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ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Harvesters’ perceptions of population status and conservationof Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal
Uttam Babu Shrestha • Kamaljit S. Bawa
Received: 21 August 2013 / Accepted: 17 November 2014
� Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2014
Abstract Chinese caterpillar fungus is in spotlight
because of its high market value, unusual life history, and
numerous medicinal uses. One of the most expensive bio-
logical resources of the world, Chinese caterpillar fungus is
harvested by the most impoverished communities of the
Himalaya to sustain their livelihoods. Skyrocketing inter-
national trade and intensive local collections from the wild
have raised concerns about the status of natural populations
and their conservation. We assessed harvesters’ percep-
tions of the population status of Chinese caterpillar fungus,
causes of decline, and sustainable harvesting in Dolpa,
Nepal. Most harvesters (95.1 %) believe that the abun-
dance of Chinese caterpillar fungus has decreased during
the last 5 years. This belief is supported by trends in
average annual per capita harvest. Climate change, over
harvesting, premature harvesting, and reduced number of
the larvae are the cited causes of decline in harvests. To
validate the harvester’s perceptions of climate change, we
analyzed temperature and precipitation data. Pearson’s
Chi-square tests between the perceptions of abundance of
Chinese caterpillar fungus and demographic variables such
as harvesting experience, age, place of origin and education
are not significant, indicating that the perceptions are
independent of demographic characteristics of harvesters.
A large proportion of harvesters (79.31 %) believe that the
population might recover if collection is periodically ban-
ned for 1–2 years. Other protection measures suggested by
the harvesters include changes in the harvesting time,
regulation of prices, protection of habitat including solid
waste management and control of cattle grazing, and
development of local capacity for harvesting on a sus-
tainable basis. A systematic management plan that incor-
porates trans-national efforts to sustain populations that
occur across several countries facing similar human and
physical pressures and ecological impacts is needed.
Keywords Medicinal plants � Harvesting � Conservation �Dolpa � Nepal
Introduction
Ecosystems and constituent populations all over the globe
are under human pressures, and populations of many spe-
cies are declining (Butchart et al. 2010). Consequences of
this decline for ecosystem functioning or human well-being
are not well understood. As the pressures on populations
and ecosystems increase, deficit of knowledge about their
status is likely to increase. How do we fill this growing gap
in our understanding of human impacts? One way to
accelerate this understanding and to test meaningful
hypotheses is to harness knowledge and perceptions of
local people experiencing this change. Perceptions of local
communities indeed are being increasingly used to assess
Editor: by Ulo Mander.
U. B. Shrestha (&)
Institute for Agriculture and the Environment, University of
Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
e-mail: [email protected]
U. B. Shrestha
International Centre for Applied Climate Sciences, University of
Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, Australia
K. S. Bawa
Department of Biology, University of Massachusetts Boston,
100 Morrissey Blvd., Boston, MA 02125, USA
K. S. Bawa
Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and Environment
(ATREE), Bangalore, India
123
Reg Environ Change
DOI 10.1007/s10113-014-0732-7
impacts of global change on ecosystems: effects of climate
change on ecosystems (Byg and Salick 2009; Chaudhary
and Bawa 2011); benefits and costs of protected areas
(Karanth and Nepal 2012); relationship among livestock,
agriculture and natural resources (Tschopp et al. 2010);
human–wildlife conflict (Dar et al. 2009); use, trade, and
conservation of medicinal plants (Uprety et al. 2011); and
management of Matsutake mushroom (Amend et al. 2010).
Here, we provide the quantitative assessment of the per-
ceptions of harvesters on population status, causes of
decline, and prospects for sustainable harvesting of Chi-
nese caterpillar fungus.
Chinese caterpillar fungus is a complex formed by a
parasitic relationship between the fungus Ophiocordyceps
sinensis and caterpillar of the several species of moth
belonging to genus Thitarodes (Winkler 2009). There are at
least 57 potential host species of moth belonging to the
family Hepialidae (Lepidoptera) (Wang and Yao 2011).
The fungus propagules are released from stroma in late
summer and infect the host caterpillar in late autumn when
the caterpillar is beneath the soil; however, it is not known
how the fungus infects the caterpillar (Zhang et al. 2012).
Following the unknown period of host dormancy, the
fungus grows and spreads its hyphae inside the host cat-
erpillar killing it by consuming the essential nutrients
(Cannon et al. 2009; Zhang et al. 2012). The fungus from a
mycelial growth phase finally forms one or more stroma
from the head of the buried dead caterpillar (Winkler
2009). The fungal stroma grows to 2–6 cm above the soil
surface in early spring when it is harvested along with the
sub-terrain mummified caterpillar (Fig. 1a).
Chinese caterpillar fungus has been used for various
therapeutic uses in traditional Chinese medicine and
Tibetan medicines for centuries (Shrestha et al. 2010;
Winkler 2009). It is used to strengthen lung and kidneys,
increase energy and vitality, stop hemorrhage, and decrease
phlegm (Holliday and Cleaver 2008). A recent study
showed that it is also effective as an anti-aging and anti-
tumor agent (Wong et al. 2010). Cordycepin, a major
chemical compound of the fungus has anti-inflammatory
properties (Kondrashov et al. 2012). However, Chinese
caterpillar fungus is widely traded as an aphrodisiac and a
powerful tonic (Holliday and Cleaver 2008; Winkler 2009)
and is popularly known as ‘‘Himalayan Viagra.’’
The quest for natural aphrodisiac has made this so-called
Himalayan Viagra the most expensive biological com-
modity in the world with current price of up to US
$140,000/kg for the highest quality Chinese caterpillar
fungus, two times as much as gold (Xuan 2012). With the
estimated annual production of *85–185 tons (Winkler
2009), current global market of Chinese caterpillar fungus
might be at between 5 and 11 billion US dollars (Shrestha
2012). From 1997 to 2008, the price has increased by
*900 % in Tibet (Winkler 2009) and in Nepal, from 2001
to 2011, by *2,300 % (Shrestha and Bawa 2013).
With the growing global market, the economic signifi-
cance of Chinese caterpillar fungus at local level has
increased. Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting and trade
have become major sources of cash income for the
mountain communities; income from the fungus contrib-
utes 53.3 % of total household cash income in Dolpa
District of Western Nepal (Shrestha and Bawa 2014b). The
income derived from the fungus harvesting provides money
for food and education and acts as a safety net for the
people in this region. Chinese caterpillar fungus alone
contributed *41 % of the total revenue generated from 62
species of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) by the
Department of Forests, Government of Nepal in 2011
(GoN 2011).
Exploding market demand and the dramatic price
increases are leading to rapid increases in the number of
harvesters. About 70,000 harvesters are estimated to be
involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting in Dolpa
each year, and there is a widespread concern about the
sustainability of the current harvest rates (Cannon et al.
2009; Zhang et al. 2012; Shrestha and Bawa 2013; Shrestha
et al. 2014). However, little is known about trends in
populations, the harvesting practices, and the impact of
such practices on the persistence of populations. Based on
the assumption that the harnessing of local knowledge may
be the most efficient and the least expensive way to gather
preliminary data, we assessed harvesters’ perceptions on
the population status of Chinese caterpillar fungus, causes
of decline, and prospects for sustainable harvesting. WeFig. 1 Chinese caterpillar fungus a in the natural habitat and b after
harvesting and cleaning
U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa
123
address three specific questions: (1) what are the percep-
tions of harvesters about the status of Chinese caterpillar
fungus populations? (2) what factors are perceived by the
harvesters as drivers of decline? and (3) what conservation
measures do the harvesters think need to be taken for
continued existence of populations in large numbers? We
examine the extent to which perceptions are consistent with
actual data on trends in average annual per capita harvest
levels as well as observed data of temperature and pre-
cipitation. We also analyze how demographic variables
(harvesting experience, age, origin of the harvesters, and
education) influence perceptions of harvesters.
Methods
Study area
Field surveys to collect information on harvesters’ percep-
tions and their socioeconomic characteristics were carried
out in the remote alpine pastures of Majphal Village
Development Committee (VDC) in Dolpa, Nepal (Fig. 2) in
May–July 2011. Although Chinese caterpillar fungus is
reported from 27 districts of Nepal (Devkota 2010) and
commercially collected from ten districts, Dolpa district is
regarded as a major repository of Chinese caterpillar fungus,
contributing 40 % of the Nepalese supply in 2011. Physio-
graphically, Dolpa lies in trans Himalayan zone at altitudes
ranging from 1,275 to 7625 m elevation and about 30 % of
the district is covered by grassland, the main habitat for
Chinese caterpillar fungus. The species is collected from 24
pastures of Dolpa (DFO-Dolpa 2010); five of these (Saiku-
mari, Pokepani, Ruppatan, Chinarangsi, and Batule) are
located in the Majphal VDC. This study covered the har-
vesters in Saikumari, Chinarangsi, Ruppatan, and Batule and
their camps in three localities: Tarpare (4,016 m), Opa
(3,841 m), and Baghdanda (3,743 m). The temporary camp
locations are assigned to the harvesters by local institution,
Toridwari Herbs Collection and Management Committee.
Data collection and analysis
Data were collected by administering questionnaires and
by personal field observations. The questionnaire-based
surveys conducted in Nepali language were limited to
harvesters having at least 5-year experience of Chinese
caterpillar fungus harvesting (demographic characteristics
of the harvesters are given in Table 1). We first collected
and listed names of all harvesters in our pool. Name slips
were placed in a box, and the interviewees were randomly
chosen through the lottery method and without replace-
ment. A substitute was chosen if the randomly drawn
respondent was not available or did not want to be inter-
viewed. Written consent from the respondents was secured
Fig. 2 Map of the study area showing the origin of harvesters
Table 1 Demographic characteristics of Chinese caterpillar fungus
harvesters
Demographic characteristics Number
(%)
Total number of the harvesters 203
Gender
Male 170 (83.7)
Female 33 (16.3)
Origin
From Dolpa (natives) 126 (62.1)
From outside Dolpa (outsiders) 76 (37.9)
Average family size 5.94 ± 2.40
Average percentage of family members involved in
harvesting
48.2 ± 24.2
Average age of the harvesters 31 ± 11
Average years of harvesting experience 7.7 ± 3.89
Academic qualification
Illiterate 43 (21.2)
Literate 66 (32.5)
Secondary 81 (39.9)
Bachelor or higher 13 (6.4)
Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal
123
before the interviews by explaining the study objectives.
Harvesters were interviewed in the evening when they
returned back to their camps from the pasture after a
daylong harvesting. Altogether, we interviewed 203 har-
vesters from 4 districts, 17 VDCs, and 50 villages (ca.
10 % of total and ca. 35 % of the population meeting the
selection criteria) with sets of structured and semi-struc-
tured questionnaires during May–June 2011 (respondents’
residence is shown in Fig. 2). There were about 2600
collectors in three camps during the survey year. Ques-
tionnaires included demographic parameters, perceptions
of harvesters about the status of Chinese caterpillar fungus
populations, and number of annual harvests. Since this
resource is very precious and plays a significant role in
household income, respondents recalled their annual har-
vest or earnings very well. We asked two open-ended
questions: (a) what are the causes of decline? and (b) how
the decline can be curtailed in future (sustainable har-
vesting) if a harvester mentioned decline?
We analyzed the data by counting frequencies and cal-
culating percentages of the responses. Cross-tabulation and
Chi-square tests were used to analyze the interdependence
of the responses among the age of the harvesters (B25,
26–40, C41 years old), experience in harvesting (5, 6–10,
C11 years), education (illiterate, literate, secondary,
bachelor, or higher), and origin (harvesters from Dolpa—
insider, harvesters outside Dolpa—outsider). Linear
regression was used to ascertain trends in average annual
per capita harvest over the 5-year period.
To validate the results of the harvester’s perceptions on
climate change, we analyzed temperature and precipitation
datasets produced by APHRODITE (Yasutomi et al. 2011).
It is the highest resolution (0.25�) gridded data available
for this region developed by interpolation technique using
observations obtained from weather stations. We extracted
gridded data for entire Dolpa district (study area) from this
continental-scale dataset and analyzed average annual and
seasonal trends in mean temperature from 1961 to 2007
and precipitation from 1951 to 2007.
Results
Harvesters’ perceptions on status of Chinese caterpillar
fungus
A majority of the harvesters (95.1 %) believed that Chinese
caterpillar fungus has now become less abundant than it was
5 years ago. In contrast, only 1.0 % of the harvesters perceived
it to be more abundant now. The remaining 2.5 % harvesters
found no change, and 1.5 % harvesters did not know the status.
Pearson’s Chi-square test revealed that responses on the
abundance of Chinese caterpillar fungus are not significantly
dependent on harvesting experience (V2 = 5.4, P = 0.49),
age (V2 = 6.5, P = 0.37), origin of the harvesters (V2 = 4.4,
P = 0.22), and education (V2 = 7.1, P = 0.62) (Fig. 3),
meaning the responses are not related to the demographic
parameters.
Analysis of the survey data on the trends of per capita
average annual harvest shows a continuous decline from
2006 to 2010. A linear regression shows that per capita
average annual harvest has declined at a rate of 32.58
(P \ 0.0001) pieces per harvester per year (Fig. 4).
Causes of decline as perceived by local people
Harvesters were asked to highlight the perceived causes of
decline if they mentioned that Chinese caterpillar fungus is
less common now than it was 5 years earlier. Harvesters
attributed decline to various causes that can be placed into
two major categories related to harvesting and climate
(Fig. 5a). Over harvesting is perceived as one of the major
causes of decline (75.35 % harvesters), followed by pre-
mature harvesting (23.15 %). Climate change (less snow
during winter, warming, and early melting of snow in
spring) was next in importance though the harvesters did
not use the exact term—climate change. Less snow in the
pasture during winter is perceived as the major cause of
decline in abundance by 66.02 % of the harvesters. Like-
wise, 51.72 and 38.42 % of harvesters perceived early
melting of snow in spring and overall warming (increased
temperature) are the causes of decline, respectively.
Perceptions on sustainable harvesting
In response to open-ended question about local perceptions on
sustainability of extraction, harvesters listed a total 17 differ-
ent measures (Fig. 5b). Majority of the harvesters (79.31 %)
believed that a ban of harvesting for 1–2 years would help to
conserve this species allowing sufficient time for regeneration.
Management of solid waste in the pasture was the second
highest (40.39 %) response. Only one harvester mentioned
that rotational harvest in different pastures would help for
sustainable management of Chinese caterpillar fungus.
Changes in temperature and precipitation
Both positive and negative anomalies of average annual
temperature were observed until 1990, and then, continu-
ous positive anomaly except in the year 1994 was observed
(Fig. 6a). Annual average temperature has significantly
increased with the rate of 0.04 �C per year (P = 0.000) in
the period from 1961 to 2007 in the study area. Likewise,
the seasonal average temperature showed increasing trends
in all seasons, the greatest increase, 0.07 �C per year,
occurred in the summer season (Fig. 6d).
U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa
123
Mean annual precipitation in Dolpa over the 56-year
period from 1951 to 2007 was 576 mm. Standardized
precipitation anomalies of annual and seasonal precipita-
tion are given in Fig. 7. Annual precipitation has slightly
decreased with the rate of 3.3 mm per year (P = 0.01) for
the 56-year period with the maximum decrease in monsoon
season (2.8 mm per year). No clear trends of winter and
spring precipitation were observed in the study area.
Discussion and conclusions
Our results show that 95.1 % of the harvesters perceived
that Chinese caterpillar fungus is less abundant now. Lack
of significance in Chi-square tests between demographic
variables and responses indicates that results are uniform
among harvesters irrespective of experience, age, origin,
and education level. Harvesters’ perception of decline in
Chinese caterpillar fungus is supported by the surveys that
indicate a decline in per capita average annual harvest by
32.58 pieces per year during the 5-year period from 2006 to
2010. Data from other parts of Nepal are lacking. However,
quoting local harvesters, popular press has reported decline
in abundance from Nepal (Taggart 2012). Likewise, a
decrease in overall production in recent years has been
reported in China (Zhang et al. 2012) and in India (Negi
et al. 2006; Jeffrey and Dyson 2012). In Bhutan, the total
quantity of trade—based on the auction data—has
Fig. 3 Harvesters’ perceptions
about the abundance of Chinese
caterpillar fungus
Fig. 4 Trends in a average per
capita total annual harvest and
b average per capita daily
harvest
Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal
123
continuously declined by 50.83 kg per year from 2008 to
2011 (Dahal 2009; Chhetri 2011, analyzed here).
Harvesters attribute decline to several anthropogenic
pressures; the most cited cause is over harvesting followed
by premature harvesting. In Bhutan, 70 % of harvesters
viewed over exploitation and habitat destruction as a cause
of decline of Chinese caterpillar fungus population
(Shrivastava et al. 2010). Although a plot-wise study of
wild mushrooms showed that intensive harvesting did not
affect the population adversely (Arora 2008), this may not
be true for a parasitic fungus complex such as Chinese
caterpillar fungus. Unlike other fungi, Chinese caterpillar
fungus harvesting is done at a massive scale. Virtually,
every individual encountered by tens of thousands of har-
vesters is harvested, eliminating potential for regeneration.
Ma (2010) conservatively estimated that about 300,000
Chinese citizens are involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus
harvesting in Tibet. Compared with Tibet, in a much
smaller landscape of Dolpa, Nepal, about 70,000 people are
involved in Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting (DFO-
Dolpa 2010). Therefore, per capita pressure and intensity
of harvest are much higher in Dolpa than in Tibet. A
species is considered as overharvested when the harvest
rate of any given natural populations of that species
exceeds its natural replacement rate (Peres 2010). How-
ever, the impacts of this massive-scale harvesting on nat-
ural populations of Chinese caterpillar fungus and
associated ecosystems are largely unknown. Nor do we
know the natural replacement rate of Chinese caterpillar
fungus. Thus, the assumptions of overharvesting and the
variation in overharvesting across space and time remain to
be validated.
Premature harvesting is also perceived as a cause of
decline by many harvesters. We observed that traders
Fig. 5 Frequency of harvesters’
perceptions on a causes of
decline in abundance of Chinese
caterpillar fungus and
b sustainable harvesting of
Chinese caterpillar fungus
U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa
123
prefer immature (non-spore bearing) specimens to the
spore bearing ones, and paid more money for immature
individuals. Our observations show that 94.4 % of the
collected individuals are without sexual spore—principal
sources of propagation of Chinese caterpillar fungus—
when harvested. After a fungal spore infects and enters
into the host caterpillar body, the fungus grows, kills,
and fills caterpillar body with threadlike vegetative
hyphae; a perithecial stroma emerges from the head of
caterpillar forming a stalked fruiting body above soil
surface that releases ascospores and apparently infects
new caterpillars (Zhang et al. 2012). Therefore, early
harvesting does not permit sexual spore (ascospores)
release, which reduces the likelihood of infection of the
new host caterpillar and forming Chinese caterpillar
fungus complex. Harvesters are motivated by ‘‘if not
taken by me another will’’ attitude that leads them to
harvest every individual encountered regardless of
maturity.
Changes in climatic variables such as early melting of
snow in spring, less snow in the pasture during winter,
and overall warming are perceived as major contributing
factors for the decline. Climate change was one of the
two most cited reasons for Matsutake mushroom decline
in Yunnan, China (Amend et al. 2010). Increasing
temperature during autumn and winter seasons causes
significant delay in fruiting of fungi (Kauserud et al.
2010). The increase in overall fruiting period due to
advance in the first fruiting date and delay in last
fruiting date has been also reported for many species of
fungi due to climate change (Gange et al. 2007). Habitat
suitability model of Chinese caterpillar fungus shows
that mean temperature of the coldest quarter and pre-
cipitation seasonality are major contributing bioclimatic
factors determining the potential distribution of Chinese
caterpillar fungus (Shrestha and Bawa 2014a). Although
our results on perceptions of early melting of snow, less
snow cover, and warming are consistent with the results
Fig. 6 Anomalies in average
temperature during 1961–2007.
a annual, b winter (December,
January, and February), c spring
(March, April, and May),
d summer (June, July, and
August), e fall (September,
October, and November)
Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal
123
on perceptions of climate change reported by Byg and
Salick (2009) and Chaudhary and Bawa (2011) in other
parts of the Himalaya, the impact of such changes on
the ecology and productivity of Chinese caterpillar
fungus is not known. However, there is ample scientific
evidence for unprecedented change in temperature,
precipitation, and natural ecosystems in the Himalaya
(Shrestha et al. 2012). Analysis of average annual and
seasonal temperature and precipitation showed increas-
ing mean temperature and decreasing precipitation in the
study area. The perceptions of overall warming and
early melting of snow can be attributed to the increase
in average temperature. Similarly, the perceived change
in less precipitation is validated by the decreasing trends
of annual and seasonal precipitation. Furthermore,
satellite-based observations showed winter snow covered
percentage in the Himalaya has declined in the last
decade (Immerzeel et al. 2009; Paudel and Andersen
2010).
Apart from over harvesting, premature harvesting, and
climate change, there could be several other anthropogenic
and natural drivers of Chinese caterpillar fungus decline.
One of the hurdles in understanding the causes of decline is
the very limited knowledge of natural history and regen-
eration process of the species. Although Zhang et al. (2012)
summarize the key elements of the comprehensive life
cycle, the mode of infestation and role of sexual (ascosp-
ores) and asexual spore (conidia) in parasitism remain
largely unclear. There are conflicting claims about the
duration of Chinese caterpillar fungus life cycle (Winkler
2009; Zhang et al. 2012). In addition, the plant species that
the host caterpillar feeds on and the population dynamics of
those species in the natural habitats are largely unknown.
Population fluctuations of food plants can cause fluctua-
tions in populations of host caterpillar and ultimately the
Caterpillar fungus. Thus, long-term monitoring of the
natural populations of Chinese caterpillar fungus and its
host to track the impacts of harvesting is necessary.
Fig. 7 Standardized
precipitation anomalies during
1951–2007. a Annual, b winter
(December, January, February),
c pre-monsoon (March, April,
May), d monsoon (June, July,
August, September), e post-
monsoon (October, November)
U. B. Shrestha, K. S. Bawa
123
Due to limited information on ecology and natural
history, the high economic value of the fungus, and
massive scale of harvesting, there is no single overarching
solution for sustainable management of this resource. In
order to deal with multiple factors that might be respon-
sible for decline in populations, a number of steps might
be required to manage the Chinese caterpillar fungus
populations. The collection of the fungus is done from de
facto open access pasture land. Thus, it is highly likely
that the resource will be further depleted if the pressures
continue and there is no response to prevent further
depletion, leading to Hardin’s (1968) ‘tragedy of the
commons’ situation. There are a number of conservation
measures, interestingly proposed by the harvesters, to
prevent decline and to promote long-term sustainability of
the resource. Harvesters advocate: (a) development of
rules that would include a periodic ban on collection for
1–2 years from the same place and change the harvesting
time, (b) regulation of prices, (c) protection of habitat
including solid waste management and control of cattle
grazing, and (d) development of local capacity for har-
vesting on a sustainable basis.
First, as suggested by harvesters, initiation of conser-
vation efforts by enforcing harvest and trade regulations or
restrictions would be necessary. Harvests of Chinese cat-
erpillar fungus were regulated in Nepal until 2001 and in
Bhutan until 2004, but were discontinued due to increasing
pressure from harvesters, and poor enforcement in remote
areas where the fungus grows. Bhutan has now initiated a
permit system, with each household receiving three permits
for Chinese caterpillar fungus harvesting (Wangchuk et al.
2012). The system is intended to limit the number of har-
vesters and minimize the ecosystem impacts, but it might
not help the regeneration of Chinese caterpillar fungus as
harvest is still done by anyone, anywhere, and anytime.
Some harvesters have also suggested changes in the date of
collection to conserve the species. Current regulations have
no fixed calendar date (except for the starting day of har-
vest) for harvesting, allowing collectors to extract Chinese
caterpillar fungus freely anytime. If collection duration is
fixed and the specimens regenerated later are prevented
from extraction, populations may be sustained for a long
time. A similar perception among Chinese caterpillar fun-
gus harvesters in China was documented by Weckerle et al.
(2010).
Second, as also perceived by local people, maximizing
benefits to local communities often creates an incentive for
conservation of species and results in a win–win situation
(Marshall et al. 2006). The economic value shared by local
harvesters compared to its price in national and interna-
tional markets is very nominal. The government adminis-
tered auction system for both buyers and sellers of Chinese
caterpillar fungus has been in practice in Bhutan (Cannon
et al. 2009). This system provides bargaining opportunity
to local harvesters and maximizes benefits by curtailing
market chain. Furthermore, this type of system, if strictly
enforced, can provide real estimates of the amount of
harvest that can be a proxy for population estimates in time
and space.
Third, Chinese caterpillar fungus habitat management
from unintended activities of harvesters while harvesting
Chinese caterpillar fungus that includes solid waste man-
agement, control of excessive grazing, and reduction of
adverse impacts on landscape (soil, water, and forests)
during harvest, is needed. Solid waste management is also
cited by a significant number of harvesters as a way to
conserve Chinese caterpillar fungus as they perceive hap-
hazard solid waste disposal to have an adverse impact on
the species. Harvesters have been witnessing the excessive
use of fuelwood, open defecation, and accumulation of
solid waste in the pristine landscape. Soil compaction in
the area is visible due to the excessive movement of a large
number of harvesters. Older harvesters recalled that
15–20 years ago they did not need a hoe and used fingers to
uproot but now because of the compacted soil, the use of
hoe is necessary. In Nyingchi district of Tibet, 100,000 m2
of grasslands are damaged each year by Chinese caterpillar
fungus harvesters (Zhou et al. 2009; c.f. Zhang et al. 2012),
but the quantitative assessment of the damage to grasslands
in Nepal is still lacking.
Fourth, and finally, there is an opportunity for estab-
lishing or strengthening local institutions to sustainably
manage this open access resource. Even now, the habitats
are accessible to everybody after paying a nominal levy
(equivalent to price of one piece of Chinese caterpillar
fungus) fixed by local institutions. For thousands of years,
self-organized local communities have successfully man-
aged resources through sustainable institutions (Ostrom
1999). Emergence of such institutions is facilitated by the
perceived knowledge about the resource and the impacts of
harvesting along with sociocultural incentives for changing
harvesting behaviors (Brooks 2010). In our study area and
many parts of Dolpa, local communities have started for-
mation of formal and informal institutions to regulate
harvests. Fixing the date of beginning the harvest, con-
trolling poaching of the resource through the protection by
community volunteers, setting rules for solid waste man-
agement, determining appropriate locations for camping,
and collecting revenue from the harvesters are the activities
undertaken by those organizations. However, without a
common platform that can bring together all stakeholders,
these activities would not help in fostering sustainable
resource management. Therefore, cooperation between
state agencies, local institutions, researchers, and other
stakeholders is necessary for the long-term management of
this resource.
Chinese caterpillar fungus in the Dolpa region of Nepal
123
Our work represents one of the first efforts to document
the population status of one of the most precious species
that plays a critical role in the livelihoods of thousands of
very poor. Our results raise a series of questions that have a
bearing on the long-term monitoring of Chinese caterpillar
fungus populations; the impact of current harvesting
practices; knowledge of life history, ecology, and distri-
bution of the species; and development of appropriate
harvesting guidelines in the context of management of
Chinese caterpillar fungus by various stakeholders. It is
ironic that for a species that is worth 5–11 billion US
dollars market every year, even the various stages of life
history remain fairly unknown, and there is no systematic
management plan, and trans-national efforts to sustain
populations that across several countries facing similar
human and physical pressures and ecological impacts.
Acknowledgments This work is supported by Rufford Small Grants
for Nature Conservation (RSGs) and National Geographic Society.
We are grateful to Bharat Babu Shrestha, Sujata Shrestha, Shivaraj
Ghimire, Kamal Nepali, Puspa Shahi, and all the people of Dolpa for
their support in the field.
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