handbook of seafood quality, safety and health applications (alasalvar/handbook of seafood quality,...
TRANSCRIPT
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Part III
Health applications ofseafood
Handbook of Seafood Q uality, Safety and Health Applications
Edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita and Udaya Wanasundara
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-18070-2
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
29 Health benefits associated withseafood consumption
Maria Leonor Nunes, Narcisa Maria Bandarra,and Irineu Batista
29.1 Introduction
The use of fish and shellfish in human nutrition is well documented since ancient times inarchaeological settlements as well as in ancient civilizations. However, fish processing andinternational trade gained enormous importance only in the 20th century [1].
The consumption of fish and fish-derived products has increased over recent decades inmany countries, especially between 1980 and 2001, as a result of higher living standards andthe good image of seafood among consumers. The world average use of fish products reached16.6 kg per capita in 2005 [2], but it is unevenly distributed around the globe, with markedcontinental, regional and national differences as well as income-related variations. Per capitaapparent annual fish consumption can vary from less than 1 kg to more than 100 kg.
Seafood encompasses a wide range of wild and farmed animals and seaweeds, in whichfish, crustaceans, and molluscs are the most important groups, both due to the high diversityof species and its use as food. The traditional view of seafood as a source of high-qualityanimal protein to fulfil the basic food requirements has shifted, and a significant part ofthe actual demand is related to its peculiar structure and physical, chemical, and sensoryattributes. In fact, these characteristics associated with a high number of available species,has led seafood to play a particular role in a balanced diet as well as in modern gastronomy.On the other hand, the relevance of seafood in the diet to diminish the increased incidencesof cardiovascular, cancer, and inflammatory diseases and to improve consumer’s well-beinghas been successfully supported by the results of a high number of epidemiological studiesand meta-analyses. This chapter presents relevant information on nutritional value and somebenefits associated with the consumption of seafood.
29.2 Nutritional value
The chemical composition of fish products varies greatly among species and from oneindividual fish to another, depending on age, sex, environment, and season. Proteins andlipids are the major components, whereas carbohydrates are usually detected at very lowlevels (�0.5%) [3]. Vitamin content is comparable to that of mammals, except for vitamins
Handbook of Seafood Q uality, Safety and Health Applications
Edited by Cesarettin Alasalvar, Fereidoon Shahidi, Kazuo Miyashita and Udaya Wanasundara
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-18070-2
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
370 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications
A and D, which are found in large amounts in the meat of fatty species and in the liver oflean fish, such as cod and halibut. Fish meat is a particularly valuable source of minerals,namely calcium and phosphorus as well as iron, copper, and selenium. In addition, saltwaterfish is an excellent source of iodine.
29.2.1 Protein
Proteins are important for the growth and development of the human body, maintenanceand repairing of damaged tissues, and for production of enzymes and hormones requiredfor many body processes. For most seafood species, protein content ranges between 10 and25%, with an average of 17 to 100 g, which accounts for 80 to 90% of the energy providedper 100 g of lean species [4]. The protein found in seafood is of good quality due to its highdigestibility, and the specific amounts and relative proportions and availability of essentialamino acids. The amount of connective tissue in fish and shellfish muscle is quite low andit softens and dissolves more readily when heated compared to the connective tissue of landanimals, making seafood meat easy to chew. Almost all species are well balanced with respectto their essential amino acids. The predominant amino acids are usually lysine and leucineand, within the nonessential, aspartic and glutamic acids are the most abundant. Very oftenthe amount of essential amino acids is greater than that in the standard protein (32–100 gprotein) and values regularly referred to in the literature for the chemical score, biologicalvalue, and protein efficiency ratio. Protein digestibility and corrected amino acid score arealso good indicators of the quality of fish proteins [5,6].
29.2.2 Lipids
Lipids perform several important biological functions for living organisms, namely storageand transport of energy, formation of cell membranes, maintenance of their structural in-tegrity, and prostaglandins synthesis and transport of fat-soluble vitamins. Fish lipid contentvaries, depending on the species as well as on the season but, in general, fish have less fatthan red meats. Fat content ranges widely from 0.2% to almost 30%. Contrary to terrestrialanimals, in which most lipids are generally deposited in adipose tissue, fish have lipids inthe liver, muscle, and perivisceral and subcutaneous tissues. According to the fat content,fish products are generally classified into three categories. For instance, Atlantic salmon,European sardine, herring, mackerel, and eel have more than 10% muscle fat and are con-sidered fatty, whereas lean species, such as hake and cod, have less than 1% of muscle fat.Other species, such as trout, sea bass, or sea bream, are classified as intermediate becausetheir muscle lipid content accounts for 5 to 10% of their wet weight. Regarding farmedfish, lipid content can vary widely depending on the farming conditions and compositionof the feed. Fish lipids are composed of saturated fatty acids (SFA), monounsaturated fattyacids (MUFA), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), whose proportions and amountsvary considerably from one species to another (Table 29.1) [4]. As a rule, the fattest speciescontain more long-chain omega-3 (n-3 or �-3) PUFA than the leaner species; the amount ofSFA, in percentage, is almost constant in most species. In the majority of species, PUFA arethe dominant group; however, there are some exceptions, for instance meagre and silver- andblack-scabbard fish, where the content of MUFA is higher than that of PUFA. In general,palmitic acid (16:0) is the most relevant within the SFA group, oleic acid (18:1 n-9) is thedominant in MUFA, and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA, 20:5 n-3) and docosahexaenoic acid(DHA, 22:6 n-3) present the highest amounts in PUFA [7].
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Health benefits associated with seafood 371
Tab
le29.1
Typi
caln
utrit
iona
ldat
aof
mol
lusc
s,cr
usta
cean
s,an
dfis
hpr
oduc
ts.A
dapt
edfr
omN
unes
etal
.[4]
,with
perm
issi
onof
Weg
enin
gen
Aca
dem
icPu
blis
hers
Com
mon
oct
op
us
Atl
an
tic
salm
on
Euro
pea
nh
ak
eSa
rdin
eN
utr
itio
na
ld
ata
(per
100
gof
ed
ible
pa
rt)
Gro
ove
dca
rpet
shell
Ra
wR
aw
Boiled
Norw
ay
lob
ster
Ra
wR
aw
Boiled
Gri
lled
Ra
wB
oiled
Frie
dR
aw
Gri
lled
Ca
nn
ed
Ener
getic
valu
e(k
cal)
58.1
77.4
116.
593
.826
6.7
278.
731
5.4
73.9
118.
916
3.7
187.
119
7.7
210.
7Pr
otei
n(g
)11
.715
.623
.720
.916
.220
.723
.817
.020
.121
.717
.924
.124
.0To
talf
at(g
)0.
91.
21.
30.
521
.921
.123
.70.
73.
77.
110
.99.
212
.716
:0(m
g)13
8.4
177.
418
9.7
60.1
2687
.724
50.1
2753
.589
.754
9.4
507.
716
95.3
1487
.619
94.7
Tota
lSFA
(mg)
223.
526
5.9
282.
989
.042
91.3
4049
.444
87.6
142.
885
6.6
778.
127
45.9
2396
.330
01.4
18:1
(mg)
25.2
40.8
43.6
66.9
3809
.724
50.1
2821
.655
.133
1.9
1658
.697
9.8
742.
143
75.7
Tota
lMU
FA(m
g)11
9.7
90.1
96.6
87.7
1003
7.3
7824
.587
47.4
110.
365
0.0
1790
.425
57.5
2069
.455
81.9
18:2
n-6
(mg)
5.0
4.8
0.9
3.9
691.
260
3.9
695.
07.
340
.634
45.4
104.
585
.842
3.8
20:5
n-3
(mg)
58.6
196.
521
1.0
57.1
1172
.116
29.9
1800
.066
.037
1.4
91.9
1671
.812
87.9
791.
722
:6n-
3(m
g)54
.922
5.3
239.
276
.817
72.6
2326
.325
93.8
155.
398
0.1
258.
611
69.4
1334
.212
55.7
Tota
lPU
FA(m
g)25
5.7
560.
059
1.3
155.
151
48.2
6590
.673
59.0
273.
416
44.8
3860
.840
71.0
3493
.828
06.0
Tota
lPU
FAn-
3(m
g)19
0.0
496.
952
5.6
139.
443
26.4
5622
.662
55.4
246.
914
91.7
388.
437
53.3
3245
.923
07.7
Tota
lPU
FAn-
6(m
g)65
.763
.165
.715
.776
5.6
968.
011
03.6
26.6
153.
234
72.4
317.
724
7.9
498.
3C
hole
ster
ol(m
g)44
6410
568
40na
na19
2825
2838
naC
alci
um(m
g)51
1326
72.0
1261
6815
2954
7067
445
Phos
phor
us(m
g)17
816
518
521
620
921
632
221
923
030
329
630
763
7M
agne
sium
(mg)
103
4349
40.5
2326
4026
3243
2935
42Ir
on(m
g)8.
50.
70.
50.
40.
50.
30.
40.
50.
50.
71.
71.
93.
0So
dium
(mg)
244
259
178
444
3814
878
369
169
1344
6539
018
7Po
tass
ium
(mg)
7823
616
441
330
123
440
840
837
359
540
449
636
9M
anga
nese
(mg)
0.65
�0.
020.
040.
10�
0.02
0.02
0.04
�0.
02�
0.02
0.03
�0.
02�
0.02
0.21
Cop
per
(mg)
0.18
0.21
0.50
2.50
0.06
0.06
0.04
�0.
030.
03�
0.03
�0.
030.
110.
15Zi
nc(m
g)2.
11.
32.
44.
50.
50.
80.
90.
70.
80.
81.
71.
22.
5C
hlor
ide
(mg)
347
438
258
na46
225
1125
8519
515
9215
274
032
7Vi
tam
inA
(�g)
na2.
76.
78.
333
6570
2.8
5.3
4.3
129.
09.
0Vi
tam
inE
(mg)
na0.
732.
12.
24.
05.
34.
30.
240.
45na
0.02
50.
71.
5Vi
tam
inD
(�g)
na0
0na
1111
9.2
5.6
5.2
7.0
1711
8.8
Vita
min
B 1(m
g)na
0.02
2�
0.01
8na
0.18
0.17
0.19
0.01
90.
018
0.03
60.
018
0.04
9�
0.02
Vita
min
B 2(m
g)na
0.04
20.
044
na0.
041
0.08
10.
120.
044
0.03
50.
065
0.14
0.19
0.04
Vita
min
B 6(m
g)na
0.06
70.
046
0.1
0.45
0.34
0.21
nana
na0.
410.
300.
1Vi
tam
inB 1
2(�
g)na
1.3
1.7
1.4
nana
na0.
630.
360.
8310
9.3
naFo
late
(�g)
na12
1313
.510
8.4
1027
2328
2431
21N
iaci
ne(m
g)na
1.3
2.5
2.2
na3.
04.
41.
21.
01.
86.
28.
46.
0
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
372 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications
Cholesterol is an important lipid component in cell membranes, and the body uses it inbuilding a number of hormones and vitamin D. This compound has been the subject ofseveral studies for its role in clogging arteries and thus contributing to heart disease andstroke. Cholesterol in many marine species is the main sterol, accounting for more than90% of all sterols, while in some shellfish species it might be present at percentages thatcan be as low as 25% [8]. Cholesterol levels are not significant in most seafood productsand those found in fish and a large number of shellfish species are between 24 and 85mg/100 g (Table 29.1). In bivalve molluscs, phytosterols are also present, coming frommicroalgae and sediments [9–11]. However, cephalopods usually contain higher levels, forexample, European squid has approximately values near 140 mg cholesterol/100 g tissue[4]. Nevertheless, according to some authors [12], the presence of high amounts of taurinein these species helps to reduce cholesterol absorption. This hypocholesterolemic effect oftaurine is due to the enhancement of cholesterol degradation and the excretion of bile acid,as referred to by Yokogoshi et al. [13]. As a rule, cholesterol contents in wild and farmedfish species are not significantly different.
29.2.3 Minerals and vitamins
Minerals help the body’s cellular activity, particularly in enzyme action, muscle contraction,nerve reaction, and blood clotting. For most fish species the order of prevalence is potassium→ chloride or phosphorus → sodium → magnesium → calcium → iron → zinc →copper → manganese (Table 29.1). Canned fish products, such as sardines, smelts, andsalmon are especially valuable sources of calcium due to the presence of soft bones. Oystersand crustaceans are usually good sources of zinc; oysters, bluefish, and shrimp are rich iniron; oysters, crabs, and lobster contain relevant levels of copper. In general, all seafoodsare important sources of selenium and iodine, particularly relevant in wild species. Freshseafood is low in sodium, but in some processed products such as when smoked, cured, andsurimi, the content of this mineral could be slightly higher.
Among their many functions, vitamins enable the assimilation of carbohydrates, proteins,and fats. They are also critical in the formation of blood cells, hormones, and neurotrans-mitters. Fish products usually are not a predominant source of vitamins; however, levels ofvitamin B, particularly niacin, B12 and B6, are comparable to those of other foods with highprotein content, and some fatty species supply reasonable amounts of vitamins A and D.These vitamins are found especially in fish liver oils. However vitamins are also present inflesh, such as �-tocopherol, which could attain 4 mg/100 g in salmon.
29.3 Effect of cooking on nutritional value
The type of cooking method may affect some nutritional components (Table 29.1). Moisturecontent usually decreases during the cooking process and the size/shape, thickness, and thefish species also influence such a decrease. Consequently, the proportion of solids increasesand the amounts of certain nutrients could be higher in cooked products. Usually, fryingleads to a higher water loss associated to the absorption of oil, resulting in an increased fatcontent. Nevertheless, oil absorption seems to be higher when the fat content of the productis lower. As expected, the fatty acid profile in fried products is influenced by the compositionof the vegetable oil used. Relative to minerals and vitamins, there is not a common trend.Usually, sodium content increases due to the salt added before cooking and some vitamins
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Health benefits associated with seafood 373
are destroyed while the content of others is not significantly changed. In general, boiling andgrilling are quite satisfactory in terms of nutrient keeping.
29.4 Health benefits of seafood
The health benefits of fish products have been claimed for many years and they seem tobe strongly correlated to the quality of proteins and the presence of high amounts of n-3PUFA. Such benefits have been described in several papers, reviews, and reports, thoseassociated with the role of these fatty acids in the prevention of several diseases being themost thoroughly documented.
29.4.1 Essential n-3 fatty acids
The long chain n-3 PUFA, such as EPA and DHA, are very important from a nutritional pointof view and can be mainly found in marine fish products. However, it is important to take intoaccount that both fatty acids are not produced by fish, but by unicellular marine microalgaethat are consumed by other marine species [14] and accumulated through the trophic chain.
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA, 18:3 n-3) is the essential fatty acid precursor of the n-3 seriessynthesized in plant organisms using � 12- and � 15-desaturases [14,15]. However, ALAcannot be synthesized by animals due to the lack of these desaturase enzymes [16] and itsessential importance for mammalian was recognized [17]. The conversion of ALA into EPAand EPA into DHA occurs in healthy human adults at a limited rate that can attain 5% in thecase of EPA production and only 0.05% for DHA [18,19]. Such rates confirm the importanceof the inclusion of these n-3 PUFA in the diet.
29.4.2 Cardioprotector effect/coronary heart disease (CHD)
The association of long chain n-3 PUFA and cardiovascular disease (CVD) was establishedfrom the prior observations of low CHD mortality in Eskimos from Greenland, despitetheir high fat intake [20,21]. Pioneer research studies from the 1970s on the GreenlandInuit indicated that the intake of n-3 PUFA (fish, seal, and whale meat) reduced the risk ofmyocardial infarct, and researchers proposed that the mechanism associated with this effectwas the reduction of thrombosis risk [22].
These findings led to a high number of research works trying to establish a relationshipbetween n-3 PUFA intake and CVD. A few of these studies were not conclusive but the vastmajority pointed out to a positive role of n-3 PUFA in the prevention of CVD [23].
A part of the effects of dietary n-3 PUFA on CVD is explained by the traditional lipoproteinrisk factors associated to the blood levels of total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL)cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol and triacylglycerols (TAGs), as wellas by other mechanisms relating to haemostasis, lipid peroxidation and oxidative stress, andinflammatory processes, with endothelial function also being involved [24].
Many systematic reviews on observational studies, randomized controlled trials, and clin-ical, animal, and in vitro studies suggest that the regular intake of n-3 PUFA protects againstcoronary artery and sudden death [25]. Moreover, a meta-analysis based on primary andsecondary CHD prevention showed a significant decrease of all-cause mortality risk [18,26].Another study carried out over two years confirmed that men with a previous myocardialinfarction receiving daily fish oil capsules (900 mg EPA+DHA) or 200 to 400 g of fatty fish
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
374 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications
per week containing 500 to 800 mg n-3 PUFA per day, presented a reduction of 29% in globalmortality and 33% in cardiac mortality [27]. GISSI study [28] based on a high number ofmyocardial infarcts survivors, supplemented with a daily dose of 850 mg of EPA and DHAshowed a reduction of 21% in global death and 45% in sudden death. Moreover, dietaryn-3 PUFA seems to stabilize the myocardium electrically, resulting in reduced susceptibilityto ventricular arrhythmias, thereby reducing the risk of sudden death. The intake of n-3PUFA was also positively related with the prevention of cardiac arrhythmias in animal modelstudies, due to the development of a non-fatal ventricular fibrillation as well as ventriculartachycardia and ventricular premature beats [23].
From a meta-analysis across 11 cohort studies [29], it was concluded that fish consumptionis inversely associated with fatal CHD, and mortality from CHD may be reduced by eatingfish once per week or more. Further studies [30–32] also confirmed the positive effects offish n-3 PUFA consumption.
Controversial results relating n-3 PUFA intake and stroke incidence were presented in areview by Sidhu [23]. Later, Psota et al. [32] pointed out a beneficial association betweenthe ingestion of these fatty acids and stroke reduction in humans.
The protein component of fish also influences the concentration of lipid plasma con-stituents. Thus, several papers were published with studies on animals. The studies in rabbits[33,34] conclude that dietary proteins act synergistically with dietary lipids to regulatecholesterol metabolism and cod proteins induced a decrease of the very low-density lipopro-tein (VLDL) cholesterol level in plasma. It was also concluded that cod proteins increasedHDL cholesterol and reduced TAG concentration in plasma, which was accompanied by anincrease in lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity and reduction in VLDL cholesterol levels. Thestudies in rats concluded that cod protein decreased plasma TAG and cholesterol concentra-tion [35]. The increase of LPL activity in the adipose tissue of rats fed with cod proteinswas observed [36]. Demonty et al. [37] showed that both cod protein and menhaden oil exertindependent and beneficial effects on lipid metabolism in rats. They also demonstrated thatthe combination of cod protein and fish oil resulted in 50% lower plasma TAG comparedwith the casein-beef tallow mixture.
The results obtained in human studies showed that the consumption of lean white fishby postmenopausal women induced higher concentrations of total and HDL cholesterol,LDL apolipoprotein B (Apo B), and sex hormone-binding globulin than other animal proteinsources [38]. In another work with humans, the consumption of fish protein from lean whitefish induced lower plasma VLDL TAG and higher concentrations of LDL TAG and LDL ApoB in premenopausal women [39]. The results of the study by Lacaille et al. [40] suggested thatfish proteins may be partly associated with the variations in plasma sex hormones status andplasma lipoprotein lipase activity in normolipidemic men. The effects of the incorporation oflean beef, poultry, and lean fish into a diet with a high PUFA:SFA ratio and high fibre contenton lipoprotein profiles in hypercholestorolemic men were studied by Beauchesne-Rondeauet al. [41]. The lean fish diet had the added benefit of improving HDL2 cholesterol level andsignificantly increased the ratio of HDL2 to HDL3 cholesterol more than the lean beef andpoultry diets.
29.4.3 Hypertension
A meta-analysis across 31 studies with fish oil supplementation, based on a dose responseeffect of n-3 PUFA on blood pressure, was referred to by Morris et al. [42], showing adecrease of 0.66 mm Hg in systolic and 0.35 mm Hg in diastolic pressure per gram of n-3
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Health benefits associated with seafood 375
PUFA. Nevertheless, the hypotensive effect of these fatty acids was more evident in subjectswith clinical atherosclerosis or hypercholesterolemia. Subsequent works pointed out a moreactive role in blood pressure reduction of DHA compared with EPA [43], inhibiting therenin–angiotensin system.
29.4.4 Diabetes
The lower incidence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (NIDDM) in populationsconsuming large amounts of fish was reported by Kromann and Green [44]. The consumptionof n-3 PUFA has been associated with a low incidence of diabetes, improving the insulinsensitivity [23]. A recent work in n-3 PUFA consumption during an energy restrictionstudy pointed out the importance of n-3 PUFA consumption for the improvement of insulinsensitivity and possibly for the prevention of type-2 diabetes, with a positive effect on insulinresistance in young overweight individuals, independent from changes in body weight, TAG,erythrocyte membrane, or adiponectin [45].
Some epidemiological studies [46] on a population of lean fish eaters suggested that afish constituent other than n-3 PUFA protected against the development of impaired glucosetolerance and NIDDM. In this respect, some studies with rats [47–49] evaluated the roleof dietary cod proteins in the regulation of insulin sensitivity. They demonstrated that codproteins improved glucose tolerance and appeared to involve, at least in part, a direct actionof amino acids on insulin-stimulated glucose transport in skeletal muscle cells. It was alsoconcluded that these proteins normalized the activation status of the phosphatidylinositol(PI) 3-kinase/Akt pathway, which was associated with increased translocation of glucosetransporter type 4 (GLUT4) to the T-tubules. The metabolic effect of dietary proteins oninsulin and glucose responses in healthy women was investigated by von Post-Skagegard etal. [50], who concluded that a cod protein meal, compared with milk or soy protein meal,lowered insulin levels and reduced the insulin to C-peptide and insulin to glucose ratios.Ouellet et al. [51] demonstrated that cod protein improved insulin sensitivity compared withother animal proteins in insulin-resistant men and women. According to these authors, thisbeneficial effect could be attributed to the specific amino acid composition of these proteins,with lower branched-chain amino acids (valine, leucine, and isoleucine) and the higherarginine content of the cod protein diet compared with other animal protein diets. It is alsomentioned that taurine, whose content is about three to four times greater in white fish thanin beef or pork, also improved insulin sensitivity. The influence of dietary intake of proteinsfrom different sources on the occurrence of microalbuminuria in type-1 diabetic patients wasstudied by Mollsten et al. [52]. The major findings of this control study indicated that a dietincluding a high amount of fish protein (∼9.3 g of fish protein per day) lowered the risk ofmicroalbuminuria in young type-1 diabetic patients.
29.4.5 Cancer
In a systematic review about the effect of n-3 PUFA on cancer risks by McLean et al. [53], adelay in the onset of some cancer types (breast, colorectal, lung, and prostate) and the intakeof these fatty acids was found. In the case of aero-digestive, bladder, lymphoma, ovarian,pancreatic, and stomach cancer, no association between n-3 PUFA intake and cancer inci-dence was established. Chapkin et al. [54] showed that n-3 PUFA suppressed the mediatinginflammatory Th 1 cells that are linked to the occurrence of colon cancer. In a study by Istfan
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
376 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications
et al. [55], it was hypothesized that n-3 PUFA and vitamin D had the potential to delay theprogression of prostate cancer cells.
29.4.6 Other effects
The consumption of n-3 PUFA seems to reduce the risk of depression, postpartum depression,bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and humour fluctuations [56]. The positive effect of EPAin schizophrenia treatment was demonstrated when it was added to usual antipsychoticagent [57]. Other studies showed a positive role of n-3 PUFA in the control of rheumatoidarthritis, prevention of osteoporosis [58], development of the nervous system, improvementof photoreception, and reproductive system [23], as well as in weight loss [59].
29.5 Conclusions
Seafood is an important source of nutrients, which are fundamental for a balanced diet.Moreover, the recognized beneficial health effects of fish lipids and proteins make fish a fooditem especially recommended for human health and well-being. Daily recommendations forn-3 PUFA intake were established based on data related with the prevention and the treatmentof CVD. The consumption of two fish meals a week or at least a mean level of 500 mg ofEPA+DHA per day are actually strongly recommended by several health authorities [60,61].In the case of secondary prevention, a double dose of 1 g per day is advised [62].
References
1. Valdimarsson, G. & James, D. (2001). World fisheries utilisation of catches. Ocean & Coastal Manage-ment, 44, 619–633.
2. FAO (2007). The State of World Fisheries and Aquaculture 2006. FAO, Rome, Italy.3. Sikorski, Z.E., Kolakowska, A. & Pan, B.S. (1990). The nutritive composition of the major groups of
marine food organisms. In: Seafood: Resources, Nutritional Composition, and Preservation. Sikorski,Z.E. (ed.), CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 30–54.
4. Nunes, M.L., Bandarra, N.M., Oliveira, L., Batista, I. & Calhau, M.A. (2006). Composition and nu-tritional value of fishery products consumed in Portugal. In: Seafood Research from Fish to Dish.Quality, Safety and Processing of Wild and Farmed Fish. Luten, J.B., Jacobsen, C., Bekaert, K.,Sæbø, A. & Oehlenschlager, J. (eds), Wageningen Academic Publishers, Wageningen, The Netherlands,pp. 477–487.
5. El, S.N. & Kavas, S.N. (1996). Determination of protein quality of rainbow trout (Salmo irideus) by invitro protein digestibility – corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS). Food Chemistry, 55, 221–223.
6. Usydus, Z., Szlinder-Richert, J. & Adamczyk, M. (2009). Protein quality and amino acid profiles of fishproducts available in Poland. Food Chemistry, 112, 139–145.
7. Shahidi, F. & Miraliakbari, H. (2006). Marine oils: compositional characteristics and health effects.In: Nutraceutical and Specialty Lipids and their Co-products. Shahidi, F. (ed.), CRC Press, Taylor &Francis Group, Boca Raton, FL, pp. 227–250.
8. Oehlenschlager J. (2000). Cholesterol content in edible parts of marine fatty pelagic fish species andother seafood. In: Proceedings of 29th WEFTA Meeting. Georgakis, S.A. (ed.), Greek Society of FoodHygienists and Technologists, Pieria, Greece, pp. 107–115.
9. Kawashima, H., Ohnishi, M., Negishi, Y., Amano, M. & Kinoshita, M. (2007). Sterol composition inmuscle and viscera of the marine bivalve Megangulus zyonoensis from coastal waters of Hokkaido,Northern Japan. Journal of Oleo Science, 56, 231–235.
10. Napolitano, G.E., Ackman, R.T. & Silva-Serra, M.A. (1993). Incorporation of dietary sterols by the seascallop Placopecten magellanicus (Gmelin) fed on microalgae. Marine Biology, 117, 647–654.
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Health benefits associated with seafood 377
11. Pazos, A.J., Silva, A., Vazquez, V., Perez-Paralle, M.L., Sanchez, J.L & Abad, M. (2005). Differencesin sterol composition of clams (Ruditapes decussatus) from three rıas in Galicia NM Spain). MarineBiology, 147, 663–670.
12. Militante, J.D. & Lombardin, J.B. (2004). Dietary taurine supplementation: hypolipidemic and an-tiatherogenic effects. Nutrition Research, 24, 787–801.
13. Yokogoshi, H., Mochizuki, H. Nanami, K., Hida, Y., Miyachi F. & Hiroaki Oda, H. (1999). Dietarytaurine enhances cholesterol degradation and reduces serum and liver cholesterol concentrations in ratsfed a high-cholesterol diet. Journal of Nutrition, 129, 1705–1712.
14. Moyad, M.A. (2005). An introduction to dietary/supplemental omega-3 fatty acids for general healthand prevention: Part I. Urologic Oncology. Seminars and Original Investigations, 23, 28–35.
15. Calder, P.C. (2004). n-3 Fatty acids and cardiovascular disease: evidence explained and mechanismsexplored. Clinical Science (London), 107, 1–11.
16. Nakamura, M.T. & Nara, T.Y. (2003). Essential fatty acid synthesis and its regulation in mammals.Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes and Essential Fatty Acids, 68, 145–150.
17. Burr, G.O. & Burr, M.M. (1930). On the nature and role of the fatty acids essential in nutrition. Journalof Biological Chemistry, 86, 587–621.
18. Burdge, G.C. & Calder, P.C. (2005). �-Linolenic acid metabolism in adult humans: the effects of genderand age on conversion to longer-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids. European Journal of Lipid Scienceand Technology, 107, 426–439.
19. Wang, C., Harris, W.S., Chung, M. et al. (2006). N-3 Fatty acids from fish or fish-oil supplements,but not �-linolenic acid, benefit cardiovascular disease outcomes in primary- and secondary-preventionstudies: a systematic review. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84, 5–17.
20. Nordoy, A. (2001). Fish consumption and cardiovascular diseases. European Heart Journal Supplements,3, D4–D7.
21. Din, J.N., Newby, D.E. & Flapan, A.D. (2004). Omega 3 fatty acids and cardiovascular disease-fishingfor a natural treatment. British Medical Journal, 328, 30–35.
22. Dyerberg, J., Bang, H.O., Stoffersen, E., Moncada, S. & Vane, J. (1978). Eicosapentaenoic acid andprevention of thrombosis and atherosclerosis? Lancet, 2, 117–119.
23. Sidhu, K.S. (2003). Health benefits and potential risks related to consumption of fish or fish oil.Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 38, 336–344.
24. Bondia, I.P. (2007). Study of the Fatty Acid Profile in the Evaluation of the Mediterranean Diet as aHealthy Dietary Pattern in European Populations. PhD Thesis. University of Barcelona, Barcelona,Spain.
25. Shahidi F. & Miraliakbari, H. (2004). Omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids in health and disease: Part 1-cardiovascular disease and cancer, Journal of Medicinal Food, 7, 387–401.
26. Mozaffarian, D. & Rimm, E. (2006). Fish intake, contaminants and human health: evaluating the riskand the benefits. Journal of the American Medical Association, 296, 1885–1899.
27. Burr, M.L., Fehily, A.M. & Gilbert, J.F. (1989). Effects of changes in fat, fish, and fibre intakes on deathand myocardial reinfarction: diet and reinfarction trial (DART). Lancet, 30, 8666–8757.
28. GISSI – Prevenzione Investigators (1999). Dietary supplementation with n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acidsand vitamin E in 11,324 patients with myocardial infarction: results of the GISSI-Prevenzione trial.Lancet, 354, 447–455.
29. He, K., Song, Y., Daviglus, M.L. et al. (2004). Accumulated evidence on fish consumption and coronaryheart disease mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies. Circulation, 109, 2705–2711.
30. Mozaffarian, D., Longstreth, W.T., Lemaitre, R.N. et al. (2005). Fish consumption and strokerisk in elderly individuals: the cardiovascular health study. Archives of Internal Medicine, 165,200–206.
31. Mozaffarian, D., Gottdiener, J.S. & Siscovick, D.S. (2006). Intake of tuna or other broiled or baked fishversus fried fish and cardiac structure, function, and hemodynamics. American Journal of Cardiology,97, 216–222.
32. Psota, T.L., Sarah K. Gebauer, S.K. & Kris-Etherton, P. (2006). Dietary omega-3 fatty acid intake andcardiovascular risk. American Journal of Cardiology, 98(Suppl. 1), 3–18.
33. Bergeron, N., Deshaies, Y., Lavigne, C. & Jacques, H. (1991). Interaction between dietary proteinsand lipids in the regulation of serum and liver lipids in the rabbit: effect of fish protein. Lipids, 26,759–764.
34. Bergeron, N., Deshaies, Y. & Jacques, H. (1992). Dietary fish protein modulates high density lipoproteincholesterol and lipoprotein lipase activity in rabbits. Journal of Nutrition, 122, 1731–1737.
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
378 Seafood Quality, Safety and Health Applications
35. Hurley, C., Galibols, I. & Jacques, H. (1995). Fasting and postprandial lipid and glucose metabolismsare modulated by dietary proteins and carbohydrates: Role of plasma insulin concentrations. The Journalof Nutritional Biochemistry, 6, 540–546.
36. Demonty, I., Deshaies, Y. & Jacques, H., (1998). Dietary proteins modulate the effects of fish oil ontriglyceridemia in the rat. Lipids, 33, 913–921.
37. Demonty, I., Deshaies, Y., Lamarche, B. & Jacques, H. (2003). Cod proteins lower the hepatic triglyceridesecretion rate in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 133, 1398–1402.
38. Jacques, H., Noreau, L., & Moorjani, S. (1992). Effects on plasma lipoproteins and endogenous sexhormones of substituting lean white fish for other animal-protein sources in diets of postmenopausalwomen. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 55, 896–901.
39. Gascon, A., Jacques, H., Moorjani, S., Deshaies, Y., Brun, L.D. & Julien, P. (1996). Plasma lipoproteinprofile and lipolytic activities in response to the substitution of lean white fish for other animal proteinsources in premenopausal women. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 63, 315–321.
40. Lacaille, B., Julien, P., Deshaies, Y., Lavigne, C., Brun, L.D. & Jacques, H. (2000). Responses of plasmalipoproteins and sex hormones to the consumption of lean fish incorporated in a prudent-type diet innormolipidemic men. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 19, 745–753.
41. Beauchesne-Rondeau, E., Gascon A., Bergeron J. & Jacques H. (2003). Plasma lipids and lipoproteins inhypercholesterolemic men fed a lipid-lowering diet containing lean beef, lean fish, or poultry. AmericanJournal of Clinical Nutrition, 77, 587–593.
42. Morris, M.C., Sacks, F. & Rosner B. (1993). Does fish oil lower blood pressure? A meta-analysis ofcontrolled trials. Circulation, 88, 523–533.
43. Mori, Y., Murakawa, Y., Okada, K., Horikoshi, H. & Yokoyama, J. (1999). Effect of troglitazone onbody fat distribution in type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care, 22, 908–912.
44. Kromann, N. & Green, A. (1980). Epidemiological studies in the Upernavik district, Greenland. Inci-dence of some chronic diseases 1970–1974. Acta Medica Scandinavica, 208, 401–406.
45. Ramel, A., Martinez, J.A., Kiely, M., Morais, G., Bandarra, N.M. & Thorsdottir, I., (2008). Beneficialeffects of long-chain n-3 fatty acids included in an energy-restricted diet on insulin resistance inoverweight and obese European young adults. Diabetologia, 51, 1261–1268.
46. Feskens, E.J., Bowles, C.H. & Kromhout, D. (1991). Inverse association between fish intakeand risk of glucose intolerance in normoglycemic elderly men and women. Diabetes Care, 14,935–941.
47. Lavigne, C., Marette, A. & Jacques, H. (2000). Cod and soy proteins compared with casein improveglucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in rats. American Journal of Physiology Endocrinology andMetabolism, 278, E491–E500.
48. Lavigne, C., Tremblay, F., Asselin, G., Jacques, H. & Marette, A. (2001). Prevention of skeletal muscleinsulin resistance by dietary cod protein in high-fed rats. American Journal of Physiology, Endocrinologyand Metabolism, 281, E62–E71.
49. Tremblay, F., Lavigne, C., Jacques, H. & Marette A. (2003). Dietary cod protein restores insulin-inducedactivation of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/Akt and GLUT4 translocation to the T-tubules in skeletalmuscle of high-fat-fed obese rats. Diabetes, 52, 29–37.
50. von Post-Skagegard, M., Vessby, B. & Karlstrom B. (2006). Glucose and insulin responses in healthywomen after intake of composite meals containing cod-, milk-, and soy protein. European Journal ofClinical Nutrition, 60, 949–954.
51. Ouellet, V., Marois, J., Weisnagel, S.J. & Jacques, H. (2007). Dietary cod protein improves insulinsensitivity in insulin-resistant men and women. A randomized controlled trial. Diabetes Care, 30,2816–2821.
52. Mollsten, A.V., Dahlquist, G.G., Stattin, E.L. & Rudberg S. (2001). Higher intakes of fish protein arerelated to a lower risk of microalbuminuria in young Swedish type 1 diabetic patients. Diabetes Care,24, 805–810.
53. McLean, C.H., Newberry, S.J., Mojica, W.A. et al. (2006). Effects of omega-3 fatty acids on cancer risk.Journal of the American Medical Association, 295, 403–415.
54. Chapkin, R.S., Davidson, L.A., Ly, L., Weeks, B.R., Lupton, J.R. & McMurray, D.N. (2007). Im-munomodulatory effects of (n-3) fatty acids: putative link to inflammation and colon cancer. Journal ofNutrition, 137, 200S–204S.
55. Istfan, N.W., Person, K.S., Holick, M.F. & Chen, T.C. (2007). 1alpha, 25-Dihydroxyvitamin D and fishoil synergistically inhibit G1/S-phase transition in prostate cancer cells. Journal of Steroid Biochemistryand Molecular Biology, 103, 726–730.
P1: SFK/UKS P2: SFKc29 BLBK298-Alasalvar August 5, 2010 18:7 Trim: 244mm×172mm
Health benefits associated with seafood 379
56. Freeman, M.P. (2006). Omega-3 fatty acids in psychiatry: a review. Annals of Clinical Psychiatry, 12,159–165.
57. Fenton, W.S., Boronow, J., Dickerson, F., Hibbeln, J. & Knable, M.B. (2000). Randomized trial ofsupplemental EPA for residual symptoms of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 47, 159S–160S.
58. Watkins, B.A., Li, Y., Kenneth A.G.D., Hoffmann W.E. & Seifert, M.F. (2000). Dietary ratio of (n-6)/(n-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids alters the fatty acid composition of bone compartments and biomarkersof bone formation in rats. Journal of Nutrition, 130, 2274–2284.
59. Thorsdottir, I., Tomasson, H., Gunnarsdottir, I. et al. (2007). Randomized trial of weight-loss-diets foryoung adults varying in fish and fish oil content. International Journal of Obesity, 31, 1560–1566.
60. ISSFAL (2004). Recommendations for Intake of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Healthy Adults. Pub-lished on-line at http://www.issfal.org.uk/Welcome/PolicyStatement3.asp, last accessed 20 July 2008.
61. WHO (2005). Preventing Chronic Diseases: A Vital Investment: WHO Global Report. Published on-lineat http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2005/9241563001 eng.pdf, last accessed 18 August 2008.
62. Lichtenstein, A.H., Appel, L.J., Brands, M. et al. (2006). Diet and lifestyle recommendations revision2006: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Nutrition Committee. Circulation,114, 82–96.