hartman’s nursing assistant care
TRANSCRIPT
Hartman’s Nursing Assistant CareLong-Term Care
Susan Alvare HedmanJetta Fuzy, RN, MSand Suzanne Rymer, MSTE, RN, LSW
fourth edition
Credits
Managing Editor Susan Alvare Hedman
Designer Kirsten Browne
Cover Illustrator Iveta Vaicule
Photography Matt Pence Pat Berrett Art Clifton Dick Ruddy
Sales/Marketing Deborah Rinker Kendra Robertson Erika Walker Belinda Midyette Carol Castillo
Customer Service Fran Desmond Thomas Noble Angela Storey Eliza Martin Col Foley Brian Fejer
Warehouse Coordinator Chris Midyette
Copyright Information
© 2018 by Hartman Publishing, Inc. 1313 Iron Ave SW Albuquerque, New Mexico 87102 (505) 291-1274 web: hartmanonline.com e-mail: [email protected] Twitter: @HartmanPub
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-60425-074-9 ISBN 978-1-60425-077-0 (Hardcover)
PRINTED IN CANADA
Notice to Readers
Though the guidelines and procedures contained in this text are based on consultations with healthcare profession-als, they should not be considered absolute recommenda-tions. The instructor and readers should follow employer, local, state, and federal guidelines concerning healthcare practices. These guidelines change, and it is the reader’s re-sponsibility to be aware of these changes and of the policies and procedures of her or his healthcare facility.
The publisher, authors, editors, and reviewers cannot ac-cept any responsibility for errors or omissions or for any consequences from application of the information in this book and make no warranty, express or implied, with re-spect to the contents of the book. The publisher does not warrant or guarantee any of the products described herein or perform any analysis in connection with any of the prod-uct information contained herein.
Gender Usage
This textbook uses the pronouns he, his, she, and her in-terchangeably to denote healthcare team members and residents.
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Special Thanks
We are very appreciative of the many sources who shared their informative photos with us:
• Briggs Corporation
• Detecto
• Dreamstime
• Exergen Corporation
• Harrisburg Area Community College
• Hollister Incorporated
• Invacare Corporation
• Laerdal Medical
• Dr. Jere Mammino
• Medline Industries
• The Medcom Group, Ltd.
• Motion Control, Inc.
• National Pressure Ulcer Advisory Panel
• North Coast Medical, Inc.
• Nova Medical Products
• RG Medical Diagnostics of Wixom, MI
• Sage Products LLC
• Standard Textile
• Teleflex
• Vancare, Inc.
• Welch Allyn
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1 Understanding Healthcare Settings1. Discuss the structure of the healthcare system and describe ways it is changing 1
2. Describe a typical long-term care facility 4
3. Describe residents who live in long-term care facilities 4
4. Explain policies and procedures 5
5. Describe the long-term care survey process 6
6. Explain Medicare and Medicaid 6
7. Discuss the terms culture change and person-centered care 7
2 The Nursing Assistant and the Care Team1. Identify the members of the care team and describe how the care team works together to provide care 9
2. Explain the nursing assistant’s role 11
3. Explain professionalism and list examples of professional behavior 12
4. Describe proper personal grooming habits 14
5. Explain the chain of command and scope of practice 14
6. Discuss the resident care plan and explain its purpose 16
7. Describe the nursing process 17
8. Describe The Five Rights of Delegation 17
9. Demonstrate how to manage time and assignments 18
3 Legal and Ethical Issues1. Define the terms law and ethics and list examples of legal and ethical behavior 20
2. Explain the Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act (OBRA) 21
3. Explain Residents’ Rights and discuss why they are important 23
4. Discuss abuse and neglect and explain how to report abuse and neglect 25
5. List examples of behavior supporting and promoting Residents’ Rights 28
6. Describe what happens when a complaint of abuse is made against a nursing assistant 29
7. Explain how disputes may be resolved and identify the ombudsman’s role 29
8. Explain HIPAA and list ways to protect residents’ privacy 30
9. Explain the Patient Self-Determination Act (PSDA) and discuss advance directives and related medical orders 32
4 Communication and Cultural Diversity1. Define communication 34
2. Explain verbal and nonverbal communication 35
3. Describe ways different cultures communicate 36
4. Identify barriers to communication 37
5. List ways to make communication accurate and explain how to develop effective interpersonal relationships 38
6. Explain the difference between facts and opinions 40
7. Explain objective and subjective information and describe how to observe and report accurately 41
8. Explain how to communicate with other team members 42
9. Describe basic medical terminology and abbreviations 42
10. Explain how to give and receive an accurate report of a resident’s status 43
11. Explain documentation and describe related terms and forms 44
12. Describe incident reporting and recording 47
13. Demonstrate effective communication on the telephone 47
14. Explain the resident call system 49
15. List guidelines for communicating with residents with special needs 50
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Contents
5 Infection Prevention and Control1. Define infection prevention and discuss types of infections 58
2. Describe the chain of infection 59
3. Explain why the elderly are at a higher risk for infection 60
4. Explain Standard Precautions 61
5. Explain hand hygiene and identify when to wash hands 63
6. Discuss the use of personal protective equipment (PPE) in facilities 65
7. List guidelines for handling equipment and linen 69
8. Explain how to handle spills 70
9. Explain Transmission-Based Precautions 71
10. Define bloodborne pathogens and describe two major bloodborne diseases 74
11. Explain OSHA’s Bloodborne Pathogens Standard 75
12. Define tuberculosis and list infection prevention guidelines 76
13. Discuss MRSA, VRE, and C. diff icile 78
14. List employer and employee responsibilities for infection prevention 79
6 Safety and Body Mechanics1. Identify the persons at greatest risk for accidents and describe accident prevention guidelines 81
2. List safety guidelines for oxygen use 85
3. Explain the Safety Data Sheet (SDS) 85
4. Define the term restraint and give reasons why restraints were used 86
5. List physical and psychological problems associated with restraints 87
6. Discuss restraint alternatives 87
7. Describe guidelines for what must be done if a restraint is ordered 88
8. Explain the principles of body mechanics 88
9. Apply principles of body mechanics to daily activities 90
10. Identify major causes of fire and list fire safety guidelines 91
7 Emergency Care and Disaster Preparation1. Demonstrate how to recognize and respond to medical emergencies 94
2. Demonstrate knowledge of first aid procedures 95
3. Describe disaster guidelines 105
8 Human Needs and Human Development1. Identify basic human needs 108
2. Define holistic care and explain its importance in health care 109
3. Explain why independence and self-care are important 109
4. Describe sexual orientation and gender identity and explain ways to accommodate sexual needs 111
5. Identify ways to help residents meet their spiritual needs 113
6. Identify ways to accommodate cultural and religious differences 114
7. Describe the need for activity 117
8. Discuss family roles and their significance in health care 118
9. List ways to respond to emotional needs of residents and their families 119
10. Describe the stages of human growth and development and identify common disorders for each stage 120
11. Distinguish between what is true and what is not true about the aging process 124
12. Explain developmental disabilities and list care guidelines 126
13. Identify community resources available to help the elderly and people who are developmentally disabled 128
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9 The Healthy Human Body1. Describe body systems and define key anatomical terms 130
2. Describe the integumentary system 131
3. Describe the musculoskeletal system 132
4. Describe the nervous system 134
5. Describe the circulatory system 137
6. Describe the respiratory system 139
7. Describe the urinary system 140
8. Describe the gastrointestinal system 141
9. Describe the endocrine system 143
10. Describe the reproductive system 145
11. Describe the immune and lymphatic systems 147
10 Positioning, Transfers, and Ambulation1. Review the principles of body mechanics 149
2. Explain positioning and describe how to safely position residents 150
3. Describe how to safely transfer residents 157
4. Discuss how to safely ambulate residents 168
11 Admitting, Transferring, and Discharging1. Describe how residents may feel when entering a facility 173
2. Explain the nursing assistant’s role in the admission process 174
3. Explain the nursing assistant’s role during an in-house transfer of a resident 179
4. Explain the nursing assistant’s role in the discharge of a resident 180
5. Describe the nursing assistant’s role in physical exams 181
12 The Resident’s Unit1. Explain why a comfortable environment is important for the resident’s well-being 185
2. Describe a standard resident unit 186
3. Discuss how to care for and clean unit equipment 188
4. Explain the importance of sleep and factors affecting sleep 189
5. Describe bedmaking guidelines and perform proper bedmaking 189
13 Personal Care Skills1. Explain personal care of residents 196
2. Identify guidelines for providing skin care and preventing pressure injuries 198
3. Explain guidelines for assisting with bathing 202
4. Explain guidelines for assisting with grooming 212
5. List guidelines for assisting with dressing 218
6. Identify guidelines for proper oral care 220
7. Define dentures and explain how to care for dentures 224
14 Basic Nursing Skills 1. Explain the importance of monitoring vital signs 227
2. List guidelines for measuring body temperature 228
3. List guidelines for measuring pulse and respirations 234
4. Explain guidelines for measuring blood pressure 237
5. Describe guidelines for pain management 240
6. Explain the benefits of warm and cold applications 241
7. Discuss non-sterile and sterile dressings 247
8. Discuss guidelines for elastic bandages 249
9. List care guidelines for intravenous (IV) therapy 249
10. Discuss oxygen therapy and explain related care guidelines 251
15 Nutrition and Hydration 1. Describe the importance of proper nutrition and list the six basic nutrients 255
2. Describe the USDA’s MyPlate 256
3. Identify nutritional problems of the elderly or ill 259
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4. Describe factors that influence food preferences 262
5. Explain the role of the dietary department 263
6. Explain special diets 263
7. Explain thickened liquids and identify three basic thickened consistencies 267
8. Describe how to make dining enjoyable for residents 267
9. Explain how to serve meal trays and assist with eating 268
10. Describe how to assist residents with special needs 272
11. Define dysphagia and identify signs and symptoms of swallowing problems 274
12. Explain intake and output (I&O) 275
13. Identify ways to assist residents in maintaining fluid balance 278
16 Urinary Elimination1. List qualities of urine and identify signs and symptoms about urine to report 282
2. List factors affecting urination and demonstrate how to assist with elimination 282
3. Describe common diseases and disorders of the urinary system 288
4. Describe guidelines for urinary catheter care 290
5. Identify types of urine specimens that are collected 294
6. Explain types of tests performed on urine 298
7. Explain guidelines for assisting with bladder retraining 299
17 Bowel Elimination1. List qualities of stool and identify signs and symptoms about stool to report 303
2. List factors affecting bowel elimination 303
3. Describe common diseases and disorders of the gastrointestinal system 305
4. Discuss how enemas are given 307
5. Demonstrate how to collect a stool specimen 311
6. Explain occult blood testing 312
7. Define ostomy and list care guidelines 313
8. Explain guidelines for assisting with bowel retraining 316
18 Common Chronic and Acute Conditions1. Describe common diseases and disorders of the integumentary system 318
2. Describe common diseases and disorders of the musculoskeletal system 320
3. Describe common diseases and disorders of the nervous system 327
4. Describe common diseases and disorders of the circulatory system 332
5. Describe common diseases and disorders of the respiratory system 336
6. Describe common diseases and disorders of the endocrine system 340
7. Describe common diseases and disorders of the reproductive system 343
8. Describe common diseases and disorders of the immune and lymphatic systems 345
9. Identify community resources for residents who are ill 352
19 Confusion, Dementia, and Alzheimer’s Disease1. Describe normal changes of aging in the brain 354
2. Discuss confusion and delirium 354
3. Describe dementia and define related terms 355
4. Describe Alzheimer’s disease and identify its stages 356
5. Identify personal attitudes helpful in caring for residents with Alzheimer’s disease 357
6. List strategies for better communication with residents with Alzheimer’s disease 359
7. Explain general principles that will help assist residents with personal care 361
8. List and describe interventions for problems with common activities of daily living (ADLs) 361
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9. List and describe interventions for common difficult behaviors related to Alzheimer’s disease 364
10. Describe creative therapies for residents with Alzheimer’s disease 368
11. Discuss how Alzheimer’s disease may affect the family 370
12. Identify community resources available to people with Alzheimer’s disease and their families 371
20 Mental Health and Mental Illness1. Identify seven characteristics of mental health 372
2. Identify four causes of mental illness 372
3. Distinguish between fact and fallacy concerning mental illness 373
4. Explain the connection between mental and physical wellness 373
5. List guidelines for communicating with residents who are mentally ill 373
6. Identify and define common defense mechanisms 374
7. Describe anxiety, depression, and schizophrenia 374
8. Explain how mental illness is treated 376
9. Explain the nursing assistant’s role in caring for residents who are mentally ill 377
10. Identify important observations that should be made and reported 377
11. List the signs of substance abuse 378
21 Rehabilitation and Restorative Care 1. Discuss rehabilitation and restorative care 380
2. Describe the importance of promoting independence and list ways that exercise improves health 382
3. Describe assistive devices and equipment 383
4. Explain guidelines for maintaining proper body alignment 384
5. Explain care guidelines for prosthetic devices 385
6. Describe how to assist with range of motion exercises 386
7. Describe the benefits of deep breathing exercises 391
22 Special Care Skills1. Understand the types of residents who are in a subacute setting 393
2. Discuss reasons for and types of surgery 393
3. Discuss preoperative care 394
4. Describe postoperative care 395
5. List care guidelines for pulse oximetry 397
6. Describe telemetry and list care guidelines 397
7. Explain artificial airways and list care guidelines 398
8. Discuss care for a resident with a tracheostomy 399
9. List care guidelines for residents requiring mechanical ventilation 400
10. Describe suctioning and list signs of respiratory distress 401
11. Describe chest tubes and explain related care 401
23 Dying, Death, and Hospice1. Discuss the stages of grief 404
2. Describe the grief process 405
3. Discuss how feelings and attitudes about death differ 405
4. Discuss how to care for a resident who is dying 406
5. Describe ways to treat dying residents and their families with dignity and how to honor their rights 408
6. Define the goals of a hospice program 409
7. Explain common signs of approaching death 411
8. List changes that may occur in the human body after death 411
9. Describe postmortem care 412
10. Understand and respect different postmortem practices 413
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24 Caring for Your Career and Yourself1. Discuss different types of careers in the healthcare field 416
2. Explain how to find a job and how to write a résumé 417
3. Demonstrate completing an effective job application 418
4. Demonstrate competence in job interview techniques 420
5. Describe a standard job description 421
6. Discuss how to manage and resolve conflict 422
7. Describe employee evaluations and discuss appropriate responses to feedback 422
8. Explain how to make job changes 423
9. Discuss certification and explain the state’s registry 424
10. Describe continuing education 424
11. Define stress and stressors 425
12. Explain ways to manage stress 425
13. Describe a relaxation technique 427
14. List ways to remind yourself of the importance of the work you have chosen to do 427
Abbreviations 429
Symbols 431
Appendix 432
Glossary 434
Index 453
ProceduresWashing hands (hand hygiene) 64
Putting on (donning) and removing (doffing) gown 65
Putting on (donning) mask and goggles 66
Putting on (donning) gloves 67
Removing (doffing) gloves 68
Donning a full set of PPE 68
Doffing a full set of PPE 69
Performing abdominal thrusts for the conscious person 96
Responding to shock 97
Responding to a myocardial infarction 98
Controlling bleeding 98
Treating burns 99
Responding to fainting 100
Responding to a nosebleed 101
Responding to a seizure 102
Responding to vomiting 104
Moving a resident up in bed 152
Moving a resident to the side of the bed 153
Positioning a resident on the left side 154
Logrolling a resident 155
Assisting a resident to sit up on side of bed: dangling 156
Applying a transfer belt 158
Transferring a resident from bed to wheelchair 160
Transferring a resident from bed to stretcher 162
Transferring a resident using a mechanical lift 164
Transferring a resident onto and off of a toilet 166
Transferring a resident into a vehicle 167
Assisting a resident to ambulate 168
Assisting with ambulation for a resident using a cane, walker, or crutches 170
Admitting a resident 176
Measuring and recording weight of an ambulatory resident 177
Measuring and recording height of an ambulatory resident 178
Transferring a resident 180
Discharging a resident 181
Making an occupied bed 191
Making an unoccupied bed 193
Making a surgical bed 194
Giving a complete bed bath 203
Giving a back rub 207
Shampooing hair 208
Giving a shower or tub bath 210
Providing fingernail care 212
Providing foot care 214
Shaving a resident 215
Combing or brushing hair 217
Dressing a resident 219
Providing oral care 221
Providing oral care for the unconscious resident 222
Flossing teeth 223
Cleaning and storing dentures 224
Measuring and recording an oral temperature 230
Measuring and recording a rectal temperature 231
Measuring and recording a tympanic temperature 232
Measuring and recording an axillary temperature 233
Counting and recording apical pulse 235
Counting and recording radial pulse and counting and recording respirations 236
Measuring and recording blood pressure (one-step method) 238
Applying warm compresses 242
Administering warm soaks 243
Applying an Aquamatic K-Pad 244
Assisting with a sitz bath 245
Applying ice packs 246
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Applying cold compresses 246
Changing a dry dressing using non-sterile technique 247
Assisting in changing clothes for a resident who has an IV 250
Feeding a resident 271
Measuring and recording intake and output 276
Serving fresh water 279
Assisting a resident with the use of a bedpan 284
Assisting a male resident with a urinal 286
Assisting a resident to use a portable commode or toilet 287
Providing catheter care 291
Emptying the catheter drainage bag 293
Changing a condom catheter 293
Collecting a routine urine specimen 295
Collecting a clean-catch (mid-stream) urine specimen 296
Collecting a 24-hour urine specimen 297
Testing urine with reagent strips 299
Giving a cleansing enema 308
Giving a commercial enema 310
Collecting a stool specimen 312
Testing a stool specimen for occult blood 313
Caring for an ostomy 315
Putting elastic stockings on a resident 335
Collecting a sputum specimen 339
Providing foot care for a resident with diabetes 342
Assisting with passive range of motion exercises 387
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Understanding how this book is organized and what its special features are will help you make the most of this resource!
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Residents’ Rights
Call LightsIt is never acceptable to unplug a resident’s call light, no matter how often he or she uses it, or how demanding the resident is. Staff must respond kindly and promptly to call lights every time they are used. This response can even save lives.
Making an occupied bed
Guidelines: Handwashing
We have assigned each chapter its own colored tab. Each colored tab contains the chapter number and title, and is located on the side of every page.
1. List examples of legal and ethical behavior
Chapter Review
bloodborne pathogens
Everything in this book, the student workbook, and the instructor’s teaching material is organized around learning objectives. A learning objective is a very specific piece of knowledge or a very specific skill. After reading the text, if you can do what the learning objective says, you know you have mastered the material.
Bold key terms are located throughout the text, followed by their definitions. They are also listed in the glossary at the back of this book.
All care procedures are highlighted by the same black bar for easy recognition.
Guidelines and Observing and Reporting lists are colored green for easy reference.
Blue Residents’ Rights boxes teach important information about how to support and promote legal rights and person-centered care.
Chapter-ending questions test your knowledge of the information found in the chapter. If you have trouble answering a question, you can return to the text and reread the material.
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Beginning Steps
Identify yourself by name. Identify the resident by name.
A resident’s room is his home. Residents have a right to privacy. Before any procedure, knock and wait for permission to enter the resident’s room. Upon entering his room, identify yourself and state your title. Residents have the right to know who is providing their care. Identify and greet the resident. This shows courtesy and respect. It also establishes correct identification. This pre-vents care from being performed on the wrong person.
Wash your hands. Handwashing provides for infection prevention. Nothing fights infection in facilities like performing consistent, proper hand hy-giene. Handwashing may need to be done more than once during a procedure. Practice Standard Precautions with every resident.
Explain procedure to resident. Speak clearly, slowly, and directly. Maintain face-to-face contact whenever possible.
Residents have a legal right to know exactly what care you will pro-vide. It promotes understanding, cooperation, and independence. Residents are able to do more for themselves if they know what needs to happen.
Provide for the resident’s privacy with a curtain, screen, or door.
Doing this maintains residents’ rights to privacy and dignity. Pro-viding for privacy in a facility is not simply a courtesy; it is a legal right.
Adjust the bed to a safe level, usually waist high. Lock the bed wheels.
Locking the bed wheels is an important safety measure. It ensures that the bed will not move as you are performing care. Raising the bed helps you to remember to use proper body mechanics. This helps prevent injury to you and to residents.
Beginning and ending steps in care procedures
For most care procedures, these steps should be performed. Understanding why they are important will help you remember to perform each step every time care is provided.
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Ending Steps
Make resident comfortable. Make sure sheets are wrinkle-free and lie flat under the resident’s body. This helps prevent pressure injuries. Replace bedding and pillows. Check that the resident’s body is in proper alignment. This promotes comfort and health after you leave the room.
Return bed to lowest position. Remove privacy measures.
Lowering the bed provides for the resident’s safety. Remove extra privacy measures added during the procedure. This includes any-thing you may have draped over and around the resident, as well as privacy screens.
Place call light within resident’s reach.
A call light allows the resident to communicate with staff as nec-essary. It must always be left within the resident’s reach. You must respond to call lights promptly.
Wash your hands. Handwashing is the most important thing you can do to prevent the spread of infection.
Report any changes in the resident to the nurse. Document procedure using facility guidelines.
You will often be the person who spends the most time with a resident, so you are in the best position to note any changes in a resident’s condition. Every time you provide care, observe the resi-dent’s physical and mental capabilities, as well as the condition of his or her body. For example, a change in a resident’s ability to dress himself may signal a greater problem. After you have fin-ished giving care, document the care using facility guidelines. Do not record care before it is given. If you do not document the care you gave, legally it did not happen.
In addition to the beginning and end-ing steps listed above, remember to follow infection prevention guide-lines. Even if a procedure in this book does not tell you to wear gloves or other PPE, there may be times when it is appropriate.
For example, the procedure for giving a back rub does not include gloves. Gloves are usually not required for a back rub. However, if the resident has open sores on his back, gloves are necessary.
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1. Discuss the structure of the healthcare system and describe ways it is changing
Health care is a growing field. The healthcare system refers to the different kinds of provid-ers, facilities, and payers involved in delivering medical care. Providers are people or organiza-tions that provide health care, including doc-tors, nurses, clinics, and agencies. Facilities are places where care is delivered or administered, including hospitals, long-term care facilities, and treatment centers (such as for cancer). Payers are people or organizations paying for healthcare services. These include insurance companies, government programs like Medicare and Medic-aid, and individual patients or clients. Together, these people, places, and organizations make up the healthcare system.
This textbook will focus on two types of care: long-term care and home health care. Long-term care (LTC) is given in long-term care facilities for people who need 24-hour skilled care. Skilled care is medically necessary care given by a skilled nurse or therapist; it is avail-able 24 hours a day. It is ordered by a doctor and involves a treatment plan. This type of care is given to people who need a high level of care for ongoing conditions. The term nursing homes was once widely used to refer to these facilities. Now they are often known as long-term care facilities, skilled nursing facilities, rehabilitation centers, or extended care facilities.
Understanding Healthcare Settings
People who live in long-term care facilities may be disabled. They are often elderly, but younger adults sometimes require long-term care, too. They may arrive from hospitals or other health-care settings. Their length of stay (the number of days a person stays in a healthcare facility) may be short, such as a few days or months, or longer than six months. Some of these people will have a terminal illness, which means the illness will eventually cause death. Other people may recover and return to their homes or to other care facilities or situations.
Most people who live in long-term care facilities have chronic conditions. This means the condi-tions last a long period of time, even a lifetime. Chronic conditions include physical disabilities, heart disease, and dementia. (Chapter 18 has more information about these disorders and dis-eases.) People who live in these facilities are usu-ally referred to as residents because the facility is where they reside or live. These places are their homes for the duration of their stay (Fig. 1-1).
Fig. 1-1. People who live in long-term care facilities are called residents because the facility is where they reside for the duration of their stay.
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Home health care, or home care, is provided in a person’s home (Fig. 1-2). This type of care is also generally given to people who are older and are chronically ill but who are able to and wish to remain at home. Home health care may also be needed when a person is weak after a recent hospital stay. Skilled assistance or monitor-ing may be required. People who receive home health care are usually referred to as clients.
Fig. 1-2. Home health care is performed in a person’s home. People receiving home care are generally referred to as clients.
In some ways, working as a home health aide is similar to working as a nursing assistant. Almost all care described in this textbook ap-plies to both nursing assistants and home health aides. Most of the basic medical procedures and many of the personal care procedures are the same. Home health aides may also clean, shop for groceries, do laundry, and cook.
Home health aides may have more contact with the client’s family than nursing assistants do. They also will work more independently, al-though a supervisor monitors their work. The advantage of home care is that clients do not have to leave home. They may have lived there for many years, and staying at home can be comforting.
People who need long-term care or home health care will have different diagnoses, or medical conditions determined by a doctor. The stages of illness or disease affect how sick people are and how much care they will need. The jobs of nursing assistants will also vary. This is due to each person’s different symptoms, abilities, and needs.
Other healthcare settings include the following:
Assisted living facilities are residences for people who need some help with daily care, such as showering, meals, and dressing. Help with medications may also be given. People who live in these facilities do not need 24-hour skilled care. Assisted living facilities allow for more independent living in a homelike environment. A resident can live in a single room or an apart-ment; however, some residents have roommates. An assisted living facility may be attached to a long-term care facility, or it may stand alone. Some assisted living facilities have memory care units for people who have mild dementia. These people are unable to live alone but are still fairly independent. Dementia is defined as the seri-ous loss of mental abili ties, such as thinking, remembering, reason ing, and communicating. There is more information about dementia in Chapter 19.
Adult day services are for people who need some assistance and supervision during certain hours, but who do not live in the facility where care is provided. Generally, adult day services are for people who need some help but are not seri-ously ill or disabled. Adult day services can also provide a break for spouses, family members, and friends.
Acute care is 24-hour skilled care given in hospitals and ambulatory surgical centers for people who require short-term, immediate care for illnesses or injuries (Fig. 1-3). People are also admitted for short stays for surgery.
Fig. 1-3. Acute care is performed in hospitals for illnesses or injuries that require immediate care.
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Subacute care is care given in hospitals or long-term care facilities. It is used for people who need less care than for an acute (sudden onset, short-term) illness, but more care than for a chronic (long-term) illness. Treatment usually ends when the condition has stabilized or after the predetermined time period for treatment has been completed. The cost is usually less than for acute care but more than for long-term care. Subacute care is covered in Chapter 22.
Outpatient care is usually given to people who have had treatments, procedures, or surgeries and need short-term skilled care. They do not require an overnight stay in a hospital or other care facility.
Rehabilitation is care given by specialists. Physical, occupational, and speech therapists help restore or improve function after an illness or injury. Information about rehabilitation and related care is located in Chapter 21.
Hospice care is given in facilities or homes for people who have approximately six months or less to live. Hospice workers give physical and emotional care and comfort until a person dies, while also supporting families during this pro-cess. There is more information about hospice care in Chapter 23.
Often payers control the amount and type of healthcare services people receive. The kind of care a person receives and where he receives it may depend, in part, on who is paying for it.
In 2010, the Patient Protection and Afford-able Care Act (PPACA) was signed into law by President Barack Obama. This law is commonly referred to as the Affordable Care Act. Its goals include increasing the quality of health insur-ance, expanding insurance coverage (both pub-lic and private), and reducing healthcare costs. The Affordable Care Act has been controversial and, like any law, it may be changed by elected officials.
Public health insurance programs include Medi-care and Medicaid, the Children’s Health Insur-
ance Program (CHIP), military health benefits from TRICARE and the Veterans Health Ad-ministration, and the Indian Health Service.
Private health insurance plans may be pur-chased by a person’s employer, and costs are paid for by the employer or the employee, or shared by both. An individual may also purchase private health insurance directly. Coverage of medical services varies from plan to plan.
The healthcare system is constantly changing, and with these changes come new costs. New technologies and medications are being created, and better ways of caring for people in a wide variety of healthcare settings are being devel-oped. Better health care helps people live longer, which leads to a larger elderly population that may need additional health care. New discover-ies and expensive equipment have also increased healthcare costs (Fig. 1-4).
Fig. 1-4. Technology makes it possible to offer better health care, but equipment can be expensive.
Many health insurance plans employ cost-control strategies called managed care. Health main-tenance organizations (HMOs) and preferred provider organizations (PPOs) are examples of managed care. Managed care seeks to con-trol costs by limiting plan members’ choice of healthcare providers and facilities. There is an increasing emphasis within managed care on
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promoting wellness as a means of reducing the need for healthcare services (and, as a result, re-ducing costs).
In the past, the goal of health care was simply to make sick people well. Today things are more complicated. Cost control is a consideration, as is the coordination of the many types of care a person might receive. While in many cases a person who is seriously ill will still be admitted to a hospital, hospital stays are often shorter now due to cost-control measures. After release from the hospital, many people need continuing care. This care may be provided in a long-term care facility, a rehabilitation hospital, or by a home health agency, depending on the needs of the patient or client.
2. Describe a typical long-term care facility
Long-term care facilities are businesses that pro-vide skilled nursing care 24 hours a day. These facilities may offer assisted living housing, de-mentia care, or subacute care. Some facilities offer specialized care, while others care for all types of residents. The typical long-term care facility offers personal care for all residents and focused care for residents with special needs. Personal care includes bathing; skin, nail, and hair care; mouth care; and assistance with walk-ing, eating and drinking, dressing, transferring, and elimination. All of these daily personal care tasks are called activities of daily living, or ADLs. Other common services offered at these facilities include the following:
• Physical, occupational, and speech therapy
• Wound care
• Care of different types of tubes, including catheters (thin tubes inserted into the body to drain or inject fluids)
• Nutrition therapy
• Management of chronic diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, acquired immune
deficiency syndrome (AIDS), diabetes, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), cancer, and congestive heart failure (CHF)
When specialized care is offered at long-term care facilities, the employees must have special training. Residents with similar needs may be placed in units together. Nonprofit companies or for-profit companies can own long-term care facilities.
3. Describe residents who live in long-term care facilities
There are some general statements that can be made about residents in long-term care facili-ties. While it is helpful to understand the entire population, it is more important for nursing assistants to understand each individual for whom they will care. Residents’ care should be based on their specific needs, illnesses, and preferences.
According to a survey conducted in 2013–2014 by the National Center for Health Statistics (cdc.gov/nchs), 84.9 percent of long-term care residents in the United States are over age 65. Almost 67 percent of residents are female. More than 76 percent are white and non-Hispanic (Fig. 1-5). About one-third of residents come from a private residence; over 50 percent come from a hospital or other facility.
Fig. 1-5. White, non-Hispanic women make up a high percentage of residents in long-term care facilities.
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The length of stay of over two-thirds of residents in long-term care is six months or longer. These residents need enough help with their activities of daily living to require 24-hour care. Often they do not have caregivers available to give suf-ficient care for them to live in the community. The group with the longest average stay are people who are developmentally disabled. They are often younger than 65. More information about developmental disabilities may be found in Chapter 8.
The other third of residents stay for less than six months. This group generally falls into two categories. The first category is made up of resi-dents admitted for terminal care. Due to their disease or condition, they will probably die in the facility. The second category is made up of resi-dents admitted for rehabilitation or temporary illness. They will usually recover and return to the community. Care of these residents may be very different than care provided for permanent residents.
Dementia and other mental disorders are major causes of admissions to care facilities. Various studies place the number of residents with de-mentia in long-term care facilities as high as 90 percent. Many residents are admitted with other disorders as well. However, the disorders them-selves are often not the main reason for admis-sion. It is most often the lack of ability to care for oneself and the lack of a sup port system that leads people into a facility. Having a support sys-tem is vital in allowing the elderly to live outside a facility.
Some residents have very little outside support from family or friends. This is one reason it is essential to care for the whole person and his or her individual needs, instead of only the illness or disease. Residents have many needs besides bathing, eating, drinking, and elimination. These needs will go unmet if staff do not work to meet them.
4. Explain policies and procedures
All facilities have manuals outlining their poli-cies and procedures. A policy is a course of ac-tion that should be taken every time a certain situation occurs. For example, a very basic policy is that healthcare information must remain confidential. A procedure is a method, or way, of doing something. For example, a facility will have a procedure for reporting information about residents. The procedure explains what form to complete, when and how often to fill it out, and to whom it is given. New employees will be told where to find a list of policies and proce-dures that all staff are expected to follow. Com-mon policies at long-term care facilities include the following:
• All resident information must remain con-fidential. This is not only a facility rule: it is also the law. More information about con-fidentiality, including the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA), can be found in Chapter 3.
• The care plan must always be followed. Nursing assistants should perform tasks as-signed by the care plan. Tasks that are not listed in the care plan or approved by the nurse should not be performed.
• Nursing assistants should not do tasks that are not included in the job description.
• Nursing assistants must report important events or changes in residents to a nurse.
• Nursing assistants should not discuss per-sonal problems with residents or residents’ families.
• Nursing assistants should not take money or gifts from residents or residents’ families (Fig. 1-6).
• Nursing assistants must be on time for work and must be dependable.
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Fig. 1-6. Nursing assistants should not accept money or gifts because it is unprofessional and may lead to conflict.
Employers will have policies and procedures for every resident care situation. These have been developed to give quality care and protect resident safety. Procedures may seem long and complicated, but each step is important. It is es-sential that nursing assistants become familiar with and always follow policies and procedures.
5. Describe the long-term care survey process
Inspections are performed to help ensure that long-term care facilities follow state and fed-eral regulations. Inspections are done periodi-cally by the state agency that licenses facilities. These inspections are called surveys. They may be done more often if a facility has been cited for problems. To cite means to find a problem through a survey. Inspections may be done less often if the facility has a good record. Inspection teams include a variety of trained healthcare professionals.
Surveyors study how well staff care for residents. They focus on how residents’ nutritional, physi-cal, social, emotional, and spiritual needs are being met. They interview residents and their families and observe the staff’s interactions with residents and the care given. They review resi-dent charts and observe meals. Surveys are one reason the documentation done by nursing as-sistants is so important.
Surveyors use tags that identify specific federal regulations (F-Tags) to note any problems. When surveyors are in a facility, staff should try not to be nervous. They should give the same quality care they give every day, and answer any ques-tions to the best of their abilities. If an employee does not know the answer to a surveyor’s ques-tion, she should be honest and never guess. She should tell the surveyor that she does not know the answer but will find out as quickly as possi-ble. Then she should follow up with the surveyor after she has the answer.
The Joint Commission is an independent, not-for-profit organization that evaluates and ac-credits healthcare organizations. Its standards focus on improving the quality and safety of care given to patients, clients, and residents. For an organization to receive accreditation from the Joint Commission, it must undergo a compre-hensive survey process at least every three years. The survey process includes carefully checking performance in specific areas, such as patient rights, treatment, and infection prevention.
The Joint Commission’s surveys are not associ-ated with state inspections. Healthcare organiza-tions are not required to participate in the Joint Commission’s survey process; they may do so on a voluntary basis. Types of healthcare facili-ties that are accredited by the Joint Commis-sion include hospitals, long-term care facilities, rehabilitation centers, hospice services, home health care agencies, laboratories, and other organizations.
6. Explain Medicare and Medicaid
The Centers for Medicare & Medicaid Services (CMS) is a federal agency within the United States Department of Health and Human Services. CMS runs two national health-care programs: Medicare and Medicaid. They both help pay for health care and health insur-ance for millions of Americans. CMS has many other responsibilities as well.
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Medicare (medicare.gov) is a federal health in-surance program that was established in 1965 for people aged 65 or older. It also covers people of any age with permanent kidney failure or cer-tain disabilities. Medicare has four parts. Part A (hospital insurance) helps pay for care in a hos-pital or skilled nursing facility or for care from a home health agency or hospice. Part B (medi-cal insurance) helps pay for doctor services and other medical services and equipment. Part C (Medicare Advantage Plans) allows private health insurance companies to provide Medicare ben-efits. Part D (prescription drug coverage) helps pay for medications prescribed for treatment. Medicare will only pay for care it determines to be medically necessary.
Medicaid (medicaid.gov) is a medical assistance program for people who have a low income, as well as for people with disabilities. It is funded by both the federal government and each state. Eligibility is determined by income and special circumstances. People must qualify for this program.
Medicare and Medicaid pay long-term care facili-ties a fixed amount for services. This is based on the resident’s needs upon admission and throughout his stay at the facility.
7. Discuss the terms culture change and person-centered care
Many long-term care facilities promote mean-ingful environments with individualized ap-proaches to care. Culture change is a term given to the process of transforming services for elders so that they are based on the values and practices of the person receiving care. Culture change involves respecting both elders and those working with them. Core values are promoting choice, dignity, respect, self-determination, and purposeful living. To honor culture change, healthcare settings may need to change their organization, practices, physical environments, and relationships.
Person-centered care (also known as person-directed care) emphasizes the individuality of the person who needs care, and recognizes and develops his or her capabilities. Person-centered care revolves around the resident and promotes his or her individual preferences, choices, dig-nity, and interests. Each person’s background, culture, language, beliefs, and traditions are respected (Fig. 1-7). Improving each resident’s quality of life is an important goal. Giving person-centered care will be an ongoing focus throughout this textbook.
Fig. 1-7. Person-centered care places the emphasis on the person needing care and his or her individuality and capabilities.
The Pioneer Network (pioneernetwork.net) and Eden Alternative (edenalt.org) have more information.
Chapter Review
1. What is long-term care?
2. List one fact about each of the following healthcare settings: assisted living facilities, adult day services, acute care, subacute care, outpatient care, rehabilitation, and hospice care.
3. List five services commonly offered at long-term care facilities.
4. Who makes up the majority of residents in long-term care—men or women?
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5. What are two general categories of residents who stay in a care facility for less than six months?
6. List five common policies at long-term care facilities.
7. When surveyors visit a facility, what do they study and observe?
8. Whom does Medicare insurance cover?
9. Define person-centered care.
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