. Should I fix a weight, equalto the weight of the spars, sails and riggingon to the lower " top " of the main mastand get the ship to float on an even keellike that, or should the weight be placedhigher up ? If it should be higher up,please tell me where to put it.

The weight of the masts, spars and sailsis about 6oz., and as I want the ship tofloat correctly, I intend to put a temporaryweight on the main mast, and then putsome permanent ballast in the hold. Theweight would then be removed and whenthe ship is fully rigged it would floatCorrectly. I would not put on the sailsuntil I had ballasted it, as they wouldget in the way. What I want to know isexactly where the temporary weightshould be put.-J. D. Wild (Mill Hill).TT would appear to be the obvious thing to

do to make the yards and sails-as theywill have to be made eventually-and to hangthem on the masts in a temporary manner.In any case you will need to know the approxi-mate weights of them. The total weight of

on themasts and the approximate positions, dis-tributed over the three masts, will, in a shipof the Great Michael type, be just about whereyou suggest, viz., in the " tops."

Actually there is no need to go to thistrouble at all, unless you are going to makesails and yards which are excessively heavy.

You must bear in mind that wind pressureon the beam is by far the greatest capsizingfactor, and it is this which the hold ballast isrequired to counterbalance.

Inter -geared Shafts at RightAngles

T HAVE to lay out a sound job, usingtwo crankshafts parallel to one

another, driving a mainshaft at rightangles, as shown in the sketch.Another job would have an extra pair ofcrankshafts arranged below the main -shaft in the same relative positions asthe crankshafts shown.

The gearing would have to be as silentas possible at 3,000-4,000 r.p.m., andreversible, and about 5o h.p. is contem-plated for the smaller size job ; a reduc-tion of about 2-I is desirable from crank-shaft to mainshaft.

Freedom from backlash and conse-quent " getting out of phase " of the twocrankshafts presents the biggest problemto me. On what lines would you recom-mend this problem to be tackled ?-A. G.Fenn (Bristol).WE recommend that the drive be taken

from one crankshaft to the other throughspur gears. So far as can be judged from yoursketch the simple procedure of mountingone spur gear on each crankshaft and allowingthem to mesh directly would probably demandundesirably large diameters. The alternativein that case is to provide two intermediateidler gears so that the crankshafts haveopposite directions of rotation.

A stamped addressed envelope, three pennystamps, and the query coupon from the currentissue, which appears on back cover must be enclosedwith every letter containing a query. Everyquery and drawing which is sent must bear thename and address of the reader. Send yourqueries to the Editor, PRACTICAL MECHANICS,Geo. Newnes, Ltd., Tower House, Southampton

Street, Strand, London, W.C.2.

This same general scheme could also beadopted in the case of the larger machine whichhas four crankshafts. There would be twoidler gears arranged with their centre lineson a horizontal plane half -way between thetwo horizontal planes containing the centrelines of the crankshafts.

Shafts mustcrossftamsha ft

Using two parallelcrankshafts fordriving a mainshaft

at right angles.In order to ensure quiet running, profile

grinding of the teeth would probably benecessary, and if arrangements could be madeto provide the necessary thrust bearings, afurther improvement would be effected bythe use of single helical teeth.

Circle of ConfusionWILL you please tell me what is the

circle of confusion of my camera ?I have a dolly taking 27 film, of zin.

focal length, Xenon f2, Compur shutter toF3ooth, focusing down to aft.-R. Wood-ward (Eltham).A POINT of light when projected by a lens" will on the image show as a dot ofsmall diameter, and it is the diameter of thisdot that is referred to as the circle of confusion.It should, of course, be as small as possible.If a point appears as a dot less than r/tooin.diameter, the picture will appear reasonablysharp on a contact print. If the negative is

for enlargement, a sharper image would berequired, say jzooin. Modern miniaturecameras produce much sharper images thanthis, the circle of confusion being smallerthan the silver grains in the plate, unlessSpecial fine grain film is used. Negativesmade with such cameras and film will standgreat enlargement.

Bottled Gas for Cars !CAN you tell me if town gas can be

stored in calor gas cylinders foruse in a car, and, if so, how many cubicfeet of gas could be introduced into onecontainer ? What mileage could beexpected from a thousand cubic feet ofgas ?-j. W. Boot (Sutton).TT is not practical to use bottled gas

cylinders for town gas. The cylindersare of light construction for pressures of theorder of 3o to 351b. per square inch, andthey are usually tested to zoo lbs. per squareinch. At 351b. per square inch a bottled gascylinder would hold about 6 cubic feet oftown gas, equivalent to 1/5o gallon of petrol.For transport purposes town gas is usuallystored at 3,000lb. per square inch, a pressurewhich requires cylinders of very much heavierconstruction.

Practical tests show that 25o to 300 cubicfeet of town gas of 500 B.Th.U. per cubic footcalorific value are equal to one gallon ofpetrol. A thousand cubic feet of town gaswill, therefore, be equivalent to between 3.3and 4 gallons of petrol. On a ten horse -powercar this would be roughly equivalent to tooto 520 miles per r,000 cubic feet of gas.

Making Liquid GlueFOR some time I have been attempt-

ing to make a liquid glue,I had in mind something like the glues

sold in tubes for universal repairs, etc.Any help you could give me, or anyrecipe would be much appreciated.-G. Cropper (Greenock).MANY of the published formula: for

making liquid glue are woefully wrong.In the main, gelatine glues are liquefied bymeans of formic acid.

Take a quantity of ordinary fish glue andsoak it in water for 24 hours to allow it toswell up to a maximum. After this time, heatthe glue in the usual way, aiming at makinga very strong, thick solution. Whilst this isstill hot, add from r to 2 per cent. of itsweight of strong formic acid (commercialstrength). Stir well and allow the glue tocool. It will remain liquid, its degree offluidity depending upon the amount offormic acid incorporated.

You may have a difficulty in obtainingformic acid. If so, you can obtain this acidfrom Messrs. A. Boake, Roberts & Co., Ltd.(emergency address), " Ellerslie," BuckhurstHill, Essex. If for any reason you cannotobtain formic acid, acetic acid may be usedin its place.

THE P.M. LIST OF BLUEPRINTSThe P.M. " PETROL " MODEL

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The kc.c. TWO-STROKE PETROL ENGINEComplete set, 5s.

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A LIGHTWEIGHT GLIDERFull-size blueprint, 2s.

WAKEFIELD MODELFull-size blueprint, 2s.

LIGHTWEIGHT DURATION MODELFull-size blueprint, 2s.

P.M. TRAILER CARAVANComplete set, 10s. 6d.

The above blueprints are obtainable post free fromMesSrs.G.Newnes,Ltd.,Tower House,Strand,W.C.2

F. J. CAMM'S PETROL -DRIVENMODEL AEROPLANE

7s. 6d. per set of four sheets, hill -size.

The " PRACTICAL MECHANICS " £20 CAR(Designed by F. J. CAMM)

10s. 6d. per set of four sheets.

" PRACTICAL MECHANICS" MASTERBATTERY CLOCK

Blueprints (2 sheets) 2s.

The " PRACTICAL MECHANICS" OUT.BOARD SPEEDBOAT

7s. 6d. per set of three sheets.

A MODEL AUTOGIROFull-size blueprint, Is.

SUPER -DURATION BIPLANEFull-size blueprint, Is.

7--

May, 1942 THE CYCLIST 57

Editor : F. J. CAMM

VOL. X MAY, 1942 No. 243

Comments of the Month

THE National Association of Cycle Tradershas decided by a majority to drop themotor -cycle side of the Association,

and to concentrate entirely on the cycle sideof the industry. It has, therefore, dropped themotor -cycle portion of its title, and nowbecomes the N.A.C.T. This Move, inconjunction with the new Institute which willgrade dealers according to their ability, is amove which has been long overdue. How farit will overlap the work of the Manufacturers'Union we do not know. The Manufacturers'Union has'for many years worked for theimprovement of the cycle industry, andtraders generally have benefited by that work,which thereby also benefits the public.

But retail cycling has been in need of acleansing of the Augean stables for manyyears, for almost anyone could sell bicyclesand accessories, and there was little thoughtfor public service. Few dealers dealt entirelyin bicycles, for the sale of motor -cycles wasfound to be more profitable. In the early daysof bicycles, before the motor -cycle and themotor -car were anything more than practicalpossibilities, a dealer perforce dealt only inbicycles and accessories, with perhaps petrolas a sideline at rod. a gallon. Even in thosedays, however, cycle repair was anybody's job.Usually it was the work of a local blacksmith,who hammered the cranks straight, or replaceda spoke. For some reason cycle repair hasnever been regarded as a profession, or evenas a trade. A bicycle is a simple device, themechanism of which can be mastered in a fewweeks. Such repairs as can be undertaken morecheaply than replacement can certainly bemastered in a year. These consist chiefly ofbrazing and soldering, and the replacing ofbearings. There is no great skill required,and there is little wonder in an industry whichfor the past quarter of a century has developedon price lines-producing bicycles morecheaply each year-that few, if any, haveconsidered the bicycle trade as one whichprovides prospects for a living.

Sidelines

NO one wishes to be apprenticed as a cyclemechanic, and there are many dealers

who could not exist on the cycle trade alone ;therefore they have sidelines such as motor-cycles, gramophones, wireless sets and similararticles in ready demand.

Whilst the new institute of cycle repairersis a good move, it must be many years beforeit makes its presence felt. The presentgeneration of cycle repairers are not likely togo out of business because they are not ableto pass an examination. If they becomemembers of the institute by virtue of theirlong association with the trade, and hencewithout examination, even though they maybe incompetent as cycle mechanics, theposition is as before the institute was formed.The institute, in other words, will not putout of business those which it feels oughtnot to be in business. The institute is ratheraiming to improve matters for posterity, andeven then it will only succeed if bicycles aremade to some extent irrespective of pricewhere service fees can extend beyond the fewpence at present charged, so that adequatewages can be paid.

Cycles Only

All letters should be addressed tothe Editor, " THE CYCLIST,"

e(arge Newnes, Ltd., Tower House,Southampton Street, Strand, London,

W.C.2.Phone : Temple Bar 4363

Telegrams : Newnes, Rand, London

Some blame attaches to manufacturers forthis state of affairs. They have presumed thatbicycles have reached finality in design whenthere are many portions of a bicycle whichneed to be improved. We have drawnattention to many in past issues of this journal.There is reason to believe that post-warbicycles will be a different mechanism towhat we now know. Many firms will leavethe cut-price market, and enter the qualitymarket, and, we think, wisely. Bicycles havebeen too cheap, and quite often they havebeen nasty.

Defects in BicYcle DesignTT may be that many of the defects in

bicycle design and in the selling ofbicycles is due to the fact that those responsiblehang on to office too long. They maypresume that what was good enough 5o yearsago is good enough to -day. Perhaps theirideas have not been kept up to date. A littlefresh blood here and there might do good.There has been talk of a formation of aninstitute of cycle repairers for 3o years or so.Now it is an accomplished fact time alonecan prove the justification for its existence.There was such an institute, but it went outof existence, having, as it was then thought,outlived its period of usefulness.

It will only attain its ideals if it works inclose co-operation with and not antagonisticto the Manufacturers' Union. The interestsof the manufacturer and the dealer are as one,and if in the past the dealer has regarded themanufacturer as his natural enemy we cannotblame the manufacturer too much for that.If the present institute, and the decision of theNational Association to concentrate entirelyon the sale of bicycles and to ensure thatthose who sell them are really qualified, is anearnest of a new order at a time when allcountries are thinking of new orders, then itmust operate for the good of the cyclingpublic. We believe that that is the intention,and therefore we advise the National Associa-tion, which has also sponsored the newinstitute, to forget the old traditions and theold personalities, and to introduce some newblood into the body into which they desire toinfuse new life. We wish the N.A. and itsefforts well.

The Problem of HelpersTHE new restrictions on the use of petrol

which will come into force a few weekshence will provide problems for promoters ofOpens. In past years it has been the customto enlist the use of cars for transporting thevarious helpers round the course. Thefeeding, the sponges, and the drinks areweighty items in a field of too or so. Beforemotor -cars were used it was the custom for thehelpers to arrive the night before, and tosleep in the open if necessary to await theriders in the morning. Lack of cars will nothamper road sport. We shall revert to the oldsystem even though it be at some inconveni-ence to those who during the war are workinglong hours and have not the necessary leisure

By F. J. C.

to spare to make a Saturday and Sundayevent of it. The help has always been forth-coming in spite of the difficulties. TheR.T.T.C. might usefully consider forming apanel of helpers through their DistrictCouncils so that any club experiencing diffi-culty in the matter of help can appeal to thesecretary for it. That in itself might create adifficulty during paiticular week -ends when anumber of- important events is being run atthe same time.

Perhaps during the war feeding could bedropped, or the riders themselves make theirown arrangements for feeding. In the earlierdays of road trials that is what the riders did,and those were days when trials were harder,if slower, than they are to -day.

Trade DisciplineTHE National Association has set up a

Trade Disciplinary Committee uponwhich we adversely commented in theprevious issue. The National Association,according to its announcement, intended tohaul before its Committee any dealer guiltyof a breach of trade ethics or unprofessionalconduct, and we pointed out that it had noauthority to do this ; especially is this so inthe case of a man who is not a member of theN.A. We pointed out that the existing CycleTrade Union already had powers to deal withthe matter. This Union was founded toencourage, promote and protect the cycleand motor -cycle and cycle car industry, andto safeguard the general interest of users ofcycle and motor -cycle goods, and of firms andpersons engaged in the wholesale and retailsides of those industries, against the opera-tions of scrupulous traders. The Union stillcarries on this work, but has had no occasionto exercise its disciplinary powers in recenttimes. No one wishes to support an un-scrupulous trader and we are all in favour ofbringing him to book. At the same time weare equally opposed by any attempt of anybody to arrogate to itself the powers of adictatorship, and to attempt to exercisecontrol over people where they have no rightof control. An unscrupulous trader can bebrought to book through the process of thecourts, as well as by placing him on the StopList.

Dissension in a New Club

TN our issue dated January,, 5942, wereferred to the formation of a club for

cyclists, and adversely commented upon thefact that the election could only be by aunanimous vote. After but a very shortperiod of existence a circular letter has beensent to every member of the club, in whichthe chairman, secretary and committeetender their resignations. Apparently thecommittee are objecting to the interpretationof the rules. . Many important members ofthe cycling industry and pastime who haveapplied for membership have been black-balled, and quite naturally the secretaryobjects to writing frequent letters to rebuffedapplicants. It is difficult to understand theposition, since the committee must have had alarge hand in framing the rules. We shalldeal with this matter more fully next month.

58 May, 1942

MODEL RAILWAY SCENERYfor gauge " 0 " and gauge "00 " railways. Specially designed backgrounds(36in. x 9!.in.), depicting (I) Pastureland ; (2) Sea Coast ; (3) Mountains. 23 persheet. Postage Id.

HAVE YOUany second-hand model railway equipment in good condition -either Y.T.R. " 00 "gauge or "0 " gauge Bassett-Lowke ? If so send particulars to Northampton or callac London or Manchester with details.

BARGAINS FOR GAUGE 1AND GAUGE 2 OWNERS

We have a limited pre -War stock of Goods Brake Vans, as illustrated, suitablefor either gauge I or gauge 2 railways.These vehicles are excellent value for the money -the bodies being stamped outin best South Wales tinplate, lithographed in correct colours, and fitted with castwheels.

The set complete, consists of :

I G.W.R. 10 -ton Brake Van; Blies. long.I L.N.W.R. 10 -ton Goods Brake Van, nins. long. Price 14f- the set.1 M.R. 10 -ton Goods Brake Van, Wins. long. (Postage and packing Is. extra.)

We can also offer two of these items separately, while the supply lasts, as follows :G.W.R. 10 -ton Brake Vpn. M.R. 10 -ton Goods Brake Van. Price 51- each.Postage (on each vehicle), 8d.

BASSETT-LOWKE LTD. NORTHAMPTON

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_ELECTRADIX_FRACTIONAL H.P. MOTORS, D.C. 50 to 70 volts.miclond 1/40 h.p., 2,500 revs., 15/-, 50 volts shunt1120 h.p., K.B., 2,000 revs., 24/, 50/70 voltsshunt, 1/6 h.p,, Crypto, 1,500 revs., 27/6. 110 voltshunt, 1/12 h.p., Croydon. 2.500 revs., 26/, 110volts shunt, 1/2 h.p., Maudslay special, 4,000 revs.,45/-. 220 volts shunt, 1/12 h.p., Croydon -Wilson,2,400 revs., 30/-. 240 volts shunt, 1/3 h.p., Wagner.1,440 revs., 55/-. 110 volts shunt, 1/6 h.p., Keith B.,1,250 revs., geared to 80, 45/,FRACTIONAL A.C. 30 volts, 1/100 h.p., centi-midget induction, 58 revs., 15;-. 220 volts, 125with reverting switch, 55/-. Self -start inductionA.C. Motors, 230 volts, # h.p., new Higgs, 84d1.DYNAMOS BARGAINS. Rotax, 0/12 volts 81 amps.,D.C., 3rd brush size. 8in. x 41M., 11 lb., coat 610.unused, 15/-. Cie. 2/- extra. G.E.C. Double -currentDynamos, 6 volts and 600 volts, ball -bearings,17 lb., as new, 25/-. Crg. 2/6 extra. ChargingDynamos, 16 volts, 15 amps., leitner, 1,500 revs..75/,ALTERNATOR --Perm. Magnet Alternator. Handdrive. 80 volts, 25 miii. Useful tester, 105. .k8 -WAY Liteas-Rotor Switch boxes, 8 levers andfuses for charging, etc., 3/0. 6 -way Push Button.R.A.F. switches. 2/9.MORSE TAPPER SIGNAL KEYS. Type B.L. 5'-.Type IR, 6/8. Type P.F., 9/6. Type I.V., 12,6.Type B2, back contacts, 9/6.THE CAMBRIDGE TOWNSEND BUZZER is thehighest note and smallest Buzzer made, used byGovernment on wavemeters, and has ampleplatinum contacts. Ideal for key work. 10,-.Other Buzzers : Practice. bakelite-eased, 3'6.Square brass -cased Buzzer. 4/6. Heavy typebakelite cased, 5/6. Few Dill Bgazers. multiwindings. no contacts, 5/6.DICTAPHONE SOUND AMPLIFIERS and horn forMod use with buzzers, 7/6.MORSE RECORDERS for hon. training. Servicemodel granoo drive, Mosses direct on paper tape withdead key fitted, 23/10/, G.P.O. transmittingRecorders, £10. Cloth Ex W.D. cost double.A.C/D.C. MAINS MAGNETS, 2 wound poles, 110 or220 volts, 5/6. Small 12 -volt solenoids, 2in. xI.in. plunger. 65.SCOUTS TELESCOPES, with tripod, 5 lenses.12im. long. 111. Ceiling Roses, with scruit connectors.6'- dos. Pocket Clinical Thermometers, in metal

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HEIGHTThe Challoner Com-pany regret that owingto serious lack of sup-plies of certain importantingredients, we cannotfor the time beingguarantee supplies of our

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TABLETSWe hope this is only atemporary state ofaffairs, and it will be a

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HOBSupplies are getting short andmany normal lines are out ofstock. We can still providemuch, however, to help thehome craftsman, and you shouldwrite about your needs toHobbies Ltd. (Dept. 70), Dere-ham, Norfolk, or call at oneof their Branches in London,Glasgow, Manchester, Sheffield,Leeds, Hull and Birmingham.

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This statement by a regular userof " BAKER'S " expresses thegeneral opinion of motor and

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This space will be used to advertisethe 'ADEPT' LATHES andSHAPERS in the happier timescoming, when we hope to be able togive more prompt deliveries. Mean-time we would assure all our friendsthat we are making strenuous en-deavours to give deliveries of theorders we have on hand and asktheir kind indulgence.

When replying to Advertisers, please mention" Practical Mechanics

HIGHSTONE UTILITIES

CRYSTAL SETS. Our latest Model is aREAL RADIO RECEIVER and is fitted with aPERMANENT CRYSTAL DETECTOR. WHYNOT HAVE A SET IN YOUR OWN ROOM ORAS A STAND-BY 7-9/8, post 8d. PERMANENTDETECTORS 2,6, post 3d.HEADPHONES, for use with the above, 10/8,12/6, or reconditioned 'phones 7/8 and S/8 per pair.

BELL TRANSFORMERSThese step - downtransformers workfrom any A.C. Maine,giving 3, 5 or 8 voltsoutput at 1 Amp.,operate bulb, buzzeror bell. Also providesan A.R.Y. light in

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MORSEPractise on a regulation size Tapping Key. Ourheavy brass model is mounted on a wooden base,has an adjustable gap and nickel contacts. Key iswi red.to work buzzer or flash lamp by using a 4i -voltbattery or the transformer illustrated above.BRASS KEY 8/9, Chromium -Plated 7/8. W.O.Model with heavy brass bar and the addition of afront )Racket 9/6 Chromium -Plated 1016. Theabove keys are supplied to the Services for Morseinstruction. Slightly smaller Key 5/-. Junior Key,niounted on a bakelite base together with a buzzer9/9. Should you require a complete outfit, our D.X.2Set consists of a heavy key mounted on a largepoZsired board together with a buzzer, flash lampbuIR and holder with two switches to bring eitherinto circuit. Terminals arc also provided for distantsending and receiving. 19/6, post 8d.

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Stoke

May, 1942. THE CYCLIST ' 59

Prisoner of WarHARRY WILKINSON, Oldham Century -

Road Club, is a prisoner of war inGermany.

Bradford Club Carries OnPENNINE C.C. (Bradford) is still carrying

op although 40 of its members are servingwith H.M. Forces.

Scottish Open EventsWEST of Scotland T.T.A. and the Mid -

Scotland T.T.A. plan 27 open eventsthis year.

Lanark R.C. DisbandsTHE famous Lanarkshire Roads Club has

disbanded for duration.

Cyclists Safe in Far EastMEWS has been received that H. Burgess,

FIronte Wheelers, and B. Williamson,Pennine C.C., are safe after troublesome timesin the Far East.

Clarion Member MissingJDENHAM, Southartipton centre of the

Clarion, an observer in the R.A.F., hasbeen posted as "missing" in the Near East.

Club Members Back Liverpool Association Time Trials .

NELSON WHEELERS have welcomed back to IZUMOURS that the Liverpool Association willmembership T. Crowther, who has been riding not be staging time trials this year can now be

for the Derbyshire Road Club, and W. 0. Jackson, disregarded.holder of Lancishire Road Club so -mile competition -record.

Well-known Tourer's DeathABRAHAM WREN RUMNEY, one of the most

notable figures in the history of cycle touring,has died. He had toured in various parts of Europe andthe i\liddlc East.

A Promising YoungsterC. F. VALENTINE, Southgate C.C., is a ydungster

to be watched.. Already he has figured promin-ently in time trials in the London area.

Clarion MeetTHE annual Clarion Meet was held at Leicester at

Easter. It was the 47th of the series.

Diamond JubileeMO mark its diamond jubilee, University C.C. is

staging three open events this season.

Crack Riders Join UpSEVEN of the crack riders who made up the

formidable array of hill -climbers -in the BarnetC.C. have joined up.

Anfield B.C.THE president of the Anfield B.C. H. Green,

attended each of the club's 1941 fixtures. Overiso Anfielders are new serving with H.M. forces.

Club Members in R.A.F.HARRY HIGH, former hon. treasurer of the

Steelopolis C.C., and G. F. Clark, NorthWorcester Road Club, are both in the same R.A.E.squadron in the Near East.

Cyclists in Middle EastGEORGE NIGHTINGALE, Charlotteville C.C.,

winner of many open events and one of thecountry's fastest 25 -milers, is with the -Middle EastForces, and has met other cyclists, including a club -mate (H. Burdock) and N. Heathcote and W. Carvey(Swindon Wheelers).

Jimmy Purves Missing

JIMMYPURVES, well-known Vegetarian C.C.

member, previously reported missing in theMiddle East, is again starred as missing. Six monthsago he was " captured " by Vichy French in Syria andsubsequently released.

Manchester N.C. U.S. ANDERSON has been elected chairman of

". the N.C.U. Manchester Centre for the i6thconsecutive year.

Essex N.C.U. SecretaryD W. BRUNWIN, Brentwood Wheelers, has taken

over the secretaryship of the N.C.U. EssexCentre.

South London Road ClubTHE old -standing 13th Wheelers C.C. has changed

its name to the South London Road Club.

Committeeman for 25 YearsPERCY BRAZENDALE has served on the com-

mittee of the C.T.C. Liverpool District Associa-tion for 25 years

ParagramsComforts for the ForcesA NEIELD B.C. members have spent £42 on parcels

of comforts for serving members.

Southgate C.C. Club EventsSOUTHGATE Cycling Club have reduced entry

fees to club events from 2s. 6d. to is. and abolishedmedals and prizes for duration. All winning rides willbe certified.

Ilford R.C. Carrying On.ALTHOUGH their active membership has beenI greatly decreased, Ilford Road Club are deter-

mined to carry on.

C.C. Attached to Fleet Air ArmDUNDEE and District T.T.A. have been notified

of a new club in their area. It is attached to theFleet Air Arm !

Prisoner of WarDAVE BREWSTER, Lochee member of the C.T.C.,

is known to be a prisoner of war in Italy. He was" missing " for months.

Vice -President of Priory WheelersCAPT. L. D. GAMMANS, M.P., has accepted vice-

presidency of the Priory Wheelers.

Cyclist BoxerGEORGE LEM, Steelopolis C.C., who is with the

Royal Artillery in Scotland, won the HighlandDivision light -heavy -weight boxing championship.

Clubman in B.D.S.ENTHUSIASTIC member of the Glamorgan Road

Club, Lt. G. A. Gwilliam now serves in the RoyalEngineer Bomb Disposal Squad.

Cyclist Has a MemorialAGLASGOW A.R.P. cyclist messenger, Neil Leitch,

who lost his life* during a blitz on Clydeside,recently had a memorial erected to his memory. SirPatrick Dollan unveiled the memorial.

Still a ShillingREPRESENTATIVES of the 2i,000 cyclists and

hikers in the Scottish Y.H.A. meeting in Edin-burgh, decided to keep the one shilling per night fee.E. St. John Catchpool, secretary of the Y.H.A. ofEngland and Wales, was present.

Films for PublicityTHE youth hostels movements are using films for

publicity to a greater extent than formerly.Two colour films of Scots hostels events in 1947, andof tours in the Lake District and the Trossachs, havejust been released.

Police Watching Norwich CyclistsSPECIALLY detailed police have been set to watch

for cycling offenders at Norwich. This has resultedin the number of accidents being reduced by 5o percent:, according to a report given by the Chief Constable.

Hostels HuntsCYCLISTS in Lanarkshire are holding organised

" Hostels Hunts " to add to the number of youthhostels in Scotland. They scour the countryside insearch of empty buildings which might make goodhostels.

American Soldiers Buy BritishMEMBERS of the American Forces at present in

the British Isles are buying British bicycles.They are attracted by the speedy lines and easy runningof machines made in Britain.

No Lights in MoonlightAT a Home Counties court recently, two cyclists told

the magistrates that they rode their machineswithout lights early one morning because the moon wasshining.

Touring in the NorthTOURING in the North of Scotland is now possible

again. The Government has lifted the ban ontravelling in much of the area north and north-west ofInverness.

Bicycle Tyres in Black MarketEIRE has a black market in bicycle tyres. According

to a Dublin report, £s has been charged for a 9s.cover.

New Hostel Opened'ANEW youth hostel was opened in time 'for Easter

at Tun House, Whitwell, Hertfordshire.

Awkward Corner on End -to -EndAN awkward corner at Dunblane, on the End -to -End

route, has been removed by the making of a newbridge and approach roads.

Cycling Poachers. EAST Anglian 'magistrates have warned cycling

poachers that they are being watched, and will beseverely dealt with in future.

Devon Inn DamagedTHE Old Ship Tavern, at Bideford, Devon, which

figured in "aVestward Ho," has been damaged byfire, The inn is well known to tourists.

Highland Hostels Available !rVERY effort is being made to reopen the youthA-' hostels at Ullapool, Achiltibuie, and Badbea,in the North-west Highlands, in time for summer.

Society of Cycling AntiquariansTHE suggestion has been made that a Society of

Cycling Antiquarians, to cater for peopleinterested in old bicycles, should be founded.

Sussex Acres for StateABOUT a thousand acres of woodland at Goodwood,

in Sussex, have been left to the nation by SirFrancis D'Arcy Cooper, chairman of Lever Bros.

Cyclists Run " Brains' Trust"EARLY in April Scottish cyclists ran the first session

of a " Brains Trust " in Glasgow, in which a teamrepresenting various cycling interests answered questionsby an audience of wheelmen.

By-passes Only Partial SolutionSPEAKING at Edinburgh last month, Mr. W. A.

Macartney, Burgh Engineer, said that by-passeswere useful, but only a partial solution of the congestionproblem, although cheaper in effect than the wideningof roadways in densely -populated areas.

Cumnock Rally NewsTHERE is to be one speaker only at this year's

Cumnock Rally. Other arrangements, includingcamping fees, are to stand as in,,past years. Alreadynational and local trade interests have donated prizes.

Soviet Soldier CyclistsTHE bicycle is playing a great part in the war on the

Eastern Front. All Russian machine -gunners,tank busters, automatic riflemen and nurses, must knowhow to ride a bicycle, according to a recent order. InMoscow, the Committee for Physical Culture has begunto train special cyclist groups. For summer. campaign-ing, cyclists are to replace the mobile ski units.

New Hostels HandbookTHE 1942 edition of the handbook of the Youth

Hostels Association of England and Wales con-tains full details of some 17o youth hostels at presentopen. There are also special items dealing with war-time travel, while the cover is in itself an invitation tocycle.

Copies are obtainable from the Y.H.A., 16, MeadowWay, Welwyn Garden City, Hertfordshire.

Scots Girl WedsMAN MUIR, the leading Scots time trialist in pre-war

days, was married recently to Bob Charles, whois serving in the Royal Navy. The new Mrs. Charlesclocked the fastest 25 ever done on the road by a Scotsgirl just before the war. Both Mr. and Mrs. Charlesare members of Thornliebank (Glasgow) Clarion C.C.

60 THE CYCLIS I May, 1942

A quaint corner of Dartmouth, South Devon.

Around the WheelworldBy' ICARUS

In Honour of the EditorA LUNCHEON was given by a number of

the older members of the Bath RoadClub at a West End restaurant recently inhonour of the services of the Editor of thisjournal, Mr. F. J. Camm. Those presentincluded the founder member, W. G, James,Percy Beardwood, J. Dudley Daymond, S. M.Vanheems, J. Callway, E. Coles -Webb, J.Westaway, T. E. Osborne, W. Hinds, A. H.Bentley, C. A. (Bath Road) Smith, ReggieWest, J. E. Rawlinson, Frank Smith andH. Frost. Of these, no fewer than four wereex -editors of the Bath Road News, the old -established journal of the Bath Road Club,which in recent months has been made evenmore famous by its past editor, who was theguest of honour on this occasion. W. G.James is the only living founder member ofthe club who- was present at that historicmeeting at tile New Inn, Ham Common in1886. Daymond, Vanheems, W. G. Jamesand Beardwood are vice-presidents; while thefamous C. A. (Bath Road) Smith, who did somuch for the Bath Road Club, and founded andedited, the Bath Road News, is the first andonly hon. life member of the club, whose ruleswere specially changed in order that thehonour might be conferred upon him. Hewas President for many years. Past editorspresent were : S. M. Vanheems, T. E.Osborne, C. A. Smith and Frank Smith. Nofewer than 14 speakers paid tribute to theguest of honour.

Arising out of this luncheon was aninteresting suggestion, of which more later.

The Charlotteville " 50 "ONE of the most attrac-

tive and representativeentries for many yearsrewarded the promoters ofthe classic Charlotteville" 50 " which was run offon the Bath Road courseon Easter Sunday. Of thestarters 'no tewer than TOhad accomplished 2 hrs.re. min. over the course,and 22 clubs had teamsriding. The conditionswere not ideal and thegoing was hard. This isapparent from the fact thatonly 14 of the 85 startersbeat evens to the turn.The event was noteworthyfor the number of punc-tures. Crowther a n dPalmer, for example, hadthree each, and last year'swinner, L. Thorpe, alsohad three. Pope had one,Pape had one, and Robertstwo. Fleming was afflictedwith a slow puncture, butchanged machines.

The win at 2 hrs. 14 min.33 sec. by E. Gale, of theLeamington C. and A.C.,provided a surprise for all.At the turn he was in fifthplace, but on the returnjourney he was almost aminute faster than anyother rider, while Doody,his club mate, went upfrom 11th place at theturn to sixth at the finish.The Leamington club hada lead of 5 min. overEaling Manor in the teamrace. Fastest to the turnwas Fleming, at i hr.

ro min. 5

sec., Papebeing secondat I hr. IImin. 24 sec.Each ofthesepunctured

on the return Journey. Gorman was thirdat the turn at 1 hr. II min. 41 sec., whileRoberts was fourth at t hr. 12 min. Gormanpicked up three minutes on Fleming on theway home and thus ran into second placeat 2 hr. 15 min. 44 sec., with Fleming thirdat 2 hr. x6 min. 51 sec. Vic. Jenner, of theCharlotteville, did not start owing to a cold.Unfortunately, Paul's entry was received toolate. Twenty-seven did not finish, andthere were 15 non-starters. The LeamingtonC. and A.C. (Gale, Doody, Sargisson) won theteam race at 6 hr. 54 min. 5o sec. ; EalingManor was second at 6 hr. 59 min. 44 sec.,and Addiscombe third at 7 hr. 6 min. 48 sec.

Herne Hill TrackWE understand that Herne Hill Track has

been leased by the N.C.U. for a periodof 21 years from the owners, Dulwich College.

New N.C.U. JudgeTACK SIBBET has been appointed as

N.C.U. judge. This old member of theManchester Wheelers, so closely associatedwith the Fallowfield meetings and now aveteran, still maintains his keen interest inthe pastime. Fifteen or so years ago Sibbetwas famous as a competitor on the track, andhe has raced all over the world. With ErnieChambers he competed in tandem events, andthe pair were national champions on sixoccasions between 1928 and 1937. He wasN.C.U. five -miles champion in 1922, sprintchampion in 1925, and also in 1931 and 1932.

The Cycle Engineers' InstituteTT is not generally known that a trade

association known as the Cycle Engineers'Institute existed many years ago and it dida vast amount of research work in connectionwith the bicycle. It later became the Institu-tion of Automobile Engineers.

In spite of the investigation into bicycledesign, which had been made not only bytrade associations but by such authoritiesas the late Paul Renouf, and particularlyby Prof. Sharpe,who wrote the standard bookon the subject, it is surprising that there arestill many defects in bicycle design. No onehas yet foiled the cycle thief by means of adevice incorporated in the bicycle itself.We are still using antiquated cone bearings,which are screwed on to a spindle, and cannotpossibly be accurate: My colleague, C. A.Smith, has already drawn attention to defectsin chain -wheel design. After the war, however,I am quite certain that there will be somereally high-grade bicycles made irrespectiveof price, which will break away from thetraditional assembly of standard parts whichcomprises many of our modern machines ;especially should annular bearings be used.I know that experimental work is proceedingalong these lines. The bicycle in later yearshas always made its appeal on the questionof price, but I believe there is a large potentialmarket for a machine which is not made downto a price, but made up to a standard ofquality. I am not decrying the mass-producedbicycle as distinct from the bash -producedbicycle, or the cash -produced bicycle. Theyare all good value for the money. I think it iswrong, however, to presume that everyonewho wants to ride a bicycle wants to spend thesmallest possible sum in purchasing it.This cannot be true, otherwise expensivewatches would not be made, nor expensivemotor -cars, nor expensive clothes orfurniture.

I hope the trade are thinking along theselines, too, because it is absurd to presumethat bicycles have reached finality indesign and that there is no room for furtherimprovement.

Oil.A MINISTRY OF SUPPLY Order will soon

make it impossible for cyclists to obtainoil in tins, and the County Chemical Companypoint out that this Order will affect the supplyof their well-known tins of Nonclog Oil withspout. Oil will be supplied in future in oneof two ways, either from the agents in bulk,or in bottles, so that every cyclist shouldpreserve his present oil tin, and have it re-filled from time to time.

Dynamo LightingONE of my readers, Mr. P. Colborne, 01

Swindon, in a letter, replies to FrankUrry's criticism of dynamo lighting. Thisreader says- that the weight of dynamo atpresent in use is about I z lb., which compareswith lb. of a good quality long -life batterylamp. Permanent fixture gets rid of rattles;with a battery lamp, rattles and vibration arefatal both to lamp and battery. The batterylamp incorporatfis at least three contacts ormore if a dimming switch is used. Thepressure is 3 volts, which is insufficient toovercome a high resistance caused by badcontact, corrosion or rust. The dynamo of6 or 8 volts has all contacts of the terminaltype if the two -wire system is used. Dynamodrag can be reduced by fitting a large sizepulley or a ring on the existing pulley. Sucha ring riveted to the pulley and carrying asmall section of rubber tyre has been foundquite satisfactory, and the light emitted is onlyslightly reduced at ro miles per hour for haltthe drag. It is suggested that a dimmingswitch fitted to the handlebar should beuseful to fast night riders.


CARTS OOKE CASTLE_ at at.C.MT

A glimpse of tkef;iecastle frorn-the +op

- Cost/e q.reet . .-v

The Disinterested AttitudeTHERE seems to be a tendency at home to consider

that the utility cyclist does not need what iscalled a high-class machine for his daily peregrinations.The standard pattern will do the job for him, and that'sthat, and there is no reason to consider the matterfurther. Probably this notion has arisen to some extentbecause the war output of bicycles is likely to 'beconfined to the utility type of machine, with most of thespecialities like speed -gears, light tyres, the best saddles,the best brakes-that go to equip the high-class bicycle-withdrawn from the market. But that reason is notwholly true, because it has been recently said that thestandard bicycle is " the survival of the fittest " for thedaily journey, as no man would dream of going to workin a factory attired, say, in holiday costume. But Ithink such in analogy is false, because the bicycledoes not go to work : it merely performs the office ofhelpinKto transport the rider more swiftly than walking,more cheaply than any other form of travel. One mightjust as readily say of the motorist who drives to workthat he would be wise to do so in the cheapest type ofcar he could buy. It is further said by the retail traderthat the utility cyclist is the easiest customer to serve ;and I've no doubt that is true, for the simple reasonthat, unfortunately, many dealers take the line of leastresistance in selling the article, and do not realisethey are.or should be-selling something of far greaterimportance-cycling. Many retailers do -not like theracing man, with his numerous fads and fancies, hisuntutored criticisms, and his ever-changing interest inchanging fashions ; and I admit he is frequently anuisance to the busy man, for often he has investedhimself with an importance which only a mirror canreflect. Yet I think most traders know how to deal withthis type ; and, in any case, he is not numerous.

The Ideal CombinationI RAISE this question of the standard bicycle for the

utility rider now because I do not want the factsas recited above lost sight of when peace returns, andwe can once more buy the best, and so give ourselvesthe fullest sense of comfort in cycling. 'I am a utilityrider as well as a pleasure cyclist, and have daily riddento work and home again for more than 45 years. Mydaily mileage is just over xs, and my annual total,including pleasure cycling, between eight and ninethousand, of which over three thousand is city travel.I ride the best bicycle I can buy and thoroughly enjoymy daily journeys, because they give me the freshestairs blowing and keep me fit. I enjoy these dailyjourneys because I do them so easily aboard bicyclesthat represent the very best the factories can make,and the fitness they acquire in me makes pleasure ridinga still 4reater joy. My roadside troubles are whollyconcerned with punctures, and in 1941 amounted to a

s

couple of delays, which was high-er than the average over manyyears, due to the abnormalamount of broken glass on theroads. Now, this combinationof utility and pleasure ridinghas never been, in my opinion,fully exploited, nor is it likelyto be so long as the trade andthe rider is content to say, ineffect, " that bicycle is goodenough for the workman." Ifwe want cycling to prosper thenwe must aim at selling the besta man can afford, and so givehim a chance to enjoy this modeof travel. There will alwaysbe utilitarians whose interest incycling will be confined toconvenience ; the folk who,having used their machines forsix days a week, do not wantto see them again until Mondaymorning. I have no quarrelwith them ; they are good cus-tomers to the trade within theirlimits, but lack the " wander-lust " that is in the make-up ofmost people, but too often liesdormant for lack of oppor-tunity, or advice, to indulge it.Give this type the right bicycle,fitting snugly to the needs ofthe buyer, point the way tomake fuller use of it than thelimitations of the home andwork journey, and you havedone a good deal for cycling.

Glancing BackwardQUCH is the idea I have on

the question of cycle ex-pansion after the war, when fora certainty we shall all bepoorer, and the need for cheaptransport will be greater thanever. When cycling started toattract the public we sold thepastime with the machine. Noone bought a bicycle or tricycleunless they wanted to ride andtour. Slowly, as we came closerto manufacturing perfection, thebicycle became cheaper and

Edmund Crane (Hercules) that he realised this soonafter the close of the last -war and built accordingly.To him more than any other single man we owe theincrease in the number of riders from a trifle overthree millions in igas to well over ten millions in 1939.He taught a fifth of the population of these islands theconvenience and economy of cycling ; now we ought togo a step farther and teach the cycling and non -cyclingpopulace the pleasure and economy of cycling, and Ithink it can be done if the pleasure part-withoutdetriment to convenience, indeed with the addition ofcomfort and ease-is wedded to the propagation of adesire to buy the very best one can afford.

Make the Best of ItAND now let us remember that April is here and

all the long days are ahead. They will be busilyoccupied by most of us and our leisure hours will befew and far between ; but there will be some, when wecan perch ourselves on a saddle and go and look at theever-changing countryside, as the beneficent hand ofthe seasons soothes the rolling shires. Some of us mayget a few days' release, when a cruising journey on abicycle isnot only a perfection of freedom in itself,but gives a vision of the glorious land for which we arefighting and working. These short retreats from thenoise and grind of the daily task provide a refreshmentfar more beneficial, in my opinion, than the unsatisfyingrestfulness of inertia with its boring tendency to grumbleat the last meal and speculate on the next. Take yourluck in your hands and, if you can persuade one, a friendof like mind, the small adventures of food and accom-modation can be overcome. Carry iron rations in caseof need, but I do not think you will need them, formy experience on winter rides has been one of pleasantsurprise that so many of the old houses of call are doingso excellently for the casual wanderer. You may notbe able to travel far, or leave your trail over new country,but every one of us lives within easy distance of opencountry where the winds blow freely and the greatwaves of sunshine paint a gigantic landscape. The verythought of these chances to come make me keen to tasteonce more the freedom of the road that for ever callsthe wanderer over the next hill to a harbourage for thenight, when the sunset is playing a colour symphoitto end a glorious day.

Take Care of Tyres A GAIN let me issue a note of warning in referenceri to the supply of tyres. They will be short, andpossibly of one type only. There may still be time foryou to obtain replacements of your favourite cover, andI advise you to act accordingly. I do not think there

WAYSIDE THOUGHTSBy F. J. URRY

the number of riders increased. Then Dunlop withhis tyre invention brought comfort and ease to thegame, the free -wheel made attraction greater andbrought the rim brake, then speed gears, and the endof cycle design advance almost seemed in sight with therise of the motor -car and motor -cycle. For a fewyears the bicycle was neglected ; everyone in the tradethought its day had passed. A few folk still retainedfaith that so simple and healthy a means of travel couldnot die. But the use of the bicycle for both utilityand pleasure was definitely switched over to the workingclasses, and we owe it to the forensic ability of Sir

is any risk of cycle tyres going out of manufacture, butthose of us who have known the comfortable value ofthe best and lightest makes do not want to be standard-ised in this matter of equipment if we can avoid it. Theother obvious thing is to care for the tyres now in use.Frankly, I admit tyres have never troubled me. Whena cover has shown signs of wear or a cut has developedinto a slight bulge, then a new one replaced it ; butnow I am looking for the weak spots and attending totheir early repair before they get into the wreckage stage,not as a matter of economy, but for the reasons alreadygiven.

rhe11htte Houle,Longford Kok loot..

9 a -

62 THE CYCLIST May, 1942

dig 94eatei eaniaence andsafety in eiremegfenczes

,

\t'\\ ii 1.11V

al.., titFERODOBRAKE BLOCKSSMOOTH RUNNING NOISELESS LONG LASTING

REDD TRADE A,ARK

FERODO LIMITED CHAPEL - EN - LE - FRITH IFFIER01-11-001

Cycle Tare&enemyRubber is a vital munition of war. Now thatsupplies are limited every cyclist is asked to

exercise great care to avoid undue tyre wear.

AT/

INFLATION

IN/iatiaftCycle tyres should be inflated hard. - If this recommen-

dation is adopted tread wear is reduced to a minimum.

The tyre lasts longer, costs vou less per mile and thecountry saves rubber.

glow Row/NeesPunctures however small should be repaired immediate-

ly, otherwise even though the punctured tyre is inflatedbefore each journey, falling pressure will graduallybring about casing fatigue and subsequent failure.

Wee lae6derThis does not last indefinitely and should, therefore,be tested with a view to replacement if pressure is

being !no

DUNLOP CYCLE TYRES

Ogfefilast* Male them last longer still

and so save even more ruhber211'103


.CgA/iZZ /g0/7/4r/ -,A9gZR"

A

St Mary tr.e Virstri . Acklerbury (0.44Stn5th

ON my way- home from a little jaunt the otherSaturday evening, I was stopped by a fellow

cyclist wearing long trousers and a bowler hat, andnonchalantly wheeling his machine, and the questionhe put to me was : " Is this the way to the north ? "While I was figuratively scratching my head-for theenquiry temporarily nonplussed me-he murmuredthe name Middlesbrough, nearly 200 miles from wherewe stood. Then-without going into too much detail !-I assured him that he was travelling in the right direction.It is to be hoped that he has reached his destination bynow, Had time permitted, I would have liked to askwhy he was off to Middlesbrough, and in that garb, andat that time of night.

Ageing RapidlyON a recent half -day jaunt, when I paused for tea at

a familiar house of call in Shropshire, the caterer'ssmall daughter admitted me, and then went through tothe kitchen department to announce my presence, whichwas done in these terms : " Mummie l It's that veryold man l " I seem to be ageing rapidly, it being only

to, at a Berkshireguest-house, as " the old gentleman." Well, V.O.M.or 0.G.-you can pick where you like !-I am stillable to cycle my century, or walk my zo miles, in a day.

" Heavy Weather "WHAT "heavy weather " many cyclists make of the

greatest of road games, to be sure I They seemto me to do everything in the hardest possible way.I make bold to assert that a majority of bicycle -ownersare still using over -large and unduly heavy mounts,accompanied by excessive gears-despite the gallons ofink which have been ladled out on these topics withinthe last few years. I also make bold to say that the samemajority have never bothered in the least to find andadopt the most effective position, nor have they tried toget fit. It may further be said that thousands of bicycle-owners-again perhaps a majority-are not interestediq " dressing for the part."

I speak from intimate experience of these things,because I have been " through the mill." In my timeI have used over -large and unduly heavy bicycles :I have pushed excessive gears : I have sat awkwardlyon bicycles

.

I have clothed myself unsuitably. Thankheaven, I have " turned from the error of my ways."I have lived up to the gospel of " as tittle bicycle aspossible," which I adopted many years ago, my frame -height now being some bins. shorter than in the daysof long ago, while at least a third of the weight has been'cut out. About 20 years ago I adopted, as" standard(and- as " the only wear "), a gear of 631, and I remainfaithful to it ; and I have an idea that I do know howto sit on a bicycle. In the matter of clothing the greatestpossible advance has been made. At one time I could notstand hot weather for cycling, but now I revel in it,and this is mainly because I am " dressed for the part."Shorts are a tremendous advance on plus -fours : anopen -neck shirt is a delight : a very light jacket aids andabets the process of standing up to blazing sunshine.It is partly because of the sane clothing policy nowfollowed that the last few years have seen me at my bestin such hot weather as has been vouchsafed to us.Discomfort has vanished, and I get through the longestday's journey with complete enjoyment. When you see., so many cyclists making " heavyweather " of our romantic pastime, it is hardly to bewondered at that this amazing and magical game canclaim as " real cyclists " only a minority of the millionsof people who rank as bicycle -owners. One speaks ofthere being from r0 to 12 million cyclists in these island-a good talking -point based (no doubt) on somethingthat approximates to the fact. But, alas, how manymillions of the people who own bicycles are doomed,by their own chilled -steel lack of interest, and by theirprocess of making " heavy weather " of cycling, to liveon the verge of the Promised Land ! The quotation" the little more, how much it is " seems apt in thisconnection, for within reaching distance'will be foundthe infinite joys and advantages which accrue fromproper cycling-all those things which combine to make

My Pointof View

1?),Y WAYPAR.E12p

our pastime what it is. Cyclists of the" heavy weather " brand ! You havebut to reach out for the gifts whichthe pastime has in store for you-forthe " glittering prizes " which haveenriched the lives of so many of us. Ifyou value physical (and mental) fitness,it awaits you : if you want inexpensivetravel, it awaits you : if you want tosee the land in which you live, the pathis clearly defined : if you want to beweather -proofed, there is no surer waythan through cycling : if you want the

freest and most delightful of all forms of holiday, push ontowards the Promised Land. Get the right sort ofbicycle, and " as little bicycle as possible " : gearmoderately : learn how to sit on your bicycle, and howto ride it : " dress for the part": get fit. Then you willbe on the way towards becoming the right sort of cyclist I

Snare and DelusionHENCEFORTH I am going to be extremely

suspicious of people who prate about the quietudeof the countryside. I have been kept awake at night bythe " musical performances of the gentle corncrake :I have been disturbed in the early morning by thevociferousness of poultry and cows, and by the crashingtogether of milk -churns : and now this happened :I cycled away to a farm at the back of beyond, achievinga delightful 83 miles in the process of getting there.The farm lies at the end of a cul de sac (pudding -baglane, they call it in the city where I dwell), in a villageremote from what we term " civilization." Hitherto,I have gone to bed there in a deadly but most acceptablesilence, but on the occasion of which I write I stayedawake for half the night-quite unintentionally, ofcourse-listening to the passage of aircraft overhead.How I longed for the relative peace and quietness ofthe vast industrial centre in which I live I

So people who now talk to me about the peacefulcharm of the countryside had better beware

That " Travel' TalkAT last a common-sense word has been spoken in

connection with all the loose talk which has beengoing on in high places in discouragement of " travel,"and it was Mr. Noel Baker, Parliamentary Secretary,Ministry of War Transport, who said it. After dwellingon the difficulties confronting public transport, owing towar conditions, he expressed the hope that people wouldavoid long railway journeys, and spend their holidays" either in the neighbourhood of their homes or inwalking or cycling," *a view which we feel bound tocommend. Meanwhile, Mr. Baker's parliamentarymaster, Lord Leathers, has spoken in the usual vagueterms against " travel," particularly at Easter, and oneof our contributors, who admits that he has little respectfor people in elevated positions, wrote the Minister afrank letter on the subject, pointing out that he, himself," travelled " to the extent of thousands of miles everyyear, that he intended to " travel " as much as possibleat Easter, that he had not been in a railway train formonths, that he kept out of trams and buses as muchas possible, and that, as far as he could, he went every-where per bicycle. Lord Leathers sent back the" soft answer which turneth away wrath," saying thathe hoped his exhortation to people not to travel atEaster would not be interpreted as a request to cycliststo refrain from using their machines, as he " wouldcertainly not wish to discourage this form of healthyexercise." Further, he " appreciated that people whoused bicycles rather than buses and trams were actingin the public interest." So now, perhaps, folks inauthority will say exactly what they mean when speakingof " travel."

No Need for AlarmSOME cyclists still show a great deal of concern

because, on waking up in the morning after aday's ride, they are liable to feel stiff and sluggish.We do not believe that there is the slightest need foralarm, and we happen to number among our acquaint-ances cyclists of Very long and intense experience whoalways " suffer " in this way, and they are quite uncon-cerned about it. No doubt the stiffness which followsa strenuous day in the saddle can be neutralised tosome extent by indulgence in a sharp walk before goingto bed, a change of exercise being notoriously as goodas, ,if not better than, a rest ; and a before -breakfasttramp in the morning is also a good investment. Whenthis stiffness occurs during a tour, the real cure is " ahair of the dog which bit you " ; in other words, thestiffness which follows cycling can be disposed of bymore cycling ! It will be found that, soon after thejourney has been resumed, the aches and pains havedisappeared and one is conscious of a growing feelingof fitness. So that, as we have said, there is no need for

Enquiry of sports-men of other types will reveal that they, too, have theiraches and pains after a strenuous game-but nobodyapparently suggests (as is done with cyclists) that theyare " overdoing it " !

Notes of a HighwaymanBy LEONARD ELLIS

Hoax and HistoryIN these days of devastated buildings it is queer to

realise that in the past one or two misguidedpeople have spent much money and even more effortin manufacturing " ruins." On the very summit ofMow Cop, in Cheshire, and visible for miles around, isan imposing ruin that stands to -day substantially as itwas built by one Randle Wilbraham, of Rode Hall,in the eighteenth century. To be charitable he mayhave had a good reason for his freakish action-perhapsaltruistically he was providing a shelter for those whofollowed him to admire the views he must have loved sowell. And it is certainly true that there are timeswhen a shelter on the summit of Mow Cop is highlydesirable. It must be admitted that sightseers makegood use of his ruin and the unglazed windows arein great demand.

History is also here, as on this spot PrimitiveMethodism was born. Here in 1807 the first EnglishCamp meeting, convened by Hugh Bourne, a Stokewheelwright, was held. The Methodists rememberthe birthplace of their religion and in 5937 ten thousandof them congregated on Mow Cop, and held a serviceto mark the acquisition of the height by the NationalTrust. Scattered around are numerous freaks instone, one looking very much like a map of Scotlandin profile.

Cheshire's GloriesONLY two miles away as the crow flies, but longer

and more arduous as the cyclist usually travels,is Little Moreton Hall, or Moreton Old Hall as it is

pularly called, one of the chief glories of Cheshire.This is said to be one of the most beautiful examplesof Elizabethan black and white architecture in thecountry. It is complete with moat and bridge and isopen to the public on set days. I have not seen the oldplace since the war began and often wonder how muchsurvived a disastrous fire that occurred some littletime ago. Cheshire is, of course, famous for its " mag-pie " architecture and Moreton is by no means an isolatedexample. Not many miles distant is Gawsworth, wherethere is a splendid fifteenth -century vicarage and fineold Hall. At Lower Peover, in the same county, there isa church built partly in the black and white style. The

county town of Chester provides many fine examplesamong which God's Providence House is world-famous. This dates back from the seventeenth centuryand is elaborately carved all over its black oak beams,Two other houses in Chester are Bishop Lloyd's House,and the Bear and Billet Inn.

A curious rock on Mow Cop

zi 64 THE CYCLIST May, 1942

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