handbook of seafood quality, safety and health applications (alasalvar/handbook of seafood quality,...

P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc01 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 15:15 Trim: 244mm×172mm

1 Seafood quality, safety, and healthapplications: an overview

Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita,and Udaya Wanasundara

1.1 Introduction

In 2007, the world’s fish production was around 145 million tonnes, valued at approximatelyUS$92 billion. Of the total amount of production, approximately 75% was used for humanconsumption and the remaining portion used to produce fish meal and fish oil or discarded[1,2]. With more than 30,000 known species, fish form the largest group in the animalkingdom used to produce animal-based foods. Only about 700 of these species are com-mercially fished and used for food production [3]. Moreover, several species of crustaceans,molluscans, and seaweeds, as well as microalgae, are used as food for humans. Devisingstrategies for full utilization of seafoods and their by-products to produce value-added novelproducts (e.g. long chain omega-3 (n-3 or �-3) fatty acids, specialty enzymes, protein hy-drolysates, peptides, chitin/chitosan, glucosamine, squalene, collagen, carotenoids, etc.) isof great interest.

Some important aspects such as quality, safety, and health effects of seafoods are con-sidered in this book. These factors contribute to optimal utilization of the marine resourcestogether with the consequent maximization of health benefits. This overview chapter high-lights these important aspects of seafoods.

1.2 Seafood quality

When seafoods are consumed, their quality is perceived through the conscious or subcon-scious integration of their sensory or organoleptic characteristics. These characteristics maybe grouped as appearance, odour, flavour, and texture [4]. In most cases, the first opportu-nity to evaluate the quality of seafood is governed by its appearance. This is true whetherwe see the fresh product through a display counter or in a packaged container. Much ofthe favourable response to the appearance of seafood may be achieved by selecting properpackaging and display.

The odour of freshly caught fish is mild and described as typical of the “sea” and “seaweed”.If fish is held in ice from the time of catch, it retains its high quality for about one week orlonger. During this period, no objectionable “fishy” odour develops [5]. However, long-term

Handbook of Seafood Q uality, Safety and Health Applications

Edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita and Udaya Wanasundara

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-18070-2


2 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

K-value (%)

TF

RU

sen

sory

sco

re

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Har

dn

ess

(N)

r 2 values of linear regressions are 0.98 (between FTRU and K-value) and 0.99 (between Hardness and K-value)Maximum demerit points for TFRU sensory score: 38Unaccaptable limit: TFRU sensory score (20–25), K-value (35–40%), and Hardness (5.0–5.5 N)

Fig. 1.1 Time-independent relationship between the Tasmanian Food Research Unit (TFRU) schemeand K-value and between the hardness and K-value over the storage period. Adapted from Alasalvaret al. [12]. With kind permission of Springer Science and Business Media.

storage may lead to the development of an undesirable “fishy” odour due to the formationof trimethylamine (TMA), dimethylamine (DMA), total volatile base nitrogen (TVBN),ammonia, volatile sulphur compounds, and other undesirable compounds characteristic ofmicrobial spoilage [6–11] Several other chemical methods are currently in use for the qualityassessment of seafoods [11,12]. Of these, biogenic amines [13,14], adenosine 5′-triphosphate(ATP)-breakdown compounds, and K-related values (Ki, G, Fr, H, and P-values) [15,16] arethe most common and provide accurate quality indices. Figure 1.1 shows the correlationbetween K-value, sensory scores, and hardness [12]. In addition to the above mentionedoxidation products, unsaturated fatty acids present in seafoods can lead to a wide range oflipid oxidation products such as peroxides, carbonyls, aldehydes, alcohols, and ketones, andtheir interaction compounds that contribute to the odour of the stored seafoods [17]. Table1.1 shows the various carbonyl compounds derived via lipid oxidation in fish tissues.

Fatty fish such as mackerel, herring, salmon, and sardines have more flavour than lean fishsuch as cod, haddock, and hake. The flavour of fatty fish is pleasant as well as unique, butonly while the quality is good. However, due to high fat content, these fish can undergo rapid

Table 1.1 Volatile carbonyl compounds derived via lipid oxidation in fish tissues

Compounds Origin Flavour note Reference

4-Heptenal n-3 PUFA Creamy [58]2,4-Heptadienal n-3 PUFA Rancid hazelnut [58]2-Hexenal n-3 PUFA Green grass [59]2,4,7-Decatrienal n-3 PUFA Oxidized fish oil [60]1-Octen-3-ol n-6 PUFA Mushroom, melon-like [59]1,5-Octadien-3-ol n-3 PUFA Mushroom, seaweed [59]2,5-Octadien-1-ol n-3 PUFA Mushroom, seaweed [59]1,5-Octadien-3-one n-3 PUFA Mushroom [59]2-Nonenal n-6 PUFA Cucumber-like [59]2,6-Nonadienal n-3 PUFA Cucumber-like [59]

Abbreviation: PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids.


An overview 3

oxidation and develop rancid/oxidized flavours that are objectionable to most people. Theoff-flavours that develop in the different species have different effects on the organolepticacceptability of the products [4].

The final criterion used in the organoleptic evaluation of seafood is texture, which isrelated to the physical properties that are experienced during biting and chewing. Althoughthis criterion is more relevant when applied to cooked fish, texture tests are made routinelyby inspectors on raw fish, because that is a good indicator of the texture of cooked seafood.

Crude marine oil is a by-product of the fish meal industry and is considered a goodsource of nutritionally important long-chain n-3 fatty acids, especially eicosapentaenoic acid(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). However, crude oil should be further processedto improve its quality characteristics as well as its shelf-life [18]. The basic processingsteps of crude marine oil are degumming, alkali-refining, bleaching, and deodorization [19].During processing, impurities such as free fatty acids (FFA), mono- and diacylglycerols(MAG and DAG), phospholipids, sterols, vitamins, hydrocarbons, pigments, proteins andtheir degradation products, suspended mucilaginous compounds, and oxidation products offatty acids are removed from the crude oil. Processing of marine oils is similar to that ofvegetable oils; however, the quality of crude marine oils is less uniform than crude vegetableoils. High quality crude oils may be obtained by proper handling of raw material, such asminimizing damage to fish and proper chilling after landing [20]. The degree of unsaturationof the fatty acids makes them extremely vulnerable to oxidative degradation [21,22]. Volatilecompounds generated upon oxidation of such fatty acids contribute to the unpleasant flavoursand odours of the oil and the food products containing such oil. Oxidation of the doublebonds in unsaturated fatty acids in the oil can occur in the basic processes of autoxidation,photo-oxidation, and thermal oxidation [23]. A basic knowledge of these oxidation processesis required to understand the mechanism of the deterioration of the quality of food grade fishoil. The nature of oxidation, as well as to what extent this occurs, depends upon the chemicalstructures of the fatty acids involved, and other constituents, even if in minor quantities inthe product, as well as the conditions of handling, processing, and storage. Physical factorssuch as the surface area exposed to oxygen, oxygen pressure in the surrounding environment,temperature, and irradiation can contribute to the oxidation of fatty acids [24]. The originof the off-flavours is in the breakdown products of hydroperoxides of the highly unsaturatedlipids in fish and/or fish oil.

In this book, several approaches are described to protect unsaturated fatty acids from oxi-dation. Extreme care must be practised, especially during handling, processing, transferringand transporting, packaging, and storage of oil, to minimize oxidation through exposure tounfavourable conditions. High temperatures should be avoided in processing and the fish orfish oil should never be exposed to oxygen and light. Processed oil containing unsaturatedfatty acids should be stored in the dark, at or below −20◦C, under an inert gas such asnitrogen or argon. Besides preventive measures, antioxidants and related compounds alsocan be used to retard the oxidation of unsaturated fatty acids in fish oil. These compoundsmay have different inhibitory activities in the protection of oils against the oxidation pro-cess. Microencapsulation of fish oil into a stable flowable powder extends the shelf-life andprevents the oxidative deterioration of unsaturated fatty acids [25].

1.3 Seafood safety

Quality and safety are important parameters for perishable foods such as fish and fishproducts. About one-third of the world’s food production is lost annually as a result of



microbial spoilage [26]. Food safety cannot be assured by inspection alone and knowledgeof factors that influence growth, survival, and inactivation of pathogenic micro-organismsis an essential element in the design of processing, storage, and distribution systems thatprovide safe seafoods [27].

The flesh of healthy and live fish is generally thought to be sterile, as their immunesystem prevents the growth of bacteria [28,29]. When the fish dies, the immune systemstops functioning and bacteria can proliferate freely. Bacteria can be either of the spoilagetype or the pathogenic type. Spoilage is defined as the sensory changes resulting in a fishproduct being unacceptable for human consumption. It is caused by autolytic and chemicalchanges or off-odours and off-flavours due to bacterial metabolism [28,30]. Some of the majorspoilage bacteria in seafood are Pseudomonas spp., H2S-producing bacteria, Shewanella spp.,Enterobacteriaceae, lactic acid bacteria, Photobacterium phosphoreum, and Brochothrixthermospacta among others [30–37]. Pathogenic bacteria associated with seafood can becategorized into three general groups:

1) bacteria (indigenous bacteria) that belong to the natural microflora of fish (Clostridiumbotulinum, pathogenic Vibrio spp., Aeromonas hydrophila);

2) enteric bacteria (non-indigenous bacteria) that are present due to faecal contamination(Salmonella spp., Shigella spp., pathogenic Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus);and

3) bacterial contamination during processing, storage, or preparation for consumption(Bacillus cereus, Listeria monocytogenes, Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium perfrin-gens, Salmonella spp.) [30,38–40].

Standard (traditional) methods for recovering micro-organisms from seafood include en-richment culture, streaking out onto selective or differentiating media or direct plating ontothese, and identification of colonies by morphological, biochemical, or immunological tests[41]. These methods require a lot of human labour, are costly, and usually take between twoand five days. In contrast to standard methods, molecular methods allow the rapid detectionand identification of specific bacterial strains and/or virulence genes without the need forpure cultures. They are mainly based on oligonucleotide probes, polymerase chain reac-tions (PCR), or antibody techniques [30,41–43]. The use of probes and PCR in seafoodshas increased dramatically in recent years. Gene probes and PCR primers for detecting andidentifying almost every food-borne pathogenic bacterial species have been developed.

As mentioned above, when harvested in a clean environment and handled hygienically untilconsumption, fish is very safe. Unfortunately, unhygienic practices, including insufficientrefrigeration and sub-standard manufacturing practices, can be at the origin of many outbreaksof fish-borne illnesses. Fish-borne illnesses can be broadly divided into fish-borne infectionsand fish-borne intoxications (Table 1.2). In the first case, the causative agent (bacteria,viruses, or parasites) is ingested alive and invades the intestinal mucous membrane or otherorgans (infection) or produces enterotoxins (toxi-infection). Protection from the environment,personal hygiene, education of fish handlers, and water treatment (e.g. chlorination) aretherefore essential in the control of fish-borne diseases. In the case of intoxications (microbial,biotoxin, and chemical), the causative agent is a toxic compound that contaminates the fish oris produced by a biological agent in the fish. If the agent is biological, intoxication can occureven if the agent is dead, as long as it has previously produced enough toxins to precipitatethe illness symptoms [2].


An overview 5

Table 1.2 Types of fish-borne illness. Adapted with permission from FAO [2]

Types ofillness Causative agent

Infections Bacterial infections Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella spp., Escherichia coli, Vibriovulnificus, Shigella spp.

Viral infections Hepatitis A virus, Norovirus, Hepatitis E.Parasitic infections Nematodes (round worms), Cestodes (tape worms), Trematodes

(flukes)Toxi-infections Vibrio cholerae, Vibrio parahaemolyticus, E. coli, Salmonella spp.

Intoxications Microbial Staphylococcus aureus, Clostridium botulinumBiotoxins Ciguatera, Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP), Diarrheic (DSP),

Amnesic (ASP), Neurotoxic (NSP), HistamineChemical Heavy metals: Hg, Cd, Pb. Dioxines and polychlorinated biphenyls

(PCBs). Additives: nitrites, sulphites

1.4 Health applications of seafood

The unique and phenomenal biodiversity of the marine environment contributes to the pres-ence of a large pool of novel and bioactive molecules. Epidemiological studies have estab-lished a positive correlation between marine food consumption and a reduced risk of commonchronic diseases such as cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancers [44–48]. The health ben-eficial effects of some marine bioactives have been made clear on the basis of nutritional andnutrigenomic studies [49–53]. Thus, dietary marine products are expected to prevent severaldiseases. Although perception of the term “marine nutraceuticals” to the health care profes-sionals and consumers is still largely limited to popular fish oils rich in highly unsaturatedn-3 fatty acids, research has also been shifted to other marine bioactives such as collagen,peptides, chitin, chitosan, chitosan oligomers, glucosamine, carotenoids, and polyphenols,etc. Exciting developments in nutrigenomics and the human genome project, combined withformulation of food products containing specific marine bioactives, will create new indus-trial opportunities for food and pharmaceutical companies. Advances in biotechnologicalprocesses and their application to the food industry have resulted in commercial success, asseen in the case of glucosamine [54] and collagen [55]. Therefore, we have strong expecta-tions for the further growth of both research and commercialization of marine nutraceuticalsand marine functional foods.

In earlier days, fish sources appeared to be inexhaustible and by-products arising fromfish processing were considered worthless and routinely discarded. The discovery and devel-opment of marine nutraceuticals has changed the commercial value of fisheries processingby-products. Various fish and shellfish source materials such as skin, scales, frame bones,fins, visceral mass, head, and shell are now utilized to isolate a number of bioactive com-modities. Marine algae, including micro- and macroalgae, are also good resources for othermarine bioactive materials (Table 1.3).

Marine lipids generally contain a wider range of fatty acids than terrestrial plants andanimals [56]. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), such as EPA and DHA, aretypical of marine lipids, whereas n-6 PUFA, mainly linoleic acid (LA), is predominant incommon vegetable oils. The importance of EPA and DHA in human health promotion hasbeen confirmed through research. Although many papers have been published on the healthbeneficial effects of EPA and DHA, there is still an increased level of interest in nutritional



Table 1.3 Main marine functional materials, sources, and health effects

Marine nutraceuticals Resources Health effects References

PUFAEPADHA

Marine fin fish and theirdiscardsCrustacean shellfish anddiscardsMicro-and macroalgae

AntiatheroscleroticImprovement of cardiac healthHypochloesterolemicAnticancerousImprovement of brain functions,ocular health, and bone healthReduces risk of diabetesImproves blood pressure relatedrisks

[52]

Marine protein hydrolysatesand peptides

Marine fin fish and theirdiscardsCrustacean shellfish anddiscardsMicro-and macroalgaeMollucsan shellfish anddiscards

AntihypertensiveAnticancerousAntioxidativeReduce anxiety related problemsImmune system stimulationImproves blood circulationHypochlesterolemic

[61,62]

Chitin/chitosan/glucosamine Crustacean shellfish anddiscards

Antiarthritic (preventsosteoarthritis)AntitumourAntibacterialBiopolymers for drug delivery

[54,63,64]

Collagen/collagen peptides Marine fin fish and theirdiscards

Protection of skin photo-agingAntihypertension

[55]

CarotenoidsAstaxanthinFucoxanthin

Marine fin fish and theirdiscardsCrustacean shellfish anddiscardsMicro-and macroalgae

Prevents cancer related risks(anticancerous)Relieves from oxidative stress(antioxidant)AntiobesityAntidiabeticHypocholesterolemicImproves ocular healthImproves membrane functions

[65]

Chondroitin sulphate Marine fin fish and theirdiscards

Antiarthritic (preventsosteoarthritis),Antihypertensive

[54]

Abbreviations: PUFA, polyunsaturated fatty acids; EPA, eicosapentaenoic acid; and DHA,docosahexaenoic acid.

and health related issues associated with EPA and DHA as well as other highly unsaturatedfatty acids, such as stearidonic acid (SA; 18:4 n-3) and docosapentaenoic acid (DPA; 22:5n-3).

Marine foods and their processing discards/by-products, micro- and macroalgae, and ma-rine microbes are major potential sources of EPA and DHA. They are also important sourcesof other functional biomaterials such as proteins, enzymes, vitamins, essential minerals,antioxidants, and pigments. Although the edible portion of these marine resources shouldbe used for food, under- and less-utilized fishery resources and processing by-products offin-shell fish species have tremendous potential for the recovery of marine nutraceuticals.Thus, there is strong incentive to utilize effectively and economically discard materials for


An overview 7

the recovery of value added products such as marine oils. Annual discards from the fishindustry is estimated to be at least 25 to 30% of global fish production [57].

Fish processing discards are potential raw materials, not only for fish oil but also forbioactive proteins/peptides and enzymes. Under-utilized micro- and macroalgae are alsogood resources for bioactive peptides together with functional polysaccharides. Most marineproteins are used as nutraceutical ingredients after hydrolysis, except for collagen, which isthe major structural component of skin, bone, tendon, and cartilage of animals and is em-ployed in cosmetics, biomedical, and pharmaceutical industries. Given the proper methods,much higher quality and more functional low-molecular-weight products could be producedfrom marine proteins. A number of methods have been proposed for this purpose, the mostgeneral one being enzymatic hydrolysis to produce bioactive peptides with different molec-ular weights and properties.

Enzymatic processes are also used for the production of glucosamine from chitin foundin shellfish discards. Solid wastes from processing of crustaceans provide an importantsource for industrial production of chitin. Glucosamine is produced from chitin on the basisof chemical processing, but more attention has been paid to their enzymatic production.Recently, the production of chitin oligomers has been the focus of research. Glucosamine,which is one of the most thoroughly studied marine nutraceuticals with a big market share,is a precursor for glycosaminoglycans that are a major component of joint cartilage.

1.5 Conclusions

Traditional methods for assessing seafood quality have a limited place in current practicesof quality assurance of seafood products. The measurement of the K and other related valuesbased on ATP breakdown is considered to be one of the best techniques for evaluatingfreshness of fish stored at temperatures above freezing. These values correlate well withthe sensory scores. In addition, rapid analytical techniques using sophisticated instruments,including visible and near infrared (VIS/NIR), electronic nose, machine vision, differentialscanning calorimetry (DSC), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), texture analyzer, real-time PCR, and DNA- and protein based methods, among others, are increasingly used forsafety and quality assessments (Chapter 2). DNA-based techniques are used for identificationof fish species. Marine resources provide rich sources of nutraceuticals and functional foodingredients. These ingredients belong to a wide range of chemical compounds with beneficialhealth effects. Use of marine oils in pharmaceuticals and some of the other marine-basedproducts for health promotion and disease risk reduction is now common place and furtherprogress in these areas is expected.

References

1. Shahidi, F. (2009). Maximising the value of marine by-products: an overview. In: Maximising the Valueof Marine By-Products. Shahidi, F. (ed.), Woodhead Publishing, Cambridge, UK, pp. xxi–xxv.

2. FAO (2009). Safety of Fish and Fish Products. Published on-line at: http://www.fao.org/fishery/topic/1522/en, last accessed 1 June 2009.

3. Oehlenschlager, J. & Rehbein, H. (2009). Basic facts and figures. In: Fishery Products: Quality, Safetyand Authenticity. Rehbein, H. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 1–18.

4. Gorga, C. & Ronsivalli, L.J. (1988). Characteristics of seafood quality. In: Quality Assurance of Seafood.Gorga, C. & Ronsivalli. L.J. (eds), Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, pp. 47–55.



5. Lindsay, R.C. (1994). Flavour of fish. In: Seafoods Chemistry, Processing Technology and Quality.Shahidi, F. & Botta. J.R. (eds), Blackie Academic & Professional, New York, pp. 75–84.

6. Herbard, C.E., Flick, G.J. & Martin, R.E. (1982). Occurrence and significance of trimethylamine oxideand its derivatives in fish and shellfish. In: Chemistry and Biochemistry of Marine Food Products.Martin, R.E., Flick, G.J., Heband, C.E. & Ward, D.R. (eds), AVI Publication, Westport, CT, pp. 149–155.

7. Aubourg, A.P. (2008). Practices and processing from catching or harvesting till packaging: effect oncanned product quality. In: Quality Parameters in Canned Seafoods. Cabado, A.G. & Vieites, J.M. (eds),Novo Science Publishers, Inc., New York, pp. 1–24.

8. Oehlenschlager, J. (1997). Volatile amines as freshness/spoilage indictors. A literature review. In:Seafood from Producer to Consumer, Integrated Approach to Quality. Luten, J.B., Børresen, T. &Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Elsvier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 1–24.

9. Oehlenschlager, J. (1997). Suitability of ammonia-N, dimethylamine-N, trimethylamine-N, trimethy-lamine oxide-N and total volatile basic nitrogen as freshness indicators in seafoods. In: Methods toDetermine the Freshness of Fish in Research and Industry. Olafsdottir, G., Luten, J.B., Dalgaard, P.et al. (eds), International Institute of Refrigeration, Paris, pp. 92–99.

10. Alasalvar, C., Taylor, K.D.A. & Shahidi, F. (2005). Comparison of volatiles of cultured and wild seabream (Sparus aurata) during storage in ice by dynamic headspace analysis/gas chromatography-massspectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 53, 2616–2622.

11. Howgate, P. (2009). Traditional methods. In: Fishery Products: Quality, Safety and Authenticity.Rehbein, H. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 19–41.

12. Alasalvar, C., Garthwaite, T. & Oksuz, A. (2002). Practical evaluation of fish quality. In: Seafoods –Quality, Technology and Nutraceutical Applications. Alasalvar, C. & Taylor, T. (eds), Springer, Berlin,Germany, pp. 17–31.

13. Dalgaard, P., Emborg, J., Kjølby, A., Sørensen, N.D. & Ballin, N.Z (2008). Histamine and biogenicamines – formation and importance in seafood. In: Improving Seafood Products for the Consumer.T. Børresen (ed.), Woodhead Publishing Ltd., Cambridge, UK, pp. 292–324.

14. Mendes, R. (2009). Biogenic amines. In: Fishery Products: Quality, Safety and Authenticity.Rehbein, H. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 42–67.

15. Alasalvar, C., Taylor, K.D.A. & Shahidi, F. (2002). Comparative quality assessment of cultured andwild sea bream (Sparus aurata) stored in ice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 50, 2039–2045.

16. Tejada, M. (2009). ATP-derived products and K-value determination. In: Fishery Products: Qual-ity, Safety and Authenticity. Rehbein, H. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK,pp. 68–88.

17. Hultin, H.O. (1994). Oxidation of lipids in seafoods. In: Seafoods, Chemistry, Processing Technologyand Quality. Shahidi, F. & Botta, J.R. (eds), Blackie Academic & Professional, New York, pp. 49–74.

18. Bimobo, A.P. & Crowther, J.B. (1991). Fish oils: processing beyond crude oil. Infofish International,6, 20–25.

19. Wanasundara, U.N., Amarowicz, R. & Shahidi, F. (1998). Effect of processing on constituents andoxidative stability of marine oils. Journal of Food Lipids, 5, 29–41.

20. Bimobo, A.P. (1989). Technology of production and industrial utilization of marine oils. In: MarineBiogenic Lipids, Fats & Oils. Ackman. R.G. (ed.), CRC Press Inc., Boca Raton, FL, pp. 401–433.

21. Labuza, T.P. (1971). Kinetics of lipid oxidation in foods, a review. CRC Critical Review, 2, 355–405.22. Shahidi, F. & Wanasundara, U.N. (1996). Methods for evaluation of the oxidative stability of lipid-

containing foods. Food Science Technology International, 2(2), 73–81.23. Frankel, E.N. (1980). Lipid oxidation – a review. Progress in Lipid Research, 19, 1–22.24. Min, D.B., Lee, S.H. & Lee, E.C. (1989). Singlet oxygen oxidation of vegetable oils. In: Flavour Chem-

istry of Fats and Oils. Min, D.B. & Smouse, T.H. (eds), American Oil Chemists’ Society, Champaign,IL, pp. 57–97.

25. Wanasundara, U.N. & Shahidi, F. (1995). Storage stability of microencapsulated seal blubber oil. Journalof Food Lipids, 2, 73–86.

26. Baird-Parker, T.C. (2000). The production of microbiologically safe and stable foods. In: The Microbio-logical Safety and Quality of Food, Vol. II. Lund, B.M., Baird-Parker, T.C. & Gould, G.W. (eds), AspenPublishers, Gaithersburg, MD, pp. 3–18.

27. Dalgaard, P (2000). Freshness, Quality and Safety in Seafoods. Technical Report for EU-FLAIR FLOWDissemination Project (F-FE 380A/00 – May 2000), Lyngby, Denmark.


An overview 9

28. Huss, H.H., Dalgaard, P. & Gram, L. (1997). Microbiology of fish and fish products. In: Seafood fromProducer to Consumer, Integrated Approach to Quality. Luten, J.B., Børrosen, T. & Oehlenschlager, J.(eds), Elsevier Science, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, pp. 413–430.

29. Gram, L. & Huss, H.H. (2000). Fresh and processed fish and shell-fish. In: The Microbiological Safety andQuality of Fish. Lund, B.M., Baird-Packer, T.C. & Gould, G.W. (eds), Aspen Publishers, Gaithersburg,MD, pp. 472–506.

30. Lyhs, U. (2009). Microbiological methods. In: Fishery Products: Quality, Safety and Authenticity.Rehbein, H. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK, pp. 318–348.

31. Tryfinopoulou, P., Drosinos, E.H. & Nychas, G.-J.E. (2001). Performance of Pseudomonas CFC-selective medium in the fish storage ecosystems. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 47, 243–247.

32. Emborg, J., Laurensen, B.G., Rathjen, T. & Dalgaard, P. (2002). Microbial spoilage and formation ofbiogenic amines in fresh and thawed modified atmosphere-packed salmon (Salmo salar) at 2◦C. Journalof Applied Microbiology, 92, 790–799.

33. Fonnesbech Vogel, B., Venkateswaran, K., Satomi, M. & Gram, L. (2005). Identification of Shewanellabaltica as the most important H2S-producing species during iced storage of Danish marine fish. Appliedand Environmental Microbiology, 71, 6689–6697.

34. Pournis, N., Papavergou, A., Badeka, A., Kontominas, M.G. & Savvaidis, I.N. (2005). Shelf-life exten-sion of refrigerated Mediterranean mullet (Mullus surmuletus) using modified atmosphere packaging.Journal of Food Protection, 68, 2201–2207.

35. Dalgaard, P., Mejholm, O., Christiansen, T.J. & Huss, H.H. (1997). Importance of Photobacteriumphosphoreum in relation to spoilage of modified atmosphere-packed fish products. Letters in AppliedMicrobiology, 24, 373–378.

36. Koutsoumanis, K., Taoukis, P., Drosinos, E.H. & Nychas, G.-J.E. (1998). Lactic acid bacteria andBrochotrix thermosphacta – the dominant spoilage microflora of Mediterranean seafish stored undermodified atmosphere packaging conditions. In: Proceedings of the Final Meeting of the ConcertedAction – Evaluation of Fish Freshness Methods to Determine the Freshness of Fish in Research andIndustry. Olafsdottir, G., Luten, J.B., Dalgaard, P. et al. (eds), International Institute of Refrigeration,Paris, France, pp. 158–165.

37. Lyhs, U., Korkeala, H. & Bjorkroth, J. (2002). Identification of lactic acid bacteria from spoiled,vacuum-packed “gravad” rainbow trout using ribotyping. International Journal of Food Microbiology,72, 147–133.

38. Feldhusen, F. (2000). The role of seafood in bacterial food-borne diseases. Microbes and Infection,2, 1651–1660.

39. Brands, D.A., Inman, A.E., Gerba, C.P. et al. (2005). Prevalence of Salmonella spp. in oysters in theUnited States. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71, 893–897.

40. Herrera, F.C., Santos, J.A., Otero, A. & Garcıa-Lopez, M.-L. (2006). Occurrence of food-bornepathogenic bacteria in retail prepackaged portions of marine fish in Spain. Journal of AppliedMicrobiology, 100, 527–536.

41. Hill, W.E. & Jinneman, K.C. (2000). Principles and applications of genetic techniques for detection,identification, and sub-typing of food-associated pathogenic micro-organisms. In: The MicrobiologicalSafety and Quality of Food, Vol. II. Lund, B.M., Baird-Parker, T.C. & Gould, G.W. (eds), AspenPublishers, Gaithersburg, MD, pp. 1813–1851.

42. Parvathi, A., Umesha, K.R., Kumar, H.S., Sithithaworn, P., Karunasagar, I. & Karunasagar, I. (2008).Development and evaluation of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay for the detection of Opisthorchisviverrini in fish. Acta Tropica, 107, 13–16.

43. Blackstone, G.M., Nordstrom, J.L., Vickery, M.C.L., Bowen, M.D., Meyer, R.F. & DePaola, A. (2003).Detection of pathogenic Vibrio parahaemolyticus in oyster enrichments by real-time PCR. Journal ofMicrobiological Methods, 53, 149–55.

44. Harris, W.S., Kris-Etberton, P.M. & Harris, K.A. (2008). Intakes of long-chain omega-3 fatty acid asso-ciated with reduced risk for death from coronary heart disease in healthy adults. Current AtheroclerosisReports, 10, 503–509.

45. Chong, E.W.-T., Kreis, A.J., Wong, T.Y., Simpson J.A. & Guymer, R.H. (2008). Dietary �-3 fatty acid andfish intake in the primary prevention of age-related macular degeneration. Archives of Ophthalmology,126, 826–833.

46. Galimanis, A., Mono, M.-L., Arnold, M., Nedeltchev, K. & Mattle, H.P. (2009). Lifestyle and strokerisk: a review. Current Opinion in Neurology, 22, 60–68.



47. Galli, C. & Rise, P. (2009). Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease. Thescience and the clinical trials. Nutrition and Health, 20, 11–20.

48. Fotuhi, M., Mohassel, P. & Yaffe, K. (2009). Fish consumption, omega-3 fatty acids and risk of cognitivedecline or Alzheimer disease: a complex association. Nature Clinical Practice Neurology, 5, 140–152.

49. Kitajka, K., Sinclair, A.J., Weisinger, R.S. et al. L.G. (2004). Effects of dietary omega-3 polyunsaturatedfatty acids on brain gene expression. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science of the UnitedStates of America, 101, 10, 931–10,936.

50. Siddiqui, R.A., Shaikh, S.R., Sech, L.A., Yount, H.R., Stillwell, W. & Zaloga, G.P. (2004). Omega3-fatty acids: health benefits and cellular mechanisms of action. Mini-Reviews in Medicinal Chemistry,4, 859–871.

51. Puskas, L.G. & Kitajka, K. (2006). Nutrigenomic approaches to study the effects of n-3 PUFA diet inthe central nervous system. Nutrition and Health, 18, 227–232.

52. Shahidi, F. (2008). Omega-3 oils: sources, applications, and health effects. In: Marine Nutraceuticalsand Functional Foods. Barrow, C. & Shahidi, F. (eds), CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, New York,pp. 23–61.

53. Miyashita, K. & Hosokawa, M. (2008). Beneficial health effects of seaweed carotenoid, fucoxanthin.In: Marine Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. Barrow, C. & Shahidi, F. (eds), CRC Press, Taylor &Francis Group, New York, pp. 297–319.

54. Gregory P.J., Sperry, M. & Wilson, A.F. (2008). Dietary supplements for osteoarthritis. American FamilyPhysician, 77, 177–184.

55. Castellanos, V.H., Litchford, M.D. & Campbell W.W. (2006). Modular protein supplements and theirapplication to long-term care. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 21, 485–504.

56. Berg, J.-P. & Barnathan, G. (2005). Fatty acids from lipids of marine organisms: molecular biodiversity,roles as biomarkers, biologically active compounds, and economical aspects. Advances in BiochemicalEngineering-Biochemistry, 96, 49–125.

57. Rustad, T. (2003). Utilization of marine by-products. Electric Journal of Environmental, Agricultureand Food Chemistry, 2, 458–463.

58. McGill, A.S., Hardy, R. & Gunstone, F.D. (1977). Further analysis of the volatile components of frozencold stored cod and the influence of these on flavour. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture,28, 200–205.

59. Josephson, D.B., Lindsay, R.C. & Stuiber, D.A. (1984). Variations in the occurrences of enzymically-derived volatile aroma compounds in salt- and fresh-water fish. Journal of Agriculture and FoodChemistry, 32, 1344–1347.

60. Ke, P.J., Linke, B.A. & Ackman, R.G. (1975). Autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty compounds inmackerel oil: formation of 2,4,7-decatrienals. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society, 52, 349–353.

61. Kristinsson, H.G. (2008). Functional and bioactive peptides from hydrolyzed aquatic food proteins. In:Marine Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods. Barrow, C. & Shahidi, F. (eds), CRC Press, Taylor &Francis Group, New York, pp. 229–246.

62. Erdmann, K., Cheung, B.W.Y. & Schroder, H. (2008). The possible roles of food-derived bioactivepeptides in reducing the risk of cardiovascular disease. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry, 19, 643–54.

63. Hayes, M., Carney, B., Slater, J. & Bruck, W. (2008). Mining marine shellfish wastes for bioactivemolecules: chitin and chitosan-Part A: extraction methods. Biotechnology Journal, 3, 871–877.

64. Hayes, M., Carney, B., Slater, J. & Bruck, W. (2008). Mining marine shellfish wastes for bioactivemolecules: chitin and chitosan-Part B: applications. Biotechnology Journal, 3, 878–889.

65. Hosokawa, M., Okada, T., Mikami, N., Konishi, I. & Miyashita, K. (2009). Bio-functions of marinecarotenoids. Food Science Biotechnology, 18, 1–11.

handbook of seafood quality, safety and health applications (alasalvar/handbook of seafood quality,...

Documents