handbook of herbs and spices - cd3wd

Handbook of herbs and spicesEdited by

K. V. Peter

Published by Woodhead Publishing LimitedAbington Hall, AbingtonCambridge CB1 6AHEnglandwww.woodhead-publishing.com

Published in North and South America by CRC Press LLC2000 Corporate Blvd, NWBoca Raton FL 33431USA

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Chapter 1

Professor K. V. PeterDirector of ResearchKerala Agricultural UniversityP.O. K.A.U. – 680 656TrichurKeralaIndia

Tel: +91 487 371302Fax: +91 487 370019E-mail: [email protected];

[email protected]

Chapter 2

Ms Maria Clay and Martin Muggeridge,Lion Foods Seasoning and SpiceAssociation6 Catherine StreetLondon WC2B 5JJEngland

Tel: +44 (0)208 836 2460Fax: +44 (0)208 836 0580E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 3

Dr Rehka S. Singhal, Professor Pushpa R.Kulkarni and Dr V. RegeUniversity Department of ChemicalTechnology (UDCT)University of MumbaiNathalal Parikh MargMatunga, Mumbai 400 019India

Tel: +91 22 414 5616Fax: +91 22 414 5614E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 4

Dr C. K. GeorgePeermade Development SocietyP. B. No. 11, Peermade-685 531Indukki DistrictKeralaIndia

Tel: +91 486 332497, 332496, 332197Fax: +91 486 332096E-mail: [email protected]

[email protected]

Contributors

Chapter 5

Professor Dr Mensure OzguvenDepartment of Field CropsFaculty of AgricultureUniversity of CukurovaAdana - 01330Turkey

Fax: +90 322 338 63 81E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 6

Dr Sushil KumarDirectorCentral Institute of Medicinal andAromatic PlantsLucknow 226015India

Fax: +91 522 342666E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 7

Dr P. N. Ravindran and Dr Johny A.KallupurackalIndian Institute of Spices ResearchPB No 1701Marikunnu POCalicut-673012KeralaIndia


Chapter 8

Dr T. G. Berke and Dr S. C. ShiehAssociate ScientistAsian Vegetable Research andDevelopment CenterPO Box 42 ShanuaTainan 741Taiwan

Fax: +886 6 583 0009E-mail: ([email protected]),

[email protected]

Chapter 9

Dr V. S. KorikanthimathCardamom Research CentreIndian Institute of Spices ResearchAppangalaMadikeri- 571 201 Kodagu DtKarnatakaIndia


Chapter 10

Dr K. J. Madhusoodanan andDr Y Saideswara RaoIndian Cardamom Research InstituteSpices BoardMyladumpara 685 553KeralaIndia


[email protected]

Chapter 11

Dr J. Thomas and Dr P. P. DuethiKerala Agricultural UniversityAromatic and Medicinal Plants ResrachStationPO AsamannurErnakulamKerala 683 549India

E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 12

Dr N. Nurdjannah and Dr NurlianiBermawieResearch Institute for Spice andMedicinal CropsJalan Tentara PelajarIndonesia


xii Contributors

Chapter 13

Professor Gholamreza AminFaculty of PharmacyTehran University of Medical SciencesPO Box 14155-6451TehranIran


Chapter 14

Dr J. Salikutty and Professor K. V. PeterDepartment of OlericultureKerala Agricultural UniversityVellaikkaraThrissur 680656KeralaIndia


Chapter 15

Dr Rajendra GuptaProject CoordinatorZandu PharmaceuticalsB-1/46Paschim BiharNew Delhi 110063India

Chapter 16

Dr U. B. PandeyNational Horticultural Research andDevelopment FoundationPost Box 61Kanda Batata Bhavan 2954-ENew Bombay Agra RoadNashik 422001(MS) India


Chapter 17

Dr P. A. ValsalaDepartment of Plantation Crops andSpicesCollege of HorticultureKerala Agricultural UniversityVellanikkara POThrissurKeralaIndia


Chapter 18

Dr V. K. Raju and Dr M. ReniDepartment of Processing TechnologyCollege of HorticultureP.O. Kerala Agricultural UniversityVellanikkaraThrissur 680 656KeralaIndia


Chapter 19

Dr S. N. Potty and Dr V. Krishna KumarIndian Cardamom Research InstitutePO MailadumparaIdukkiKeralaIndia


Chapter 20

Mr B. Krishnamoorthy and Dr J. RemaIndia Institute of Spices ResearchCalicut 673 012KeralaIndia


Contributors xiii

Chapter 21

Dr K. E. LawandeNational Research Centre for Onion andGarlicRajgurunager- 410 505Dist Pune(MS) India


Chapter 22

Dr P. Pushpangadan and Dr S. P. SinghNational Botanical Research InstituteLucknow-226001India


Chapter 23

Professor Nedyalka V. Yanishlieva-MaslarovaInstitute of Organic ChemistryBulgarion Academy of SciencesKv Geo Milev, Acad G. Bonchev Str.,Blok 9BG-1113 SofiaBulgaria

Tel: +359 2 7134 178Fax: +359 2 700225E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 24

Professor Arturo Velasco-NegueruelaDepartmento De BiologiaFacultad de BiologiaUniversidad Complutense28040 MadridSpain

Tel/Fax: +34 91 394 44 14/50 34E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 25

Dr Y. Saideswara Rao andK. Mary MathewIndian Cardamom Research InstituteSpices BoardMyladumpara 685 553KeralaIndia


[email protected]

Chapter 26

Dr B. SasikumarIndian Institute of Spices ResearchPO MarikunnuCalicut 673012KeralaIndia


xiv Contributors

acceptable daily intake (ADI value) 306acetic acid, onions in 257–8acid insoluble ash (AIA) 14, 20adulteration 22–8

adulterants 23–5authentication of origins 26–8black pepper 81capsicum, chillies, paprika 120cardamom (small) 131–2cinnamon 152detection 25–6, 27marjoram 227–8nutmeg 246saffron 282–3turmeric 301

Aedes aegypti 224aflatoxin limits 15, 19, 204Aframomum see cardamom (large)Agmark specifications 129, 130, 292agriculture, organic 34–5

see also cultivationalkaloids 169allergenicity

aniseed 46–7bay leaves 59cinnamon 150see also toxicity

allicin 183alliin 182–3alliinase 183–4Allium cepa see onionAllium sativa see garlic�-pinene 74, 78

American Spice Trade Association(ASTA) 16, 17–18

amla preserve 108–9

Amomum see cardamom (large)amsol 212analgesic properties 84–5, 116–17, 160, 264anethole 44–6, 46, 47anise oil 42–3, 44–6, 47aniseed 39–51

chemical structure 40–1functional properties 44–6production 41–4quality 47–8toxicity and allergenicity 46–7uses 44

anthocyanin 138–9, 211antibiotic properties 188antiepileptic properties 85antifungal properties 45, 54antimicrobial properties 5–6

aniseed 45bay leaves 54black pepper 85cinnamon 150curry leaf 171dill 177ginger 202marjoram 224–5turmeric 308

antioxidant propertiesaniseed 45black pepper 84–5clove 160curry leaf 171garlic 188ginger 201marjoram 225–6onion 256rosemary and sage 269–75

Index

antioxidant properties – continuedturmeric 308

antipyretic properties 84–5antiulcerogenic properties 59ar-turmerone 305, 306ash level 14, 20ASTA colour value 18atopic eczema 226ATP citrate lyase 212–13authentication methods 26–8authenticity 13Ayurvedic medicine 149, 213, 282

banana pudding, quick 98bay leaves 52–61

chemical composition 54, 55–7, 58cultivation, production and processing 53–4functional properties 54–9toxicity and allergenicity 59

bay oil 53–4beans, green, fried with coconut 109beef, pickled 96–7bees 224benzoid compounds 220

�-caryophyllene 77, 78, 155�-pinene 74, 78

beverages 95–6bhatti system 138bio-dynamic agriculture 35bird’s eye chilli 111–22bis-demethoxy curcumin 302, 304, 305biscuits, pepper 99black pepper 62–110

chemical structure 73–9cultivars and varieties 67–8cultivation 68–72description 64–7functional properties 84–6industrial processing 81–3pepper products 83–4post-harvest handling 72–3production 62–4, 65, 68–73quality 67–8, 80–1recipes with 95–110trade 62–4, 65use in food 86–92

black pepper fried chicken 107black pepper pot roast 106bleached cardamom 125blood coagulation 187blood pressure 187Bonda Chai (Bonda tea) 265–6botanical origins 2, 3, 23–4

authentication 26–8ISO list of plant species 2, 8–11

breeding, plant 262brine, onions in 257–8bulk density/bulk index 15, 19

bush cultivation of pepper 70, 71butter

kokam and cambodge 209, 212nutmeg 242–3

Calicut ginger 196, 202, 203cambodge 207–15

chemical structure 208–9functional properties 212–13production 210, 211quality 213–14uses 212

cambogin 213camphene 243, 245cancer-preventing properties 188, 202, 282capsaicin 112, 113, 116

content/test 18capsaicinoids (CAPS) 112, 113, 116capsanthin 112, 113capsicums 111–22

chemical structure 112–13classification 111–12functional properties and toxicity 116–17production 113–15quality 117–20uses 115–16

capsorubin 112capsule husk, poppy 265–6cardamom (large) 134–42

chemical structure 136–7cultivation 137–8post-harvest handling 138–9quality 140trade 137uses 139–40

cardamom (small) 123–33, 134chemical structure 127–8production 124–7quality 128–32

cardamom oil 123, 126–7carminative properties 45carnosic acid 271, 272carnosol 271, 272carvone 175, 176cassia 143–4, 151, 152

see also cinnamonCentral Food Technological Research Institute

(CFTRI) 138, 289certification 35–6chemical structure

aniseed 40–1bay leaves 54, 55–7, 58black pepper 73–9capsicums, chillies, paprika 112–13cardamom (large) 136–7cardamom (small) 127–8cinnamon 144–6clove 154–5

312 Index

cumin 164–5curry leaf 169–70dill 176garlic 182–4ginger 195–6kokam and cambodge 208–9marjoram 220–2nutmeg and mace 239–43onion 250–2poppy 263–6saffron 276–9tamarind 289–91turmeric 302–5, 306

cherries, pickled 96chicken, fried with black pepper 107chillies 111–22

dried chilli quality 119–20dry chilli production 114–15

chips, cinnamon 147cholesterol reduction 187, 202, 282chrysanthemin 289chutneys 96–8cigarette addiction 123cineole 128, 129cinnamon 143–53

chemical structure 144–6economic species 145essential oil 28, 147–8functional properties and toxicity 149–50production 146–8quality 150–2uses 148–9

cis-sabinene hydrate 220, 221, 222Citrin 213classification of spices 1, 2cleanliness 14, 16, 17–18, 19

extraction of light filth from marjoram227

garlic 189ginger standards 202–5nutmeg and mace 246

clear dhal soup 104clove 154–63

functional properties 159–60production 155–8quality 160–1uses 158–9

Cochin ginger 196, 202, 203coconut chutney 97codeine 264cold expression process 265colour 189

capsicums, chillies, paprika 115kokam and cambodge 211–12marjoram 228pigments 211–12, 281, 302saffron 281, 283, 284turmeric 302, 305–6

colour values 18colouring strength 283, 284concentrate, tamarind juice 289condiments 91–2consumption, black pepper 64, 66continuous subcritical water extraction

(CSWE) 222–3coriander chutney 97–8cream of vegetable soup 103–4critical region 26, 27crocins 277, 278, 279, 281, 282Crocus sativus see saffroncryogrinding 82crystallized ginger 197cultivars/varieties

black pepper 67–8cardamom (large) 135–6cinnamon 145garlic 182onion 250turmeric 298

cultivationaniseed 41–2bay leaves 53–4black pepper 68–72cardamom (large) 137–8dill 174–5organic agriculture 34–5poppy 263saffron 279–80

cumin 164–7chemical structure 164–5functional properties 165production 165quality 166–7uses 165

cuminaldehyde 166Curcuma domestica see turmericcurcumin 300, 302–5, 306, 307, 308

content 19, 301curcuminoids 302, 305, 308curing

cardamom (small) 125turmeric 298–9

curried lamb 107–8curry leaf 168–72

chemical structure 169–70functional properties 170–1production 170uses 168–9

curry powder 87, 88, 300–1cysteine sulphoxides 182–4, 188–9, 251–2

dehydrationgarlic 184–6, 190–2onion 253, 254, 255, 257

demethoxy curcumin 302, 304, 305dhal soup, clear 104

Index 313

digestive properties 150, 202dill 173–9

chemical structure 176flavour compounds 176functional properties and toxicity 177production 174–5quality 177–8

dillapiole 176, 177dilution of essential oils 25dipentene 243, 245diseases of pepper 70diterpenes 271dried chillies 114–15, 119–20dried clove bud 156dry ginger 197–8dry onions 256drying 13

kokam and cambodge 210, 211, 213–14marjoram 218–19

dyes 281

E. coli 21east Indian dill (Sowa) 173, 174, 177, 178eczema, atopic 226edible oils 25eicosanoid cascade 202elemicin 242, 244Elettaria cardamomum see cardamom

(small)emulsions 271–2essential oils 4–5, 22–33

adulteration problem 22–8anise 42–3, 44–6, 47authentication of botanical and geographical

origin 26–8bay 53–4black pepper 74–9cardamom (large) 136–7, 139cardamom (small) 123, 126–7cinnamon 28, 147–8clove 157–8cumin 165, 166–7curry leaf 169–70dill 175, 176, 178garlic 186ginger 198marjoram 216, 218, 219–23nutmeg and mace 240–2, 244onion 253–4origins 23–4physical properties 30–3poppy seed oil 265turmeric 300, 305

ester number 25–6, 27, 30–3ethyl alcohol 25ethylene oxide 16, 117eugenol 154–5, 156, 157–8, 159, 160eugenol acetate 154–5, 156

European Spice Association (ESA) 16–18, 19,20

European ginger standards 204, 205ever-ready onion 250expectorant properties 45extraneous matter 16, 17, 189

see also cleanliness

fat synthesis in the body 212–13featherings, cinnamon 147fertilizers 70fish, salted 291fish curry 200Five Spice Blend (FSB) 87flakes, garlic 190, 191flavonols 79flavour

black pepper 80–1cardamom (small) 128, 129compounds 4, 5dill 176garlic 189paprika and chillies 115precursors 182–4, 188–9, 250–2synthetic flavour compounds 22, 23–4, 166

flue pipe curing 125, 138food processing uses see uses of spices/herbsfreeze-drying 219freezing point 25–6fresh ginger 197, 198fried chicken with black pepper 107functional properties 5–6

aniseed 44–6bay leaves 54–9black pepper 84–6capsicums, chillies, paprika 116–17cardamom (small) 123cinnamon 149–50clove 159–60cumin 165curry leaf 170–1dill 177garlic 187–9ginger 201–2kokam and cambodge 212–13marjoram 224–7nutmeg and mace 244onion 255–6poppy 263–6rosemary and sage 269–75saffron 282tamarind 291turmeric 307–8

Garcinia fish curry 200garcinia fruits see cambodge; kokamgarlic 180–94

chemical structure 182–4

314 Index

functional properties 187–9production 180, 181, 184–7quality 189–92toxicity 188–9uses 180, 187

garlic salt 186–7gas chromatography/mass spectrometry

(GC/MS) 24–5, 26–7geographical origins 12, 23–4

authentication 26–8ghee 171ginger 195–206

chemical structure 195–6functional properties 201–2production 196–8quality 202–5uses 198–201

ginger wine 199globulin 264glutamic acid 251grading

cardamom (small) 129–30cinnamon quills 150–1ginger 202, 203nutmeg 245paprika 117, 118see also quality; standards

green beans fried with coconut 109green pepper based products 83–4grits, garlic 190–1Grocers Company 14ground spices/herbs

cardamom 125–6cinnamon 147clove 157, 158–9cumin seeds 166garlic 190–1ginger 198pepper 82spice mixture 109–10turmeric 300

harvestingblack pepper 71, 72cardamom (small) 124–5cinnamon 146–7dill 175marjoram 217–18

health tonic 281heat treatment 16, 43–4herbal medicines 226high-pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC)

120HIV 226Hungary 113–14hydroxycitric acid (HCA) 208–9, 212–13hydroxycitric acid lactone (HCAL) 208–9hypoglycaemic properties 54–9, 171

Indiablack pepper 62–4, 68cardamom (small) 123, 124curry leaf 168ginger standards 202, 203kokam and cambodge 210onion 249opium 263organic spices 36, 37turmeric 297, 298, 301, 302

Indonesia 37infra-red (IR) spectroscopy 25insects

damage to capsicums, chillies, paprika120

pests affecting pepper 70quality specifications 16, 17, 189

inspection on delivery 21International Standards Organisation (ISO) 15,

20, 283list of plant species 2, 8–11

international trade see tradeiodine number 25, 26irradiation 5, 16

aniseed 43–4marjoram 219

isotope ratio by mass spectrometry (IRMS)27

isotopic fingerprint 27–8

jellose 290juice

onion 254tamarind juice concentrate 289

kernel powder, tamarind 290, 291kokam 207–15

chemical structure 208–9functional properties 212–13production 210quality 213–14uses 211–12

korma curry 108

labelling 191lacrimater 252lamb

curried 107–8spicy lamb fry masala 199–200see also mutton balls, pepper

larvicidal properties 245laudanum 282Laurus nobilis see bay leaveslegume preparations 104–5limbolee oil 169limonene 74, 78, 176linalool 27, 28, 128, 129linalyl acetate 27, 28, 129

Index 315

mace 238–48functional properties and toxicity 244production and chemical structure 239–43quality 245–6uses 244

mahanimbinol 169Malabar tamarind see cambodgemarjoram 216–37

essential oil 216, 218, 219–23functional properties 224–7harvesting 217–18post-harvest management 218–19quality 227–31uses 223–4

masala dhal 102–3masalas 90–1mass spectrometry 24–5maximum solvent residues 161meat dishes 96–7, 106–8, 199–200mesh size 15metals 21methoxy hydroxy chalcone polymer 149, 150methyl eugenol 128, 129microbiological quality 15, 16, 19, 21microencapsulation 83milk shake, pepper 95mineral oils 25mixed vegetable soup 103moisture content 14, 20, 139monoterpene alcohols 220monoterpene carbonyls 220monoterpene esters 220monoterpene hydrocarbons 74–7, 220, 221,

241–2morphine 264mould 16, 17, 189mulugutwanny 105mutton balls, pepper 106–7

see also lambmycotoxin levels 15, 19, 204myristic acid 245Myristica fragrans see mace; nutmegmyristicin 242, 243, 244, 245

narcotic properties 244Nature’s Own 213Nile tilapia 224noscapine 264nutmeg 238–48

functional properties and toxicity 244production and chemical structure 239–43quality 245–6uses 244–5

nutritional compositionblack pepper 85cinnamon 144clove 159–60curry leaf 170–1

garlic 187, 188garlic salt 186ginger 201marjoram 230onion 250–1turmeric 304

odour 80, 189off-flavour compounds 80–1oil-in-water emulsions 271–2oleic acid 209oleoresin

anise 42–3black pepper 82capsicums, chillies, paprika 112, 114,

117–19cinnamon 148clove 158, 159garlic 186ginger 198nutmeg and mace 242rosemary 270turmeric 300

onion 249–60chemical structure and influences on flavour

250–2functional properties 255–6production 252–5quality 256–8

onion salt 254opium 261, 263, 264optical rotation 25–6, 27, 30–3oregano 216organic spices 34–8

certification 35–6future trends 38organic farming 34–5quality 35–6standards 35world trade 36–7

orginine 251outcrossing 262oven drying 213–14oxygenated compounds 74–8

packaging 19, 191pain relief 84–5, 116–17, 160, 264pakodas 249Papaver see poppypapaverine 264paprika 111–22

production 113–14quality 117, 118

particle size 15pectin 290Peermade Development Society 37pepper, black see black pepperpepper mutton balls 106–7

316 Index

pepper products 83–4pepper spike pickle 97pepper steak 106pepper tea 95peppers see capsicums‘peppers’ guild 14perfume 245, 281pesticidal properties 308pesticide levels 15, 19, 204phellandrene 176phenolic components 79physical properties 25–6, 30–3pickles 96–7

onion 254–5, 257–8picrocrocin 277, 278, 279pigments 211–12, 281, 302Pimpinella anisum see aniseedpinene 74, 78, 243, 245Piper nigrum see black pepperpiperine 74, 75

levels test 18plant breeding 262plant species 2, 8–11platelet aggregation 187, 226polishing 299pongal 100–1poppy 261–8

chemical structure and uses 263–6cultivation 263

pork, pickled 96–7post-harvest handling

black pepper 72–3cardamom (large) 138–9marjoram 218–19turmeric 298–9

pot marjoram 217pot roast 106potato chips 99–100powdered spices/herbs see ground spices/herbsprecursors, flavour 182–4, 188–9, 250–2preservation 5preserved ginger 197, 198prices, saffron 280processing 4–5

aniseed 43–4bay leaves 53–4black pepper 81–3capsicums, chillies, paprika 113–15cardamom (large) 138–9cardamom (small) 125–7cinnamon 147–8clove 156–8curry leaf 170dill 175garlic 184–7ginger 197–8kokam and cambodge 210–11marjoram 218–19, 222–3

nutmeg and mace 239–43onion 253–5poppy seed oil 265rosemary and sage 269tamarind 288–9turmeric 298–301

productionaniseed 41–4bay leaves 53–4black pepper 62–4, 65, 68–73capsicums, chillies, paprika 113–15cardamom (large) 137–9cardamom (small) 124–7cinnamon 146–8clove 155–8cumin 165curry leaf 170dill 174–5garlic 180, 181, 184–7ginger 196–8kokam and cambodge 210–11marjoram 217–23nutmeg and mace 239–43onion 252–5poppy 263rosemary and sage antioxidants 269saffron 279–80tamarind 288–9turmeric 298–301

protein 264protocrocin 277puliyingi 199pulp, tamarind 289pulse preparations 104–5pungency 112, 115, 120

quality 13–21aniseed 47–8ASTA standards 16, 17–18black pepper 67–8, 80–1capsicums, chillies, paprika 117–20cardamom (large) 140cardamom (small) 128–32cinnamon 150–2clove 160–1cumin 166–7defining 13dill 177–8ESA standards 16–18, 19, 20garlic 189–92ginger 202–5indices for essential oils 22–33international specifications 14–15kokam and cambodge 213–14marjoram 227–31nutmeg and mace 245–6onion 256–8organic spices 35–6

Index 317

quality – continuedother tests 18–19saffron 282–4tamarind 291–2turmeric 301–2, 303

quality assurance systems 21quick banana pudding 98quillings 147quills, cinnamon 147, 150–1

racemic synthetics 228radish sambar 104–5Rasam 105recipes

with black pepper 95–110with ginger 199–201

refractive index 25–6, 27, 30–3regulation see quality; standardsrehydration 191resorcinols 245rhizomes, turmeric 298, 298–9rigani 217rind, kokam and cambodge 208, 210, 211,

211–12, 213–14roghan josh 107–8rosemary 26–7, 269–75

antioxidant properties 269–70chemical structure 271–2extraction methods 269

rosmanol 271, 272rosmaridiphenol 271rosmarinic acid 271, 272rosmariquinone 270

S-alk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides 182–4,188–9, 251–2

sabinene 74, 78saffron 276–86

chemical structure 276–9functional properties 282production 279–80quality 282–4uses 281

safranal 278, 279safrole 242, 243sage 13, 269–75

antioxidant properties 272extraction 269

salad dressings 90Salmonella 21salted fish 291sand content (acid insoluble ash) 14, 20sauces 90, 91–2Scoville heat units (SHU) 18, 112, 120seasonings 90, 91–2seed testa, tamarind 290–1seeds

cumin 165, 166

poppy 264tamarind 290

sensory evaluation 80sesquiterpene hydrocarbons 77–8, 220, 305, 306shallots 250slices, garlic 190–1smoke drying 211, 213–14snacks 99–101sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) 270soikadi 212solubility 30–3soluble seasonings 87–90solvent extraction 158, 270solvent residues, maximum 161soups 103–4Sowa (east Indian dill) 173, 174, 177, 178Spain 284specific gravity 25–6, 27, 30–3specifications see quality; standardsspice extracts 4spice mixes 90–1spicy lamb fry masala 199–200spicy water melon juice 95–6Sri Lanka 37standards 14–18, 19, 20

capsicums, chillies, paprika 117–20cardamom (large) 140cardamom (small) 128–31cinnamon 151clove 160, 161cumin 166dill 177–8garlic 189–90ginger 202–5marjoram 229, 230nutmeg and mace 245–6onion 256–7organic spices 35saffron 283–4tamarind 292turmeric 301, 302see also quality

star anise oil 47steak, pepper 106steam distillation 42, 126–7, 139, 170, 175stearic acid 209stimulant properties 45stomach cancer 188storage

aniseed 43cinnamon 148clove 156–7garlic 192marjoram 219turmeric 299, 300

suji halwa 98–9sulphur-containing compounds 182–4, 188–9,

251–2

318 Index

sun drying 210, 211, 213–14supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) 83, 158,

222sweet preparations with pepper 98–9synthetic flavour compounds 22, 23–4, 166

tamarind 287–96functional properties 291production 288–9quality 291–2uses 289–91

tamarind kernel powder (TKP) 290, 291tea

Bonda (poppy) 265–6pepper 95

terpenes 169terpineol 128, 129terpinoid ether/oxides 220terpinyl acetate 128, 129testa, tamarind seed 290–1thebaine 264thermic effects of food (TEF) 116thin-layer chromatography (TLC) 25thyme 13tomato curry 200–1toxicity 59

aniseed 46–7capsicums, chillies, paprika 116cinnamon 149–50dill 177garlic 188–9nutmeg and mace 244

trade, international 3black pepper 62–4, 65cardamom (large) 137cinnamon 146curry leaf 168dill 173–4nutmeg and mace 239organic spices 36–7tamarind 288turmeric 298

traditional medicine 177, 201, 213, 307black pepper 84, 85cinnamon 149clove 160cumin 165curry leaf 171marjoram 226–7onion 255–6saffron 282

trimyristicin 242–3turmeric 13, 297–310

chemical structure 302–5, 306functional properties 307–8post-harvest processing 298–301

production 298–301quality 301–2, 303uses 305–7

turmerone 305, 306

Unani medicine 149, 282United States ginger standards 202–5urd bonda 100uses of spices/herbs

aniseed 44bay leaves 53–4black pepper 86–92capsicums, chillies, paprika 115–16cardamom (large) 139–40cardamom (small) 123cinnamon 148–9clove 158–9curry leaf 168–9dill 173garlic 180, 187ginger 198–201kokam and cambodge 211–12marjoram 223–4nutmeg and mace 244–5onion 249, 253poppy 263–6saffron 281tamarind 289–91turmeric 305–7

varieties see cultivars/varietiesvarroa infestation in bees 224vegetable crispies 99–100vegetable curry 101–2vegetable hamburger onion hash 101vegetable khorma 102vegetable preparations 101–3vegetable soups 103–4veppilakkatti 168–9vinegar from onion 255vitamins 117volatile oil (V/O) 14, 20

see also essential oils

water availability 14–15water melon juice, spicy 95–6water steeping and retting technique 81–2weight management properties 212–13wet masala 249white pepper 81–2wild marjoram 217wine, ginger 199

Zaafran Attar 281Zingiber officinale see gingerzingiberene 196

Index 319

List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University

1.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 The trade in spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Spice flavours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 Processing issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.5 The functional role of spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.6 The structure of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61.7 Sources of further information and advice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7Appendix 1: ISO list of plant species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8Appendix 2: Major spice-producing areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Quality specifications for herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13M. Muggeridge, Lion Foods and M. Clay, European Spices Association

2.1 Defining quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.2 Major international quality specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142.3 The American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.4 The European Spice Association (ESA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162.5 Other tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182.6 Quality assurance systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Quality indices for spice essential oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22R. S. Singhal, P. R. Kulkarni and D. V. Rege, University of Mumbai

3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.2 The problem of adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28Appendix: Physical properties of some spice essential oils and flavourants 30

Contents

4 Organic spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, Kerala

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344.2 Concept of organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344.3 Standards and certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354.4 Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364.5 World trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364.6 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

5 Aniseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39M. Ozguven, University of Cukurova, Adana

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445.6 Toxicity and allergy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465.7 Quality and regulatory issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6 Bay leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52S. Kumar, J. Singh and A Sharma, Central Institute of Medicinal andAromatic Plants, Lucknow

6.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526.2 Cultivation, production and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536.3 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546.5 Toxicity and allergenicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

7 Black pepper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62P. N. Ravindran and J. A. Kalluparackal, Indian Institute of SpicesResearch, Kerala

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627.2 Production and international trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627.3 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647.4 Cultivars and varieties: quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677.5 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 687.6 Handling after harvest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727.7 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737.8 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807.9 Industrial processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817.10 Pepper products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837.11 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847.12 Use of pepper in food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867.13 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Appendix: Recipes with pepper (Dastur and Maya 1981) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

vi Contents

8 Capsicum, chillies, paprika, bird’s eye chilli . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111T. G. Berke and S. C. Shieh, Asian Vegetable Research and DevelopmentCenter, Tainan

8.1 Introduction: classification and use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1118.2 Chemical structure and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1128.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1138.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1158.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1168.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1178.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121

9 Cardamom (small) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123V. S. Korikanthimath, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Karnataka

9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1239.2 Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1249.4 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1279.5 Quality standards and grade specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1289.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

10 Cardamom (large) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134K. J. Madhusoodanan and Y. Saideswara Rao, Indian CardamomResearch Institute, Kerala

10.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13410.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13610.3 The trade in large cardamom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13710.4 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13710.5 Post-harvest handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13810.6 Main uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13910.7 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14010.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

11 Cinnamon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143J. Thomas and P. P. Duethi, Kerala Agricultural University

11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14311.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14411.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14611.4 Main uses in the food industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14811.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14911.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15011.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152

12 Clove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154N. Nurdjannah and N. Bermawie, Research Institute for Spice and MedicinalCrops, Jelan Tentara Pelajar

12.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15412.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15512.3 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15812.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

Contents vii

12.5 Quality and regulatory issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16112.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

13 Cumin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164Gh. Amin, Tehran University of Medical Sciences13.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16413.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16413.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16513.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16513.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16513.6 Quality specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16613.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

14 Curry leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168J. Salikutty and K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University14.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16814.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16914.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17014.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17014.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171

15 Dill . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173R. Gupta, Zandu Pharmaceuticals, New Delhi15.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17315.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17415.3 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17615.4 Compounds influencing flavour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17615.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17715.6 Quality indices and standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17715.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

16 Garlic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180U. B. Pandey, National Horticultural Research and Development Foundation,Nashik16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18016.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18216.3 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18416.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18716.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18716.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18916.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192

17 Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195P. A. Vasala, Kerala Agricultural University17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19517.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19517.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19617.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19817.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201

viii Contents

17.6 Quality specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20217.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

18 Kokam and cambodge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207V. K. Raju and M. Reni, Kerala Agricultural University18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20718.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20818.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21018.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21118.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21218.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21318.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

19 Marjoram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216S. N. Potty and V. Krishna Kumar, Indian Cardamom Research Institute,Kerala19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21619.2 Harvesting and post-harvest management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21719.3 Essential oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21919.4 Use in food . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22319.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22419.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22719.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232

20 Nutmeg and mace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238B. Krishnamoorthy and J. Rema, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kerala20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23820.2 Production and chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23920.3 Main uses and functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24420.4 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24520.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

21 Onion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249K. E. Lawande, National Research Center for Onion and Garlic, Pune21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24921.2 Chemical structure and influences on flavour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25021.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25221.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25521.5 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25621.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

22 Poppy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261P. Pushpangadan and S. P. Singh, National Botanical Research Institute,Lucknow22.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26122.2 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26322.3 Chemical structure and uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26322.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266

Contents ix

23 Rosemary and sage as antioxidants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269N. V. Yanishlieva-Maslarova, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Sofia andI. M. Heinonen, University of Helsinki23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26923.2 Extraction methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26923.3 Antioxidant properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26923.4 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27123.5 Sage: antioxidant properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27223.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

24 Saffron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276A. Velasco-Negueruela, Universidad Complutense, Madrid24.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27624.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27624.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27924.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28124.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28224.6 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28224.7 Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28424.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

25 Tamarind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287Y. Saideswara Rao and K. Mary Mathew, Indian Cardamom ResearchInstitute, Kerala25.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28725.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28825.3 Main uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28925.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29125.5 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29125.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292

26 Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297B. Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Kerala26.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29726.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29826.3 Post-harvest processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29926.4 Quality specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30126.5 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30226.6 Use in the food industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30526.7 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30726.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

x Contents

Handbook of herbs and spices

Volume 2

Edited byK. V. Peter

CRC PressBoca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC

Cambridge England

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, AbingtonCambridge CB1 6AH, Englandwww.woodhead-publishing.com

Published in North America by CRC Press LLC, 2000 Corporate Blvd, NWBoca Raton FL 33431, USA

First published 2004, Woodhead Publishing Ltd and CRC Press LLC© 2004, Woodhead Publishing LtdThe authors have asserted their moral rights.

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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and areused only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.


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Typeset by Ann Buchan (Typesetters), Middx, EnglandPrinted by TJ International, Padstow, Cornwall, England

Contributors

(* = main point of contact)

Chapter 1Professor K. V. Peter*Kerala Agricultural UniversityKAU – PO, VellanikkaraThrissur, Kerala StateIndia – 680656

Tel: 0487 2370034Fax: 0487 2370019E-mail: [email protected]

[email protected]

Dr K. Nirmal BabuIndian Institute of Spices ResearchCalicut – 673 012India


Chapter 2M. R. Shylaja and Professor K. V. Peter*Kerala Agricultural UniversityP O KAU 680656, VellanikkaraThrissur, Kerala StateIndia – 680656


[email protected]@rediffmail.com

Chapter 3Dr C. C. TassouNational Agricultural Research FoundationInstitute of Technology of Agricultural

ProductsS Venizelou 1Lycovrisi 14123Greece

Tel: +30 210 2845940Fax: +30 210 2840740E-mail: [email protected]

Professor G.-J. E. Nychas* andDr P. N. Skandamis

Agricultural University of AthensDepartment of Food Science and

TechnologyIera Odos 75Athens 11855Greece

Tel/Fax: +30 10 529 4693E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 4

Dr R. RodenburgTNO PharmaUtrechtseweg 483704HE ZeistThe Netherlands

Contributors xi


Chapter 5

P. N. Ravindran* and G. S. PillaiCentre for Medicinal Plants ResearchArya Vaidya SalaKottakkal – 676 503KeralaIndia

Tel: 0483 2743430Fax: 0483 2742572/2742210E-mail: [email protected]

[email protected]

Dr K. Nirmal BabuIndian Institute of Spices ResearchCalicut – 676 012India


Chapter 6

Dr S. K. Malhotra* and Dr O. P. VijayNational Research Centre on Seed SpicesAjmer – 305 206RajasthanIndia


Chapter 7

Mr B. Krishnamoorthy* and Dr J. RemaIndian Institute of Spices ResearchCalicut 673 012KeralaIndia

E-mail: [email protected]@yahoo.co.in

Chapter 8

Dr A. A. Farooqi* and K. N. SrinivasappaDivision of HorticultureUniversity of Agricultural SciencesGKVKBangaloreIndia


Chapter 9

Dr M. M. Sharma* and Dr R. K. SharmaRajasthan Agricultural UniversityBikanerIndia


Chapter 10

Dr M. T. Lis-BalchinSchool of Applied ScienceSouth Bank University103 Borough RoadLondon SE1 0AA


Chapter 11

Dr M. T. Lis-BalchinSchool of Applied ScienceSouth Bank University103 Borough RoadLondon SE1 0AA


Chapter 12

Dr J. Thomas*, K. M. Kuruvilla andT. K. Hrideek

ICRI Spices BoardKailasanadu POKerala, India – 685 553


xii Contributors

Chapter 13

Dr S. K. MalhotraNational Research Centre on Seed SpicesAjmer – 305 206RajasthanIndia


Chapter 14

Professor S. KintziosLaboratory of Plant PhysiologyAgricultural University of AthensIera Odos 7511855 AthensGreece

Tel: +3210 5294292Fax: +3210 5294286E-mail: [email protected]

Chapter 15

Dr D. J. CharlesFrontier Natural Products Co-op3021 78th StreetNorway, IA52318USA


Chapter 16

Dr B. SasikumarIndian Institute of Spices ResearchMarikunnu (PO)Calicut – 673 012KeralaIndia

Tel: 91 495 2731410Fax: 91 495 2730294Email: [email protected]

Chapter 17

Dr D. M. HegdeDirectorate of Oilseeds ResearchRajendranagarHyderabad – 500 030Andhra PradeshIndiaTel: +91 040 24015222Fax: +91 040 24017969


Chapter 18

C.K. GeorgePeermade Development SocietyPost Box 11Peermade – 685531Idukki Dist.KeralaIndia


Chapter 19

Professor E. Stahl-Biskup*University of HamburgInstitute of PharmacyDepartment of Pharmaceutical Biology andMicrobiologyBundesstrasse 45D-20146 HamburgGermany

Tel: +49 (0)40 42838 3896Fax: +49 (0)40 42838 3895E-mail: elisabeth.stahl-biskup

@uni-hamburg.de

Professor R. P. VenskutonisHead of Department of Food TechnologyRadvilenu pl. 19KaunasLT – 3028Lithuania


Contributors xiii

Chapter 20Dr C. C. de GuzmanDepartment of HorticultureCollege of AgricultureUniversity of the Philippines Los BañosLos Baños

Laguna 4031Philippines

Tel: (63-49) 536 2448Fax: (63-49) 536 2478E-mail: [email protected]

355

This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.

Index Index Terms Links acids 5 active plant constituents 4 5 aflatoxins, legislation 155 156 AFNOR 313 ajowan (Trachyspermum ammi) 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 adulteration 115 antimicrobial properties 112 chemical structure 109 110 111 description 107 essential oils 109 111 medicinal uses 111 112 113 oils from 112 114 115 production 107 108 specification for whole seed 113 114 uses in food processing 111 112 alcoholic beverages, use of spices and herbs in 4 alkaloids 5 allspice (Pimenta dioica) 117–39 adulteration 138 antioxidant properties 133 bactericidal properties 133 chemical composition 120 121 122 123 culinary uses 131 132 cultivation 129 description 117 118 etymology 118 119 as a fungicide 132 133 harvesting 129 130 imports into USA 120 insecticidal properties 133 leaf oil 123 124 127 128 medicinal uses 132 oils in 121 122 123 126 127 128 oleoresin 123 origin and distribution 119 120 in perfumery 132 pests and diseases 130 131 prices 119 production and trade 119 propagation 125 126 128 129 quality specifications 134 135 136 137

356


Index Terms Links vernacular names 118 angelica 64 65 66 67 68 69 botany and description 65 chemistry 65 66 culinary use 64 67 68 69 cultivars and varieties 66 cultivation and production 66 essential oil 65 67 unctional properties and toxicology 66 harvesting and processing 67 medicinal uses 68 origin and distribution 64 65 anise, cultivation and uses 2 anti-inflammatory properties future technological trends 49 genomics-based screening 47 48 49 induced diversity 50 screening experiments for 46 47 48 49

antimicrobial properties 4 18 19 22 –40 ajowan 112 application of essential oils in foods 28 barriers to use of essential oils in food 22 23 essential oils tested for 23 in food systems 27 28 29 30 31 32 geranium 168 169 hyssop 82 impedance-based methods 25 lavender 186 measuring antimicrobial activity 23 24 25 mode of action 32 33 34 oregano 224 225 and oxygen 29 30 plate counting technique 25 studies in vitro 26 27 sweet flag (Acorus calamus Linn) 58 thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 310 turbidimetry 24 antioxidant properties 15 17 18 sesame 261 262 aromatherapy 169 170 186 rosemary in 250 asafoetida 77 78 79 80 81 botany and description 78 chemistry 78 culinary and medicinal uses 80 81 harvesting and processing 78

357


Index Terms Links origin and distribution 77 products 79 related products 80 assays cell-based 42 43 fluorescence 43 44 fluorescence polarization (FP) 44 quality 45 receptor binding 43 reporter gene assays 43 47 scintillation 44 screening 42 43 44 ASTA 313 Cleanliness Specification for Spices, Seeds and Herbs 154 Ayurvedic medicine 4 6 7 8 109 110 capers in 77 coriander in 145 149 mustard in 202 basil (Ocimum basilicum) 5 cultivation and uses betel vine (Piper betle L.) 85 86 87 88 89 botany and description 86 87 chemistry 87 cultivars and varieties 87 cultivation and production 87 88 essential oil 87 89 harvesting and processing 88 89 medicinal uses 89 origin and distribution 86 production and international trade 86 use as a masticatory 85 86 89 bio-active compounds, screening 45 46 bitters 5 black caraway 72 73 74 botany and description 72 chemistry 73 culinary use 73 cultivation and production 73 essential oil 73 harvesting and processing 73 medicinal use 73 74 quality issues 74 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) 111 cancer, and rosemary 249

358


Index Terms Links capers (Capparis spinosa) 74 75 76 77 botany and description 74 75 chemistry 75 culinary uses 77 cultivars and varieties 75 cultivation and production 75 harvesting and processing 76 medicinal uses 77 origin and distribution 74 production and international trade 74 carotenoids 3 carvacrol 32 chervil (Anthriscus cerefolium) 140 141 142 143 144 culinary uses 2 143 144 cultivation 2 141 142 description 140 141 harvesting 142 143 medicinal uses 143 pests and diseases 142 chilli peppers (Capsicum annuum) 5 chlorophylls 3 classification of herbal spices 12 colour components in spices 3 compound asafoetida 79 coriander (Coriandrum sativum) 145–61 chemical composition 146 147 cleanliness specifications 154 contaminant limits in importing countries 154 155 156 157 contaminants 152 culinary uses 149 158 159 cultivation 147 148 149 description 145 146 environmental effects on quality 153 essential oil 146 future trends 159 grading and standards 153 154 medicinal uses 149 oleoresin 158 origin and distribution 146 pesticide residue limits 160 161 pests and diseases 149 150 151 production practices and quality 152 quality 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 value addition 157 158 159 volatile oils 145 147 157 cosmetics 4 250 coumarines 5

359


Index Terms Links crocin 3 CSIR 85 92 94 curcumin 3 dong quai 66 drying methods 13 E. Coli 33 and allspice 133 and oregano 29 30 essential oils ajowan 109 111 allspice 121 122 angelica 65 67 antimicrobial action in food systems 27 antimicrobial properties 23 applications in foods 28 barriers to use as antimicrobials in food 22 23 betel vine 87 89 black caraway 73 coriander 146 effects of 170 extraction 32 for food preservation 27 galangal 83 85 geranium 167 greater galangal 60 62 hyssop 82 lavender 179 180 legislation 34 lethal dose in rats 33 lovage 96 mango ginger 96 mustard 203 nigella 210 212 213 oregano 217 parsley 230 231 232 239 240 241 star anise 294 summer savory 92 93 sweet flag 56 57 58 thyme 299 300 308 winter savory 95 European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP) 313 European Spice Association 155

360


Index Terms Links FAO 263 325 FCC 94 Ferula 81 see also asafoetida flavanoids 3 in thyme 300 301 flavones 5 flavour 2 compounds responsible for 15 Food and Drug Administration (FDA) 59 galabanum 80 galangal (Kaempferia galanga) 83 84 85 botany and description 83 chemistry 83 84 culinary and medicinal uses 85 cultivation and production 84 essential oil 83 85 functional properties and toxicology 85 harvesting and processing 84 85 origin and distribution 83 genetic erosion 5 geranium (Pelargonium) 162–78 adulteration 172 173 antimicrobial action 168 169 in aromatherapy 169 170 chemistry 162 163 culinary uses 166 167 cultivation 164 165 essential oil 167 169 170 harvesting 165 166 medicinal uses 167 168 oils 164 organic oil 166 perfumery use 167 pests 166 physiological action 169 170 production 163 164 quality specification for essential oil 171 toxicity 170 171 glycosides 5 greater galangal (Alpinia galanga) 60 61 62 63 64 botany and description 61 chemistry 61 62 cultivation and production 62 essential oil 60 62 functional properties and toxicology 63 harvesting and processing 62 63 medicinal uses 63

361


Index Terms Links origin and distribution 60 61 production and international trade 60 quality issues 64 gums and mucilages 5 herb, definition of term 1 high information content screening/systems biology 50 high-throughput screening (HTS) 41 44 horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) 69 70 71 72 botany and description 70 chemistry 70 culinary use 69 71 72 cultivation and production 71 72 functional properties and toxicology 72 harvesting and processing 71 medicinal uses 71 72 origin and distributions 69 70 quality issues 71 hydrosols 32 hyssop 81 82 83 antimicrobial property 82 botany and description 81 82 chemistry 81 culinary use 82 cultivation and processing 82 medicinal uses 81 82 origin and distribution 81 IBPGR 84 ICAR 274 ICMR 280 281 induced diversity 50 inspect repellant properties 20 irani 79 ISO 153 document 676, on herbal spices 11 12 53 specifications for allspice 134 135 specifications for geranium oil 171 specifications for lavender 188 189 specifications for thyme oil 313 Japanese pepper 97 98 JECFA 59 lavender (Lavendula) 2 179–95 adulteration 190 antimicrobial effects 186

362


Index Terms Links chemical composition 179 180 culinary uses 182 D-limonene toxicity 188 EC regulations 2002 (CHIP) 189 essential oil 179 180 for gardens, pot pourri and drying 182 187 hypoglycaemic effect 186 187 and lipid peroxidation 186 medicinal uses 182 183 187 oil production 180 181 organic oil 181 in perfumery and cosmetics 182 perillyl alcohol 187 pharmacological effects 183 184 physiological effect 184 185 psychological effects 185 186 quality specifications of oils 188 189 190 toxicity 187 188 Linnaeus 162 lovage (Levisticum officinale Koth.) 96 97 essential oil 96 luciferase 43 malicorium 91 mango ginger (Curcuma amada) 95 96 essential oil 96 medicinal uses 95 96 medicinal properties 4 6 7 8 20 21 41 microbiological specifications, Germany and the Netherlands 156 mint (Mentha piperita), and Salmonella and Listeria 27 mustard 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 205 in Ayurvedic medicine 202 chemical composition 198 199 200 culinary uses 201 202 description and botany 196 197 198 essential oil 203 medicinal uses 202 nutritional value 199 200 production and cultivation 200 properties 202 203 204 quality specifications 204 nigella 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 adulteration 212 213

363


Index Terms Links chemical structure 207 208 culinary uses 209 210 cultivation 208 209 description 206 207 essential oil 210 213 medicinal uses 210 211 212 quality specifications for seed 212 nutritional properties 15 16 Oil Technological Research Institute Anantpu, India 112 oregano (Origanum) 215–29 antimicrobial action on fish 30 antimicrobial properties 27 224 225 antioxidant properties 223 224 breeding 221 222 chemical structure 216 217 218 219 culinary uses 222 225 cultivation 2 219 220 221 222 description and botany 215 216 and E. Coli 29 30 essential oil 31 217 medicinal uses 223 prices 225 production 219 220 221 222 quality specifications 225 226 and Salmonella 31 Organic Consumer Trends 235 organic farming 235 236 237 238 organic spices 13 origins and areas of cultivation 14 oxygen, and antimicrobial activity 29 30 parsley (Petroselinum crispum) 230–42 chemical composition 232 233 culinary uses 238 cultivars 233 cultivation 2 234 235 description 230 231 232 essential oil 230 231 232 239 240 241 medicinal uses 239 organic farming 235 236 237 238 precautions 239 uses 2 pathani 79 perfumery use 132 182

364


Index Terms Links geranium 167 perillyl alcohol 187 pimento see allspice pomegranate (Punica granatum) 89 90 91 botany and description 90 chemistry 90 culinary use 91 medicinal uses 91 production, consumption and processing 13 14 pungency 2 resins 5 Review of Natural Products 239 rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) 243–55 in aromatherapy and cosmetics 250 biotechnology 248 and cancer 249 chemical composition 244 245 culinary uses 248 250 cultivation 2 245 246 description 243 244 diseases of 251 252 medicinal uses 248 249 250 in mythology 244 oil extraction 247 as a pesticide 250 251 post-harvest technology 246 247 toxicology 251 sagapenum 80 Salmonella 29 33 and allspice 133 and mint 27 and oregano essential oil 31 saponins 5 SCFR 59 screening anti-inflammatory properties 46 47 48 49 bio-active compounds 45 46 sesame (Sesamum indicum) 256–89 as animal feed 281 282 antinutritional factors 267 antioxidants in 261 262 cake and meal 277 278 carbohydrates 265 chemical composition 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267

365


Index Terms Links classification and species relationship 256 257 crop adaptation 269 270 271 culinary uses 279 280 281 dehulling 276 278 future research needs 283 284 harvesting 274 275 lipids 259 260 261 262 263 medicinal uses 282 283 minerals 265 morphology and biology 257 258 259 oil extraction 276 277 pests and diseases 274 production 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 proteins 263 264 265 vitamins 266 267 star anise (Illicium verum) 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 chemical composition 292 culinary uses 294 295 cultivation and production 293 294 description 290 essential oil 294 medicinal uses 295 morphology 290 291 related species 291 292 steam distillation of herbs 32 sumbul (musk rot) 80 summer savory (Satureja hortensis) 91 92 93 94 botany and description 92 chemistry 92 93 culinary and medicinal uses 94 cultivation and production 2 93 94 essential oil 92 93 harvesting and processing 94 origin and distribution 92 production and international trade 92 quality issues 94 Sweet 162 sweet flag (Acorus calamus Linn) 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 antimicrobial properties 58 botany and description 55 chemistry 56 57 58 cultivation and production 55 56 essential oil 56 57 58 functional properties and toxicology 58 59

366


Index Terms Links medicinal use 53 54 origins and distribution 54 55 uses 59 60 Szechuan pepper 97 98 tannins 5 thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 2 297–321 316 317 antimicrobial properties 29 310 antioxidative property 311 312 botany 298 299 chemical structure 299 300 301 302 culinary uses 306 307 308 309 cultivation 2 304 essential oil 299 300 308 flavanoids in 300 301 harvesting 304 305 history and etymology 298 in pharmacopoeias 314 315 316 production 303 304 305 306 propagation 303 304 quality specifications 313 314 spasmolytic activity 311 toxicity 312 turbidimetry 24 under-utilized herbs and spices, list 54 USA Food Chemical Codex (FCC) 313 vanilla 322–53 adulteration and substitution 342 343 344 345 346 chemical structure 332 culinary uses 338 cultivation 326 327 328 329 330 curing 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 description 322 323 324 325 diseases and pests 328 329 flavour constituents 332 337 338 functional properties 340 genetic engineering 348 harvesting 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 historical background 322 323 improving production 346 347 348 medicinal uses 34 microbial biocatalytic transformation 347 in perfumery 338

367


Index Terms Links production and trade 325 326 products 338 339 340 quality 240 241 242 standard specifications 343 tissue culture technique 346 347 use of enzymes in production 347 348 uses 338 339 340 volatile oils 5 coriander 145 nigella 212 parsley 230 231 232 WHO 313 winter savory (S. montana) 2 94 95 essential oil 95 Z'-factor 45

Contents

List of contributors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . x

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India and K. Nirmal Babu,Indian Institute of Spices Research, India1.1 Introduction to herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Uses of herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31.3 Active plant constituents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.4 The structure of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Part I General issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

2 The functional role of herbal spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11M. R. Shylaja and K. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112.2 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.3 Production, consumption and processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132.4 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152.5 Sources of further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3 Herbs and spices and antimicrobials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22C. C. Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece, and G.-J.E. Nychas and P. N. Skandamis, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.2 Barriers to the use of herb and spice essential oils as antimicrobials

in foods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223.3 Measuring antimicrobial activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233.4 Studies in vitro . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263.5 Applications in food systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273.6 Mode of action and development of resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323.7 Legislation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

vi Contents

3.8 Future prospects and multifactorial preservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

4 Screening for health effects of herbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41R. Rodenburg, TNO Pharma, The Netherlands4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414.2 Types of assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424.3 Throughput vs content assays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444.4 Assay quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454.5 Screening bio-active compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454.6 Screening experiments for anti-inflammatory properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464.7 Future trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494.8 Sources of further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

5 Under-utilized herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53P. N. Ravindran and Geetha S. Pillai, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research,India and K. Nirmal Babu, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535.2 Sweet flag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535.3 Greater galangal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.4 Angelica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645.5 Horseradish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695.6 Black caraway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725.7 Capers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745.8 Asafoetida . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775.9 Hyssop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815.10 Galangal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835.11 Betel vine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855.12 Pomegranate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895.13 Summer savory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915.14 Winter savory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945.15 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Part II Particular herbs and spices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

6 Ajowan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107S. K. Malhotra and O. P. Vijay, National Research Centre on Seed Spices,India6.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076.2 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076.3 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1086.4 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1096.5 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1116.6 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1126.7 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1136.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Contents vii

7 Allspice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117B. Krishnamoorthy and J. Rema, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India7.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177.2 Production and trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1197.3 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1207.4 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1257.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1317.6 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327.7 Quality issues and adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1347.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138

8 Chervil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140A. A. Farooqi and K. N. Srinivasappa, University of Agricultural Sciences,India8.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1408.2 Cultivation and production technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1418.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438.4 Sources of further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

9 Coriander . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145M. M. Sharma and R.K. Sharma, Rajasthan Agricultural University, India9.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459.2 Origin and distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469.3 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469.4 Cultivation and post-harvest practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499.6 Diseases, pests and the use of pesticides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499.7 Quality issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1519.8 Value addition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.9 Future research trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159Appendix I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160Appendix II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161

10 Geranium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162M. T. Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16210.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16210.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16310.4 Main uses in food processing and perfumery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16610.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16710.6 Quality issues and adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17110.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173

11 Lavender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179M. T. Lis-Balchin, South Bank University, UK11.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17911.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17911.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

viii Contents

11.4 Uses in food processing, perfumery and paramedical spheres . . . . . . . . . 18211.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18311.6 Quality issues and adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18811.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190

12 Mustard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196J. Thomas, K. M. Kuruvilla and T. K. Hrideek, ICRI Spices Board, India12.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19612.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19812.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20012.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20112.5 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20212.6 Quality specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20412.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204

13 Nigella . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India13.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20613.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20713.3 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20813.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20913.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21013.6 Quality specifications and adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21213.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

14 Oregano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215S. E. Kintzios, Agricultural University of Athens, Greece14.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21514.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21614.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21914.4 Main uses in food processing and medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22214.5 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22314.6 Quality specifications and commercial issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22514.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226

15 Parsley . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230D. J. Charles, Frontier Natural Products, USA15.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23015.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23215.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23315.4 Organic farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23515.5 General uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23815.6 Essential oils and their physicochemical properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23915.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

16 Rosemary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243B. Sasikumar, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India16.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24316.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24416.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Contents ix

16.4 Post-harvest technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24616.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24816.6 Toxicology and disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25116.7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25216.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

17 Sesame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256D. M. Hegde, Directorate of Oilseeds Research, India17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25617.2 Chemical composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25917.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26817.4 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27517.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27917.6 Future research needs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28317.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284

18 Star anise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India18.1 Introduction, morphology and related species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29018.2 Histology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29218.3 Production and cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29318.4 Main uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29418.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295

19 Thyme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297E. Stahl-Biskup, University of Hamburg, Germany and R. P. Venskutonis,Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29719.2 Chemical structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29819.3 Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30319.4 Main uses in food processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30619.5 Functional properties and toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31019.6 Quality specifications and issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31319.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318

20 Vanilla . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322C. C. de Guzman, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines20.1 Introduction and description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32220.2 Production and trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32520.3 Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32620.4 Harvesting, yield and post-production activities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33020.5 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33820.6 Vanilla products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33820.7 Functional properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34020.8 Quality issues and adulteration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34020.9 Improving production of natural vanillin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34620.10 Future outlook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34820.11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355

Handbook of herbs and spicesVolume 3

Edited byK. V. Peter

CRC PressBoca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC

W O O D H E A D P U B L I S H I N G L I M I T E DCambridge, England

Published by Woodhead Publishing Limited, Abington Hall, AbingtonCambridge CB1 6AH, Englandwww.woodheadpublishing.com

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Woodhead Publishing ISBN-13: 978-1-84569-017-5 (book)Woodhead Publishing ISBN-10: 1-84569-017-6 (book)Woodhead Publishing ISBN-13: 978-1-84569-171-4 (e-book)Woodhead Publishing ISBN-10: 1-84569-171-7 (e-book)CRC Press ISBN-13: 978-0-8493-9155-2CRC Press ISBN-10: 0-8493-9155-5CRC Press order number: WP9155

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Contributor contact details(* = main point of contact)

EditorProfessor K. V. PeterKerala Agricultural UniversityKAU-POVellanikkara, Thrissur – 680656Kerala StateIndia


Chapter 1Dr D. HeperkanDepartment of Food EngineeringIstanbul Technical University34469 MaslakIstanbulTurkey


Chapter 2Dr K. J. VenugopalG – 339‘Aparna’Panampilly NagarKochi 682 036Ernakulam DistrictKeralaIndia


Chapter 3Dr A. SharmaFood Technology DivisionBhabha Atomic Research CentreMumbai – 400 085India


Chapters 4 and 12Dr C. K. George7520 Weymouth Hill RoadClifton, VA 20124USA


Chapter 5Ms K. KingGourmet GardenPO Box 128PalmwoodsQueenslandAustralia 4555


xiv Contributor contact details

Chapter 6Ms C. KehlerCanadian Herb, Spice and Natural HealthProduct CoalitionSaskstchewan Herb and Spice AssociationBox 60 Belle PlaineSaskatchewan S0G 0G0Canada


Jan SchooleyBox 587 SimcoeOntarioCanada N37 4NS


Chapter 7Dr T. S. C. LiAgriculture and Agri-Food CanadaPARC Summerland4200 Hwy 97Box 5000Summerland BCCanada V0H 1Z0


Chapter 8Dr H. A. Collin11 Johnsons CloseWestminister ParkChester CH4 7RBUK


Chapter 9Dr Satyabrata Maiti* and Dr K. A. GeethaNational Research Centre for Medicinaland Aromatic PlantsBoriavi 387 310AnandGujaratIndia

E-mail: [email protected]@yahoo.com

Chapter 10Dr C. C. TassouNational Agricultural ResearchFoundationInstitute of Technology of AgriculturalProductsS Venizelou 1Lycovrissi 14123Greece


Chapter 11Dr T. J. Zachariah* and Dr N. K. LeelaIndian Institute of Spices ResearchMarikunnu (PO)Calicut-673 012KeralaIndia


Chapter 13Dr Gabriel O. Sozzi*Cátedra de FruticulturaFacultad de AgronomíaUniversidad de Buenos Aires andCONICETAvda. San Martín 4453C 1417 DSE – Buenos AiresArgentina


Dr Ariel R. VicenteCentro de Investigación y Desarrollo enCriotecnología de AlimentosCONICET–UNLP47 and 116B 1900 AJJ – La PlataArgentina

Chapter 14Dr K. Nirmal Babu* andDr M. DivakaranIndian Institute of Spices ResearchMarikunnu (PO)Calicut – 673 012KeralaIndia


Dr K. V. Tushar and Dr P. N. RavindranCentre for Medicinal Plants ResearchPS Warriers Arya Vaidya SalaKottakkalKeralaIndia


Chapters 15 and 18Dr S. K. MalhotraNational Research Centre for Seed SpicesAjmer – 305 206RajasthanIndia


Chapter 16Dr S. Kumar*, Dr R. Kumar andDr J. SinghIndian Institute of Vegetable ResearchPost Box 5002VaranasiIndia


Chapter 17Dr A. A. Farooqi* and K. N. SrinivasappaDivision of HorticultureUniversity of Agricultural SciencesGKVKBangaloreIndia


Chapter 19Dr H. ChenBeijing Vegetable Research Centre(BVRC)Banjing West SuburbP. O. Box 2443Beijing 100089China


Chapter 20Dr P. N. Ravindran* and Dr G. S. PillaiCentre for Medicinal Plants ResearchArya Vaidya SalaKottakkal – 676 503KeralaIndia

E-mail: [email protected]@hotmail.com

Chapter 21Dr P. N. Ravindran* andDr I. BalachandranCentre for Medicinal Plants ResearchArya Vaidya SalaKottakkal – 676 503KeralaIndia

E-mail: [email protected]@hotmail.com

Contributor contact details xv

Chapter 22Dr K. R. M. Swamy* andDr R. Veere GowdaIndian Institute of HorticulturalResearchHessaraghatta Lake PostBangalore 560 089India


Chapter 23Dr H. TurhanDepartment of Field CropsFaculty of AgricultureCanakkale Onsekiz Mart UniversityTerzioglu Campus 17020CanakkaleTurkey


Chapter 24Dr Baby. P. Skaria*, Dr P. P. Joy,Dr S. Mathew and Dr G. MathewAromatic and Medicinal Plants ResearchStationOdakkaliAsamannor POErnakalam-683 549India


Chapter 25Dr K. Nirmal Babu* andDr M. DivakaranIndian Institute of Spices ResearchCalicut – 673 012KeralaIndia


xvi Contributor contact details

Dr P. N. Ravindran andProfessor K. V. PeterCentre for Medicinal Plants ResearchArya Vaidya SalaKottakkal – 676 503KeralaIndia


Chapter 26Dr M. H. Mirjalili*Medicinal Plants and Drug ResearchInstituteShahid Beheshti UniversityTehranIran


Dr J. JavanmardiDepartment of HorticultureFaculty of AgricultureShiraz UniversityShirazIran


Chapter 27Dr S. WongpornchaiFaculty of ScienceChiang Mai University239 Huay Kaew RoadChiang Mai 50200Thailand


Contributor contact details xvii

Chapter 28Dr P. Pushpangadan*Amity Institute for Herbal and BiotechProducts Developmentc/o Ranjeev Gandhi Center forBiotechnologyThiruvananthapuramIndia


Dr S. K. TewariNational Botanical Research InstituteLucknow – 226 001India

Chapter 29Dr P. N. Ravindran*Centre for Medicinal Plants ResearchArya Vaidya SalaKottakkal – 676 503KeralaIndia


Dr M. ShylajaProvidence Women’s CollegeCalicut – 673 009KeralaIndia

Chapter 30Dr U. B. PandeyJain Irrigation Systems LimitedAgri Park, Jain HillShirsoli RoadJalgaon 425 001India


Chapter 31Dr N. K. Patra and Dr B. KumarCentral Institute of Medicinal andAromatic PlantsPMVD DivisionCIMAPP.O. CIMAPLucknow – 226 015(UP) India


Herbs and spices play a pivotal role in the day-to-day life of mankind as importantflavouring agents in foods, beverages and pharmaceuticals and also as ingredients inperfumes and cosmetics. The manufacturers of foods, beverages, cosmetics andpharmaceuticals are responding to the growing wave of consumer resistance andlegislative limitations set for products containing chemical additives. Spices as sourcesof natural colours and flavours present welcome opportunities in the internationalmarket. The nutritional, antioxidant, antimicrobial and medicinal properties of spicesalso have widespread applications.

I.1 Production of quality spices

Production of quality clean spices without any pesticide/chemical residues is importantin this era of free international trade resulting from globalisation. Organic spiceswhich fetch 20 to 50% higher prices than spices from conventional farms are devoidof pesticides and chemical residues and are superior in quality. Adoption of goodagricultural practices helps to reduce the above contaminants. Quality assurancesystems such as HACCP is of great relevance in the production of quality spices.Decontamination techniques and proper packaging and storage techniques play amajor role in maintaining quality of spices.

I.1.1 Rational uses of pesticides and controlling the pesticide/chemicalsresidues in herbs and spicesAll over the world, people are becoming more and more conscious of health problemsdue to consumption of foods contaminated with pesticide residues. It is estimatedthat a large number of people suffer from pesticide poisoning and suffer every yeardue to the toxic effects of chemicals. Promotion of a farming technique adoptingecologically sound plant protection measures, organic recycling and bio-wastemanagement would go a long way in bringing back the health of soil and reducing thepesticide residues of farm produce. The role played by various beneficial microorganismsincluding mycorrhizae, biocontrol agents and plant-growth-promoting rhizobacteriaare enormous in enhancing crop growth and disease control without leaving anychemical residues on plants. The effective bioagents for the control of major diseasesof spice crops are listed in Table I.1.

Introduction

Table I.1 Effective bio agents for the control of major diseases in spice crops

Crops Major diseases Causal organisms Bio control agents

Cardamom (small) Azhukal Phytophthora meadii, Trichoderma virideP. nicotianae var. T. harzianumnicotianae Laetisaria arvalis

Rhizome rot Rhizoctonia solani, Gliocladium virensPythium vexans Arbiscular Mycorhizal

Fungi (AMF)Seed rot Fusarium oxysporum Trichoderma sp.Seedling rot R. solani, P. vexans Pseudomonas

fluorescensRoot rot F. oxysporum Bacillus subtilis

Black pepper Foot rot Phytophthora capsici AMF(quick wilt) T. viride, T. harzianum,

Gliocladium virensPaecilomyces lilacinus

Slow decline Rodophilus similies, G. virens, T. viride(slow wilt) Meloidogyne incognita T. harzianum, AMF

Verticillum,Chlamydosporium sp.Pasteuria penetrans

Vanilla Root rot Fusarium oxysporum, T. viride, T. harzianumSclerotium rolfsi

Stem rot, stem P. meadii, F. oxysporum B. subtilisblight, beans rot, Sclerotium rolfsii P. fluorescensbeans yellowing F. oxysporum, T. virideand rotting shoot Colletotrichum T. harzianumtip rot gloeosporioides P. fluorescens

Ginger Soft rot Pythium T. viride(rhizome rot) aphanidermatum, T. harzianum

P. myriotylum,Ginger yellows Fusarium sp. Trichoderma sp.

Turmeric Rhizome rot Rhizoctonia solani, Trichoderma sp.Storage rots Sclerotium rolfsii

Chillies, Damping off in Pythium sp., T. viridePaprikas seedlings Phytophthora sp. T. harzianum

P. fluorescensAnthracnose Colletotrichum B. subtilis(fruit rot) lindemuthianum P. fluorescens

B. subtilisTrichoderma sp.

Thyme Wilt disease F. oxysporum T. virideLeaf rot F. oxysporum T. harzianum

Rosemary Thread blight Rhizoctonia solani T. harzianumSage Wilt R. solani T. harzianum

Mint Wilt F. oxysporum T. harzianum

Horse-radish Leaf blight Colletotrichum sp. T. harzianumRoot rot, wilt Verticillium sp. T. harzianum

Burmese-coriander Wilt Fusarium sp. T. harzianumMarjoram Leaf blight Colletotrichum sp. T. harzianum

Leaf spot Phoma sp. T. harzianumOregano Leaf spot Curvularia lunata T. harzianum

xx Introduction

Table I.2 (a) Nutrient composition of selected organic cakes and (b) recommended quantity oforganic manure for various spice crops

(a)

Oil cakes Nutrient contents (%)

Nitrogen Phosphorus Potash

Edible cakesCoconut cake 3.0 1.9 1.8Niger cake 4.7 1.8 1.2Sesamum cake 6.2 2.0 1.2Sunflower cake 7.9 2.2 1.9Groundnut cake 7.3 1.5 1.3

Non-edible cakeCotton seed cake (with shells) 6.4 2.9 2.2Mahua cake 2.51 0.80 1.85Neem cake 5.22 1.08 1.48

(b)

Spice crops Organic manure Quantity

Black pepper Farmyard manure 4–10 kg/plantSmall cardamom Neem cake/FYM/Vermicompost/Poultry 4–5 kg/plant

manureLarge cardamom Cattle manures/organic cakes 2 kg/plantVanilla Farmyard manure/Vermicompost 4–5 kg/plantChilli Farmyard manure/ 4–5 t/ha

Sheep manure/ 3–5 q/haNeem cake 3–4 q/ha

Ginger Farmyard manure/ 5–6 t/haNeem cake 2 t/ha

Turmeric Farmyard manure/ 5–6 t/haNeem cake 2 t/ha

Fennel Farmyard manure 10–12 t/haCoriander Farmyard manure 4 t/haCumin Farmyard manure 4–5 t/haFenugreek Farmyard manure 4–5 t/haCelery Farmyard manure 10–12 t/haClove Farmyard manure 15–40 kg/plantNutmeg Farmyard manure 15–40 kg/plant

Source: Spices Board of India (2001).

Guidelines for production of organic spices are developed for various producingcountries. The Spices Board of India (2001) published the guidelines for productionof organic spices in India. The nutrient composition of selected organic cakes andrecommended quantity of organic manure for various spice crops are presented inTable I.2.

I.1.2 Radiation processing to decontaminate spicesRadiation processing offers good scope for increasing shelf life, enhancing qualityand microbial safety without changing the natural flavour attributes of spices. Thistechnique is widely practised in North America and Europe to decontaminate imported

Introduction xxi

(b)

Name of spice Dose of irradiation Purpose

Minimum Maximum

Onion 0.03 0.09 Sprout inhibitionShallots (small onion) 0.03 0.15 Sprout inhibitionGarlic 0.03 0.15 Sprout inhibitionGinger 0.03 0.15 Sprout inhibitionSpices 6.0 14.0 Microbial decontamination

Source: Sharma et al. (2003).

1 Argentina2 Australia3 Austria4 Bangladesh5 Belgium6 Brazil7 Canada8 Chile9 China

10 Costa Rica11 Croatia12 Cuba13 Czech Republic14 Denmark15 Egypt16 Finland17 France18 Germany

19 Ghana20 Greece21 Hungary22 India23 Indonesia24 Iran25 Ireland26 Israel27 Italy28 Japan29 Republic of Korea30 Libya31 Luxemburg32 Mexico33 Netherlands34 New Zealand35 Norway36 Pakistan

37 Philippines38 Poland39 Portugal40 Russian Federation41 South Africa42 Spain43 Sweden44 Syria45 Thailand46 Turkey47 Ukraine48 UK49 Uruguay50 USA51 Vietnam52 Yugoslavia

Table I.3 (a) Countries which have approved radiation processing of food products and (b) spiceitems permitted for irradiation under Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) rules

(a)

S. no. Country S. no. Country S. no. Country

spices. The various producing countries also started installing facilities for radiationprocessing of spices. Radiation sterilisation along with good agricultural andmanufacturing practices help to produce clean, high quality spices free from pesticideand chemical residues. Being a cold process, it does not affect the delicate aroma andflavour compounds in spices. The risk of post-treatment contamination can be eliminatedby subjecting the pre-packed spices to irradiation. Table I.3 gives the list of countriesthat have approved irradiation processing of food products and spices items permittedfor irradiation under the Indian Prevention of Food Adulteration Act (PFA) rules.

Low doses of irradiation (< 1 K.Gy) help to inhibit sprouting in onion, garlic,ginger, etc. A medium dose application (1–10 K.Gy) eliminates spoilage microbesand food pathogens and high dose application (>10 K.Gy) sterilises food for specialrequirements and for shelf-stable foods without refrigeration.

I.1.3 Packaging in spices for maintenance of qualitySpice products are hygroscopic in nature and being highly sensitive to moisture,

xxii Introduction

absorption of moisture may result in caking, discolouration, hydrolytic rancidity,mould growth and insect infestation. As spices contain volatile aromatic principles,loss of these principles and the absorption of foreign odours as a result of inefficientpackaging may pose serious problems. In addition, heat and light accelerate deteriorationof aroma and flavour components.

Spices containing natural colouring pigments need protection from light (capsicum,cardamom, turmeric and saffron). Spice powders like onion and garlic contain highlyvolatile sulphur compounds and need rigorous protection from loss/absorption offlavour. The essential oil components naturally present in most of the spices aresubject to oxidation by atmospheric oxygen, particularly at high storage temperatureresulting in the development of off-flavours. Packing of spice oils and oleoresins isdone in epoxy lined steel drums and high-density polythene containers. For certainoils and oleoresins, aluminium and stainless steel containers are used. Polyethyleneterephthalate (PET) bottles, which possess very good odour barrier properties andfood-grade high-molecular-weight high-density polyethylene (HMHDPE) containersare also used for storing essential oils and oleoresins. Most of the whole spices areprotected by pericarp and the natural antioxidants present therein, and need lessrigorous protection than ground spices. The packaging materials suitable for differentspice products are listed in Table I.4.

Table I.4 Packaging in spices

Spice Product Type of packaging Packing material

Black pepper Whole pepper Bulk Gunny bags (burlap bags)polyethylene-lined double burlapbags.

Whole pepper Retail HDPE pouches 200 gaugeGround pepper Retail Laminated heat stable

aluminium foil (polyethylenecoated)Moisture-proof cellulose filmDouble-lined polyethylene bags

Cardamom Green cardamom Bulk Wooden boxes or tins lined withheavy gauge black polyethylene,metal foil or waterproof paper.

Cardamom seed Retail Air-tight tin. Wooden chestslined with aluminium foil laminate

Cardamom powder Retail Lacquered cans, PVDC andHDPE pouches

Ginger Dry ginger Bulk Single/double gunny bagsTurmeric Dry turmeric Bulk Double gunny bags

Turmeric powder Retail Aluminium foil laminateTurmeric powder Bulk Fibreboard drums, multiwall

bags and tin containersChilli Dry chilli Bulk Wooden crate dunnage with a

layer of mattingChilli powder Retail Plastic laminate and aluminium

combination pouches withnitrogen gas.3000 gauge low-densitypolyethylene pouches

Source: Pruthi ( 1993).

Introduction xxiii

I.2 Herbs and spices as sources of natural colours and flavours

The food sector is now experiencing a trend back towards natural colourants due tochanges in legislation and consumer preference as synthetic food colourants posehealth hazards like cancer, asthma, allergy, hyperacidity and thyroidism. But lowtinctorial power, poor stability (to changes in pH, oxygen, heat and light), low solubility,off-flavour and high cost limit the use of natural colours. These problems can beovercome by improving the traditional extraction methods using enzymes,microorganisms, super-critical CO2, membrane processing and encapsulation techniques.

Before synthetic colours came into existence, spices like chilli, saffron, turmeric,etc., were used in Indian cuisines to add colour. The Central Food TechnologicalResearch Institute of India (CFTRI) has developed technology for the manufacture ofcertain natural food colours such as kokum (red) and chillies (red). Kokum contains2–3% anthocyanin and is regarded as a natural colour source for acidic foods.Garcinol is the fat soluble yellow pigment isolated from rind of kokum fruit. Garcinolis added at 0.3% level to impart an acceptable yellow colour to butter. Colour componentspresent in spices and natural shades available with spices are presented in Table I.5.

I.2.1 Sources of natural colours in spices

PaprikaThe colour in paprika is due to carotenoids, namely capsanthin and capsorubin,comprising 60% of total carotenoids. Other pigments are cryptoxanthin, xeaxanthin,violaxanthin, neoxanthin and lutein. The outer pericarp of paprika is the main sourceof capsanthin and capsorubin. Indian paprika oleoresin is orange in colour which isless preferred in the international market. Oleoresin contains up to 50% capsorubin.Paprika oleoresin is insoluble in water whilst being readily soluble in vegetable oiland is made dispersible in water by the addition of polysorbate.

Applications are in sausages, cheese sauces, gravies, salad dressings, baked goods,snacks, icings, cereals and meat products.

Table I.5 Colour components in spices

Colour component Tint Spice

Carotenoidβ-carotene Reddish orange Red pepper, mustard, paprika, saffronCryptoxantein Red Paprika, red pepperLutin Dark red Paprika, parsleyZeaxanthin Yellow PaprikaCapsanthin Dark red Paprika, red pepperCapsorubin Purple red Paprika, red pepperCrocetin Dark red SaffronNeoxanthin Orange yellow ParsleyViolaxanthin Orange Parsley, Sweet pepper

Crocin Yellowish orange SaffronFlavonoids Yellow GingerCurcumin Orange yellow TurmericChlorophylls Green Herbs

Source: Ravindran et al. (2002).

xxiv Introduction

The ingredients of paprika colour are paprika oleoresin and refined vegetable oil.Stability is as follows:

Heat goodpH (colour range) pale pinkishLight goodConcentration 40000 IU

TurmericCurcumin is the golden-yellow pigment present in turmeric, regarded as the purecolouring principle with very little of flavour components. It is produced bycrystallisation from the oleoresin and has a purity level of 95%. Pure curcumin isinsoluble in water and hence is dissolved in food grade solvent and permitted emulsifier(Polysorbate 80). Curcumin gives a lemon-yellow colour in acidic pH. It is used atlevels of 5–20 ppm. Curcumin is available in two basic forms, oleoresin and curcuminpowder, both are used as food colourants.

The ingredients of turmeric colour (oil soluble) are curcumin and turmeric oleoresinStability is as follows:

Heat very goodpH (colour range) greenish yellow to reddish yellowLight poorApplication butter, margarine, cream desserts, fruit wine, bread,

biscuit and cakes.

It is blended with other natural colours such as annatto and beetroot red for use inconfectionary, ice cream, dairy products such as yoghurts.

SaffronSaffron gives a wonderful golden colour to food but due to its powerful and distinctiveflavour, it is prized in soups, stews, bread and rice dishes in many global cuisines.Saffron is perceived as luxurious and expensive and hence its use is restricted infoods. The intensive colour of saffron is caused by carotenoids, especially crocetineesters with gentobiose. Other carotenoids present are alpha and β carotene, lycopeneand zeaxanthin.

I.2.2 Spices as sources of natural flavoursThe increasing demand in developed countries for natural flavour offers tremendouspotential for spice crops as sources of natural flavours. The main flavour compoundspresent in herbs and spices are presented in Table I.6. The recovery of essential oiland oleoresin from various spices and the major aromatic principles present in spicesare illustrated in Table I.7. Extraction of oils and oleoresins is accomplished using arange of methods, including steam distillation, hydrocarbon extraction, chlorinatedsolvent extraction, enzymatic treatment and fermentation, and super-critical carbondioxide extraction.

Carbon dioxide extraction from solid botanicals is now adopted on a commercialscale. The resulting essential oils have no solvent residue, fewer terpenes and enhancedblack notes. Enzymatic treatment and fermentation of raw botanicals also result ingreater yields and quality of essential oil. More recently, the use of genetic engineering

Introduction xxv

Table I.6 Important flavour compounds in spices

Spice Important flavour compounds

Allspice Eugenol, β-caryophylleneAnise (E)-anethole, methyl chavicolBlack pepper Piperine, S-3 Carene, β-caryophylleneCaraway d-carvone, crone derivativesCardamom α-terpinyl acetate, 1-80-cineole, linaloolCinnamon, cassia Cinnamaldehyde, eugenolChilli Capsaicin, dihydro capsacinClove Eugenol, eugeneyl acetateCoriander d-linalool, C10-C14-2-alkenalsCumin Cuminaldehyde, p-1,3-mentha-dienalDill d-carvoneFennel (E)-anethole, fenchoneGinger Gingerol, Shogaol, neral, geranialMace α-pinene, sabinene, 1-terpenin-4-ol.Mustard Ally isothiocynateNutmeg Sabinene, α-pinene, myristicinParsley ApiolSaffron SafranolTurmeric Turmerone, Zingeberene, 1,8-cineoleVanilla Vanillin, p-OH-benzyl-methyl etherBasil, sweet Methylchavicol, linalool, methyl eugenolBay laurel 1,8-cineoleMarjoram e- and t-sabinene hydrates, terpinen-4-olOregano Carvacrol, thymolOriganum Thymol, carvacrolRosemary Verbenone, 1-8-cineole, camphor, linanoolSage, Clary Salvial-4 (14)-en-1-one, linaloolSage, Dalmation Thujone, 1,8-cineole, camphorSage, Spanish e- and t-sabinylacetate, 1,8-cineole, camphorSavory CarvacrolTarragon Methyl chavicol, anetholeThyme Thymol, carvacrolPeppermint 1-menthol, menthone, menthfuranSpearmint 1-carvone, carvone derivatives

and recombinant DNA technology have resulted in in vitro production of naturalesters, ketones and other flavouring materials. Cloning and single cell culture techniquesare also of benefit to the flavourist.

I.2.3 Herbs and spices as medicinal plantsThe medicinal properties of spices have been known to mankind from time immemorial.Spices were used extensively in the traditional systems of medicines such asAyurveda, Sidha and Unani. In the recent past, there has been increasing interest inthe biological effects of spices as they are safe and cause no side effects to humans.Extensive studies are going on in developed countries for the separation of medicinalcomponents from spices and evaluation of their biological properties. A classic examplefor such study is the Piperine alkaloid separated from black pepper and marketed asBioperine (98% pure piperine). This alkaloid could increase bioavailability of certaindrugs and nutrients like beta carotene. The medicinal properties of spices are summarisedin Table I.8.

xxvi Introduction

Table I.7 Recovery of essential oil and oleoresin from spices and the major aromatic principle

Spice Essential oil (%) Aromatic principle Oleoresin (%)

Black pepper 1–4.0 Terpin hydrate 10–13Cardamom (small) 6–10 α–terpinyl acetate 1,8–cineole 10–12Cardamom (large) 1–3 1,8–cineole –Ginger 1–2.5 Zingiberine 5–10Turmeric 2–6 Turmerone 8–10Nutmeg 7–16 Myristicine Elemicin 10–12Clove 16–18 Eugenol 20–30Cinnamon 1–3 Cinnamaldehyde 10–12

(bark oil)Eugenol (leaf oil)Camphor (root bark oil)

Allspice 1–3 (leaf oil) Eugenol –3–4.5 (berry oil)

Introduction xxvii

Table I.8 Medicinal properties of spices

Spice Medicinal property

Black pepper Carminative, antipyretic, diuretic, anthelminthic, antiflammatory andantiepileptic

Cardamom Antidepressive, carminative, appetizer, diureticGinger Carminative, anti nauseant, diuretic, antiflatulence, antihistaminic, aphrodisiac

and cholesterol loweringTurmeric Carminative, antibiotic, antiflatulence, antiseptic and anti-inflammatoryGarlic Antimicrobial, diuretic, diaphoretic, antiflatulence, cholesterol lowering and

anti-inflammatoryClove Antiflatualnce, analgesic, stimulant, carminative and antinauseantNutmeg Stimulant, carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatoryCinnamon Stiumlant, Carminative, astringent, aphrodisiac, anti-inflammatoryChilli Carminative and antirheumaticSaffron Stimulant, stomachic and anticarcinogenicAllspice Stimulant, digestive and carminativeBasil, sweet Stomachic, anthelminitic, diaphoretic, expectorant, antipyretic carminative,

stimulant, diuretic, demulcentBayleaves (laurel) Stimulant, narcoticCaraway Stomachic, carminative, anthelminitic, lactagogueCelery Stimulant, tonic, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, anti-inflammatoryChive Stimulant, diuretic, expectorant, aphrodisiac, emmenegogue, anti-inflammatoryCoirander Carminative, diuretic, tonic, stimulant, stomachic, refrigerent, aphrodisiac,

analgesic, anti-inflammatoryCumin Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, astringent and antisepticDill Carminative, stomachic, antipyreticFennel Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, emmenagogueFenugreek Carminative, tonic, aphrodisiacLeek Stimulant, expectorantMarjoram Carminative, expectorant, tonic, astringentMint (peppermint) Stimulant, stomachic, carminative, antisepticMint (spearmint) Stimulant, carminative and antispasmodicOregano Stimulant, carminative, stomachic, diuretic, diaphoretic and emmenagogueParsley Stimulant, diuretic, carminative, emmenagogue, antipyretic, anti-inflammatoryRosemary Mild irritant, carminative, stimulant, diaphoreticSage Mild tonic, astringent, carminativeTarrgon Aperient, stomachic, stimulant, febrifugeThyme Antispasmodic, carminative, emmenagogue, anthelmintic, spasmodic, laxative,

stomachic, tonic, vermifuge

xxviii Introduction

This volume is the third in the series Handbook of herbs and spices and has twoparts. The first part deals with general aspects referred to the industry such as qualityspice production, quality assurance systems, decontamination techniques, packaging,spices as sources of natural colours and flavours, effect of Agreement on Agricultureon spice production and export, etc. The second part deals with detailed informationon individual spices. It is hoped that this book will form a good reference source forthose who are involved in the study, cultivation, trade and use of spices and herbs.

I.3 References and further readingAPARNATHI, K.D. and BORKHATRIYA, V.N. 1999. Improved extraction and stabilization of natural food

colourants. Indian Fd. Ind. 18(3): 164–168.DOWNHAM, A. and COLLINS, P. 2000. Colouring our foods in the last and next millennium. Int. J. Fd.

Sci. Technol. 35(1): 5–22.HENRY, B. 1998. Use of capsicum and turmeric as natural colours in the food industry. Indian Spices

35(3): 9–11.PETER, K.V. (ed.) 2001. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Vol. I. Woodhead Publishing Limited,

Abington, UK.PETER, K.V. (ed.) 2004. Handbook of Herbs and Spices, Vol. II. Woodhead Publishing Limited,

Abington, UK.PRUTHI, J.S. 1993. Major spices of India – Crop Management Post-harvest Technology. ICAR, New

Delhi.PRUTHI, J.S. 2000. Minor Spices of India – Crop Management and Post-harvest Technology. ICAR,

New Delhi.PURSEGLOVE, J.W., BROWN, E.G., GREEN, C.L. and ROBBINS, S.R.J. 1981. Spices Vols I and II (Tropical

Agriculture Series), Longman, London.RAVINDRAN, P.N., JOHNY, A.K. and NIRMAL BABU, K. 2002. Spices in our daily life. Satabdi Smaranika

Vol. 2 Arya Vaidya Sala, Kottakkal, Kerala, India.SHARMA, A., KOHLI, A.K., SHARMA, G. and RAMAMOORTHY, N. 2003. Radiation hygienization of spices

and dry vegetable seasonings. Spice India 1(1): 26–29.SPICES BOARD OF INDIA. 2001. Guidelines for production of organic spice in India. Spice Board,

Kochi, Kerala, India.

Index

Aloe vera 161, 458α-pinene 179, 410α-terpinene 185α-terpinyl acetate 185, 445α-tocopherol 457Alpinia calcarata 357, 363Alpinia galanga see galangalAlpinia officinarum Hance 357, 362aluminium foil 94American pepper see CapsicumAmerican Spices Trade Association (ASTA)

332ASTA-USDA cleanliness specifications 41specifications for caraway seed 293

amino acids 265, 266ammonia 32, 84analytical methods 415–16

mycotoxins 26–7pesticide residues 44–9

Andrographis paniculata Nees (Kalmegh) 145anethole 185, 200animal feed 394animal studies 71

antioxidant measurement 133–4growth promoters 159–61

anise 114, 119mycotoxins 17, 23

anthocyanins 339anthracnose 310, 510–11antibiotic-resistant bacteria 166–7anti-inflammatory activity 143, 161–3

experimental assays 162mechanisms of action 162–3

acceptable levels 106–7acetate biosynthetic pathway 179acetic acid 441, 442acetylpyrroline 455, 456active packaging 86, 97acyclic monoterpenes 178, 179adulteration

asafoetida 227caraway 293celery 334peppermint 477–8

aerial blight 511AFID 46aflatoxins 3, 4, 13, 27, 83–4

control 29, 30–1see also mycotoxins

age of seedlings 369agriculture see cultivationair separators 81air tables 81ajowan (bishop’s weed) 186alcoholic beverages 282alkaloids 455–7

see also capsaicinoidsallergic contact dermatitis 489allergy 490alliins 368–9Allium 337, 338, 495

see also chives; garlic; leeks; onion; potatoonion; shallots

allspice 114, 119allyl isothiocyanate 157Aloe barbadensis 145

Index 521

antimicrobial properties see microorganismsantioxidant supplements 134–5antioxidants

and anti-inflammatory activity 162–3capers 232–3cardiovascular disease 129–30, 131–5

animal studies 133–4complex mixtures vs single compounds

134–5human studies 134metabolic effect 131–2model systems 132–3

lemon balm 395–6measurement of 132–4pandan wangi 457peppermint 471–2spearmint 514

antispasmodic properties 286, 329Apium graveolens 317, 318

see also celeryapterin 441, 442aquavit (akvavit) 282ar-curcumene 186ar-turmerone 186aristolactam AH 427aromatherapy 118asafoetida 221–9

area and production 223botany 221–3chemical constituents 225extraction 225–6forms of 223main uses 227–9processing 226–7quality issues 227varieties 223volatiles 186–7world trade 224

asarone 414ascorbic acid 265–6, 471–2Asparagus racemosus (Satavari) 145Aspergillus

niger 30 parasiticus 30

atherosclerosis 130see also cardiovascular disease

auditing 106autologous bone marrow transplantation

(ABMT) 140Ayurveda 428

cancer 140–2azadirachtin 55

Bacillus thuringiensis 55

backward integration projects 49–54, 55bacteria 61, 62, 64

enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9see also microorganisms

bacterial spot 310Balkan Endemic Nefropati (BEN) 4bar codes 97–8barrier properties 100basil 91, 163

cardiovascular disease 128volatiles 184, 187–8

bay leaf 114, 119mycotoxins 7, 17, 23

bees 394Bergamot mint 460β-bisabolene 360β-damascenone 441, 442β-phellandrene 410β-pinene 410β-selinene 323, 324beta-sitosterol 144betel leaf (Piper betle) 145, 148bicyclic monoterpenes 178, 179binding agents 30, 33biodegradable films 96–7biological competition 30biological control methods

diseases xix, xxpests 57

biological hazards 105biological therapy 140biomarkers 34, 305, 306biosynthesis 179–83, 484

capsaicinoids 304–5Mentha species 503–4phenylpropenes 180, 181, 304–5terpenes 180–3, 503–4

biotechnologycontrol of mycotoxins 32–3long pepper 434–5pandan wangi 454peppermint 464Perilla 487–8

bishop’s weed (ajowan) 186black pepper xx, xxiii, 13, 116, 120

mycotoxins 8, 11, 15–17volatiles 184, 188–9, 190–1

blanchingcelery 321, 325leeks 374, 380

blood pressure 329blood sugar stabilisation 380bloody marys 448Bolivian plants 164, 165

522 Index

Bombay Sambal (ushak) 222–3, 225, 228bone marrow transplantation (BMT) 140borneol 351, 360breast cancer 138, 143breeding objectives 301brining 243–4bronchial asthma 430Bureau of Indian Standards 63butylidenephthalide 440butylphthalide 449

C locus 305cabbage 514–16caesium-137 68calcium hydroxide 32camphene 179, 351, 410camphor 360Canada 103–10

HACCP-based on-farm food safety model104–8

international plant identification practice108–10

Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural HealthProduct Coalition 104

HACCP planning 104–8Canadian On Farm Food Safety Program

(COFFS) 104–8canaline 144cancer 138–50

botany of important herbs 145–8caraway 289complementary and alternative medicines

(CAM) 140–2evidence of functional benefits of herbs

and spices 142–5leek 379–80mechanism of action of herbs and spices

142modern medicine 139–40nature of 139peppermint 477Perilla 489

canned celery 326canned food 66Cantrace initiative 104caper bug 239–40caper moth 239caper vein banding virus (CapVbV) 241capers and caperberries 230–56

chemical composition 231–3cultivation and production 233–43description 230–1functional and health benefits 245–7future trends 247

main cultivars 241–2postharvest technology 243–5quality issues 247uses in food processing 245

capillary electrophoresis 26Capparis 230–1

see also capers and caperberriescapsaicin 117, 153, 162, 163, 304capsaicinoid synthetase (CS) 304capsaicinoids 301–5capsanthin xxiv, 305capsanthin-capsorubin synthase (CCS) 306Capsicum 116, 120, 299–312

cultivation 307–9, 310genus Capsicum 300–1mycotoxins 5, 6, 7, 13–15pod types and quality breeding goals 301production and quality 306–7selection of cultivar 308uses in food processing 301–6see also cayenne; chili

capsorubin xxiv, 305carambola 257–69

climate 260cultivars and varieties 260description 258food uses 264–5food value 265–7harvesting and yield 263medicinal uses 267origin and distribution 258–9other uses 267pests and diseases 262–3planting 261–2propagation 261quality control 263–4soils, water and nutrients 262

carane 179caraway 270–98

chemical structure 277–80classification 270–1cultivars 276–7cultivation 272–7description 271functional properties 114, 119, 285–90mycotoxins 17, 23production and international trade 271–2quality specifications 291–3toxicity 290–1uses in food processing 280–5

caraway chaff oil 283–4carcinoma 139cardamom xx, xxiii, 114, 119

mycotoxins 17, 23

Index 523

volatiles 184, 189, 191, 192cardboard cartons 94cardiovascular disease 126–37

chemical composition of herbs and spiceswith role in 127–9

complex mixtures vs single compounds134–5

herbs, spices and 129–32cholesterol 130–1metabolic effects of antioxidants 131–2

measurement of antioxidants 132–4carene 351carotenoids xxiv, xxv, 305–6, 457, 471–2Carum carvi see carawaycarvacrol 157, 185, 208carvone 179, 185

caraway 278, 279–80, 281, 282–3, 284dill 198spearmint 502, 514, 515, 516

caryophyllene 185cassia 114, 119

volatiles 184, 189–92, 193–4catechins 157–8Catharanthus rosea (periwinkle) 145–7cayenne 6, 7

see also Capsicumceleriac 313–16

description 313production 314–16varieties 314

celery 317–36, 374–5chemical structure 322–4classification 318cultivars 321–2cultivation 319–21description 318–19functional properties 114, 119, 328–31main uses in food processing 324–8post-harvest handling 321production and international trade 319quality specifications 331–4toxicity 331

celery salt 327–8celery seed oil 317, 326–7, 333, 334, 335celery seed vinegar 328celery stalk products 325cell wall hydrolases 266–7cellulose films 95cepharanone B 427Certificate of Authenticity 109certification of organic production 57–8cervical cancer 138chaff oil, caraway 283–4chemical hazards 105

chemical sterilisation 82–3chemical tests 415chemicals: effects on mycotoxins 32chemoprevention 142chemotherapy 139cherry tomatoes, marinated with lovage 447chili xx, xxiii, 65, 66, 162

mycotoxins 6, 7see also Capsicum

chili veinal mottle virus (ChiVMV) 310China 482, 486Chinese ginger (Alpinia officinarum Hance)

357, 362chives 114, 119, 337–46

botany and morphology 340–1chemical composition and nutritional value

337–9culture and production 341–2post-harvest handling and uses in food

processing 342–3varieties 343–4

cholesterol 130–1leek 379

cineole 185, 360cinnamaldehyde 185, 189–92cinnamic acid-4-hydroxylase (C4H) 304cinnamon 90, 92, 114, 119

cardiovascular disease 128–9mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 20volatiles 184, 192–4, 195, 196

citral 409, 413sodium bisulphite method 416

citrinin 31citronellal 410citronellol 179, 410cleanup 26, 27, 44, 45climate

caper bush 233–4Capsicum 308carambola 260caraway 272celeriac 314celery 319chives 341leeks 371lemongrass 401–2long pepper 431–2lovage 443peppermint 462–3shallots 384spearmint 504–5

clonal multiplication 434–5clover 375cloves 114, 119

524 Index

volatiles 184, 194–7CNS 488–9coated films 95cobalt-60 68Cochin oil 400

see also lemongrassCodex General Standard for Irradiated Foods

71coextruded films 96coliforms 61, 62colo-rectal cancer 138colour

Capsicum 302, 305–6natural colours xxiv–xxvturmeric xxv, 65, 66

complementary and alternative medicines(CAM) 140–2

complex mixtures 134–5compounded asafoetida 227consumers

acceptance of packaging 93–4trends driving innovation 86–7

contact dermatitis 489contamination 74–85

decontamination techniques 80–2detoxification 83–4GAP, GMP, ISO 9000 and HACCP 79–80harmful effects 74, 75organic production 79preventive measures 75–9sterilisation 82–3

contract farming 49–54, 55convenience 100Cordyceps militaris 145coriander xx

ground and packaging 89medicinal properties of seed 114, 119mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 21volatiles 184, 197–8

corn chowder with lovage 447coumarins 280, 441, 442, 449cranberry 158–9cream of lovage soup 448critical limits 106–7crocins 164–5Crocus sativa see saffroncrop rotations 507cruciferous vegetables 143cryo-grinding 282cucumber mosaic virus (CMV) 310cultivation 99

capers and caperberries 233–43Capsicum 307–9, 310carambola 260–3

caraway 272–7celeriac 314–16celery 319–21chives 340–2control of pesticide residues 49–54, 55, 56galanga 348–9galangal 359leeks 370–8lemon balm 392–4lemongrass 401–6long pepper 431–4organic see organic productionpandan wangi 454–5peppermint 461, 462–9Perilla 484–6potato onion 497–9prevention of contamination 75–6shallots 383–6spearmint 504–9

cumin 90, 115, 119, 163cardiovascular disease 128mycotoxins 8, 11, 17, 23–4volatiles 184, 198

Curcuma longa see turmericcurcumene 186curcumin xxv, 162curry powder 8, 11–12cuttings 237, 432, 454Cymbopogon

citratus 401flexuosus 400–1pendulus 401see also lemongrass

cymene 185

damping off 310decarvonised oil 284Declaration of Identity 109decontamination techniques 64, 74–85

air separators 81air tables 81de-stoners 81detoxification 83–4indent separators 81irradiation see irradiationmagnets 80sifters 80spiral gravity separators 81–2sterilisation 82–3

dehydrated celery 325deoxynivalenol (DON) 3, 5

control 31see also mycotoxins

dermatitis 489

Index 525

de-stoners 81determination and detection 26, 44detoxification 83–4deviation from standard procedures 107devil’s claw 161–2devil’s dung 226

see also asafoetidadiabetes 245–6diatomaceous earth products 56dietary supplements 42digestive stimulants 152–4dihydrobutylidenephthalide 440dihydrocapsaicin 304dill 115, 119

volatiles 184, 198–9dillapiole 186dimethyl allyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP) 180,

181, 182direct sample introduction for gas

chromatography/tandem massspectrometry (DSI/GC/MS-MS) 49

diseases, plantbio control agents xix, xxcaper bush 240–1Capsicum 309, 310carambola 263caraway 275celeriac 315celery 320chives 342galanga 349leeks 375–6lemongrass 405long pepper 433lovage 444peppermint 467shallots 385–6spearmint 510–11

distillation 406–7, 469diterpene 1 361Doremia ammoniacum 222–3

see also ushakdried herbs and spices 87–8, 89–91drugs, interactions with 166dry soluble spices 93drying 51, 54, 75

chives 342pepper fruit 307peppermint 469prevention of mycotoxins 28

dyspepsia 286

EAN code 97–8edible films 96–7

Egyptian food spices 12EKO quality label 58electrochemical detector 47electron accelerators 69–70electron beams 67, 68, 69electron capture detector (ECD) 46elemicin 186elemol 410ellagitannins 158emulsions 92encapsulation 93, 99enteropathogens 154–9Enteroplant 474environmental impact assessment (EIA)

systems 43Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) (US)

43–4, 55enzyme inhibition 48enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

26Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV) 350Escherichia coli (E. coli) 61, 62essences 92essential oils xxv, xxvii, 118, 119–20

caraway 119, 278–9, 280, 282–3, 292celery 119, 326–7, 333, 334enteropathogens 159galanga 351–2lemon balm 396lemongrass 400, 406–7, 409, 410, 413

functional properties 413–14quality control 414–16

long pepper 424lovage 439–41, 445packaging and storage 87, 91–2peppermint 120, 470, 473–4, 475–6Perilla 486, 487spearmint 513, 514, 515, 516

estradiol 144estragole 185ethyl cinnamate (EC) 351ethylene dibromide (EDB) 64, 72ethylene oxide (ETO) 64, 72, 82–3ethylhydroxymethylfuranone (homofuraneol)

441, 442eucalyptol 118, 188eucalyptus 115, 119eugenol 185, 192, 360eugenyl acetate 185European Spice Association (ESA)

Quality Minima for Herbs and Spices 41specifications for celery seed 332

European Union (EU) 41–2organic labels 57

526 Index

regulation of mycotoxins 33regulation of organic production 58

experimental assaysanti-inflammatory activity 162antimicrobial activity 156–7digestive stimulants 153growth promoters 160gut immunity 164see also animal studies; human studies

extraction 26–7, 44, 45asafoetida 225–6

factories 76–7farm management systems 49–54, 55, 56farmer groups 51farnesol 410farnesyl pyrophosphate (FPP) 180, 181, 182fatty acids 232fatty oils 283fatty streaks 130, 131fennel 115, 119

volatiles 184, 199–200, 201fenugreek 115, 119, 161

volatiles 184, 200fermentation 244–5ferric reducing ability of plasma (FRAP)

assay 132fertilisers

caper bush 238–9Capsicum 308carambola 262caraway 274celeriac 314–15celery 319–20galanga 349leek 373lemon balm 393lemongrass 403–4long pepper 432lovage 443peppermint 465–6shallots 385spearmint 505–6see also manures/manuring; plant nutrition

Ferula 221, 222see also asafoetida

fibrous plaques 130films, packaging 94–7flame photometric detector (FPD) 46Flavobacterium aurantiacum 29flavonoids

capers 232–3caraway 279chives 338–9

flavour sensitivity 87flavouring

asafoetida 227–8Capsicum 302, 306flavour compounds xxv, xxvilemongrass 410–13Perilla 490–1spearmint 512spices as sources of natural flavours

xxv–xxvi, xxviisee also food processing uses

flexible films 94–7fluorometer 46–7foam cells 130, 131Food and Drug Administration (FDA) (US)

42, 44food processing uses

asafoetida 227–8capers and caperberries 245Capsicum 301–6carambola 264–5caraway 280–5celery 324–8chives 343galanga 353leeks 378lemon balm 394lemongrass 409–13long pepper 428lovage 446–8pandan wangi 457–8peppermint 462, 471–3Perilla 490–1potato onion 499shallots 386–7spearmint 512

food transit time 153–4free radicals 129–30, 131freeze-dried celery 325freeze-grinding 327freezing 342–3fresh herbs and spices 87–9fruit flies 262, 263fumigants 64, 65, 72fumonisin 3, 4


functional uses/propertiescapers and caperberries 245–7caraway 285–90celery 328–31galanga 350–1galangal 360–2leeks 378–80

Index 527

lemon balm 394–7lemongrass 413–14lovage 448–50pandan wangi 458peppermint 462Perilla 488–90spearmint 512–16

fungi see moulds

galanga 347–56botany 347–8chemistry 351–2cultivation and production 348–9functional properties 350–1Kaempferia rotunda 353tissue culture studies 349–50uses 352–3

galangal 357–64Alpinia calcarata 357, 363Alpinia officinarum Hance 357, 362botany 358chemistry 358–9functional properties 360–2medicinal properties 360–1, 362production 359

galangin 360, 361galbanum 225, 226, 228gamma rays 67

gamma irradiation plant 68–9γ-terpinene 185Ganoderma lucidum 163, 165garlic 89, 115, 117, 119

cardiovascular disease 129, 133, 134garlic water 55gas chromatography (GC) 26, 45–6gastroenteritis 154–9

see also gut healthgene banks 434gene therapy 140genetics

Capsicum 305, 306Perilla 483–4spearmint 504

genotoxic activity 513geranial 410geraniol 179, 410geranyl pyrophosphate (GPP) 180–1, 182,

503–4ginger xx, xxiii, 91, 92, 115, 119

cardiovascular disease 128, 132–3, 134mycotoxins 8–9, 12, 17, 22volatiles 184, 200–1, 202

gingo biloba 162glass packaging 91, 94

glucocapparin 243glucosinolates 143, 233glutathione 5-transferase (GST) 289good agricultural practices (GAP) 28, 79,

104–5, 107–8levels of GAPs 106

good hygiene practices (GHP) 28good manufacturing practices (GMP) 28, 41,

79grading systems

capers 244celery seeds 332

grafting 237, 261grinding 88, 282ground herbs and spices 89–91

caraway 282, 292celery 327, 333

growing methods 369–70growth promoters 159–61

experimental assays 160mechanisms of action 160–1

guidelines for organic production xxigunny bags 89gut health 151–76

adverse effects 165–6anti-inflammatory activity 161–3caraway 286digestive stimulants 152–4enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9future trends 166–7growth promoters in animal studies 159–61gut immunity 163–5

half-life 68Hall micro-electrolytic conductivity detector

(HECD) 46harvesting

Capsicum 309carambola 263caraway 275celeriac 315–16celery 320–1chives 341control of mycotoxins 28galangal 359leeks 377–8lemon balm 393lemongrass 406long pepper 433lovage 445–6peppermint 468–9Perilla 485potato onion 498–9prevention of contamination 75–6

528 Index

shallots 386spearmint 507

hazard analysis and critical control points(HACCP) 28, 41, 79–80

on-farm food safety model 104–8hazards, types of 105health requirements for personnel 78heat treatment 91, 99

effect on mycotoxins 30–2heavy metals 84, 463Helicobacter pylori 154, 155herb oil, caraway 284herbal medicine see medicinal properties/usesherbal teas see teas, herbalherbicides 466–7herpes simplex virus (HSV) 474–5high-density lipoprotein (HDL) 379high-density polyethylene (HDPE) 95high-performance liquid chromatography

(HPLC) 26, 46–7, 304high throughput screening (HTS) 434Hing asafoetida 223, 227Hingra asafoetida 223, 227homofuraneol (ethylhydroxymethylfuranone)

441, 442horseradish xx, 115, 120hot pepper see Capsicumhuman studies 134hydrocolloids 96hydro-distillation 406hydrogen peroxide 32, 84hydrolases 266–7hydroxydimethylfuranone 441, 442hydroxyl radical 131hygiene 78

immunity, gut 163–5indent separators 81India 60

Export (Quality, Control and Inspection)Act 63

Prevention of Food Adulteration Act xxiitrade in asafoetida 224

Indian Copal tree 148Indian food ingredients 142indirect effects 70inflammatory bowel disease 151, 161–3, 165insect growth regulators 55insect pests see pests, insectinsecticidal activity 513insecticidal soaps 55integrated pest management (IPM) 53, 54–7,

342Integrated Spice Project 51

interactions with drugs 166intercropping

leeks 374–5, 377lemongrass 404–5peppermint 464–5spearmint 514–16

intercultural operations 315, 432–3intermediate density lipoprotein (IPL) 130International Federation of Organic

Agriculture Movements (IFOAM)58, 79

International Plant Protection Convention 72International Standards Organization (ISO) 63

ISO 9000 79quality standards for caraway 293

international trade see trade, internationalinternational working groups 34intestinal propulsion 489ion trap detector (ITD) 46ionizing radiations 67–70

mechanism of action 70sources of 68–70see also irradiation

Irani Hing asafoetida 223irradiation xxi-xxii, 60–73, 99

application of ionizing radiation 67–70detection 72–3effects on mycotoxins 32international approval 71mechanism of action 70nutritional and safety aspects 70–1process control 70quality considerations 61–6

quality improvement 64–6quality standards 63–4

SPS application to boost international trade71–2

irrigationcaper bush 239Capsicum 309carambola 262caraway 274celeriac 315leeks 373–4lemongrass 404long pepper 433peppermint 465–6spearmint 506

irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) 151, 165, 474isoflavonoids 143isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) 180–1, 503isoprene unit 178isoprenoids 177, 178

see also volatiles

Index 529

isothiocyanates 143

Japan 482, 484–5, 490Joint Expert Committee on Food Irradiation

(JECFI) 71

Kaempferia galanga see galangaKaempferia rotunda 347, 353kaempferol 351, 361kapha 140–1Korea 482, 485

labelling 72, 73laboratory analysis 79

see also analytical methodslactation 286–8Lactobacillus rhamnosus 29laminated films 95lavender 118leaf blight 467leaf miner 444leek moth 376–7leek rust 375, 376leeks 365, 366–81

botany 366chemical composition 367–70

effect of method of growing and age ofseedling 369–70

effect of nutrition 368–9cultivars 370–1cultivation and production 370–8description 366functional properties 378–80origin and distribution 366–7quality issues 380–1uses in food industry/processing 378

lemon balm 390–9chemical composition 391–2cultivation and production 392–4functional/health benefits 394–7main uses 394quality issues 396, 397

lemongrass 400–19chemical composition 408–9cultivation 401–6functional properties 413–14origin and distribution 401physiology and biochemistry 408processing 406–8quality issues 414–16species and varieties 400–1uses in food processing 409–13varieties for cultivation 402–3

lemongrass coconut rice 412

lesser galangal 357, 362–3leukaemia 139licorice 115, 120light sensitivity 87lignans 143ligustilide 440, 441, 449limonene 179, 185, 323, 324, 410

caraway 278, 279–80, 281spearmint 514, 515, 516

linalool 185, 188, 410linear accelerators (LINACs) 69lipid metabolism 489–90lipids 96

Perilla seed lipids 486–7lipoprotein lipase 130liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry

(LC-MS) 26–7Liv.52 246lobster and potato salad with lovage 446–7long pepper 148, 420–37

biotechnology 434–5botany and description 421–2chemical composition 423–7

fruits 425leaves 425oil 424roots 425

cultivation 431–4economic parts and importance 422future 435–6histology of Piper longum root 422–3origin and geographical distribution 421quality specifications 434uses 428–31

contraindication 431varieties and cultivars 431vernacular/regional names 420–1

loosening of soil 274lovage 438–52

botanical characteristics 439chemical composition 439–43cultivation and production 443–6functional/health benefits 448–50origin and habitat 438trade and commerce 439use in food 446–8

low-density lipoprotein (LDL) 130–1, 379low-density polyethylene (LDPE) 95lung cancer 138lutein 457lymphoma 139

mace 90volatiles 184, 204, 205

530 Index

maceration 407macrophages 131magnets 80malaria 431manures/manuring 314–15

celeriac 314–15leeks 373lemongrass 403–4long pepper 432shallots 385see also fertilisers

marinated cherry tomatoes with lovage 447marjoram xx, 115, 120markers 34, 305, 306marketing 381marking nut tree 148mass selective detector (MSD) 46mass spectrometry (MS) 26, 46mastic 162maximum residue limits (MRLs) 42medicinal properties/uses xxvi, xxvii, 113–25

asafoetida 228–9capers and caperberries 245–7Capsicum 302–3carambola 267caraway 114, 119, 285–9celery 114, 119, 328–31future trends 121galanga 352, 353galangal 360–1, 362herbal medicine market 60leeks 378–80lemon balm 394–7lemongrass 414long pepper 428–31lovage 438, 448–50major constituents and therapeutic uses of

medicinal herbs and spices 114–17,118–20

mycotoxins in medicinal plants 12, 19pandan wangi 458peppermint 462, 473–4Perilla 488–90potato onion 499role of medicinal herbs and spices 118spearmint 512

medicine, modern, and cancer therapy 139–40Mediterranean diet 134Melissa officinalis see lemon balmMentha

piperita 460–1see also peppermint

spicata 502, 503see also spearmint

menthol 185, 201–3, 470, 475–6menthone 179, 185menthyl acetate 185, 470methoxyisobutylpyrazine 306methoxypsoralen 441, 442methyl bromide (MB) 64, 72methyl chavicol 180methyl glucosinolate 233methylbutanoic acid 441, 442mevalonate biosynthetic pathway 179–83, 484Mexican yam 161micellar electrokinetic capillary

electrophoresis (MECC) 26microorganisms

antibiotic-resistant 166–7antimicrobial activity 117

caraway 291lemon balm 395lovage 449–50peppermint 472Perilla 488–90spearmint 512–13

control of mycotoxins 28–30effect of irradiation 64–6enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9packaging and microbiological safety 98–9recommended microbiological

specifications 63in spices and herbs 61–3see also bacteria; moulds

micropropagation 237carambola 261long pepper 434–5pandan wangi 454

milk thistle 162mint xx

peppermint see peppermintspearmint see spearmintvolatiles 201–3

mites 310, 475mixed spices, powdered 10model systems 132–3modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) 97moisture content 61, 88molecularly imprinted polymers 27monitoring 107monocyclic monoterpenes 178, 179monoterpene hydrocarbons 183monoterpenes 177, 178, 179

biosynthesis 180–3, 503–4caraway 278, 279–80oxygenated 183–4

Montreal Protocol 72mosquitoes 474

Index 531

moulds 4–5, 27, 61–2, 99fungicidal activity of spearmint 513see also microorganisms; mycotoxins

mulching 239, 308–9leeks 374

multiplier onion see potato onionmulti-residue methods (MRMs) 47–8, 49mustard 90–1, 92, 116, 120

mycotoxins 9, 12, 17, 24mycotoxins 3–40, 62, 83–4

in caraway 291detecting 19–27future trends 33–4mycobiota of herbs and spices and possible

mycotoxin production 13–19, 20–5naturally occurring in herbs and spices

4–12prevention and control of contamination

27–33preharvest control 28regulation 33technological methods 28–33

safety in researching 27myrcene 360, 410myristicin 186

nematicidal activity 513neral 410nerol 179, 410nitrogen uptake of plants 514norpandamarilactonine 456, 457NPD 46nutmeg 90, 92, 116, 120

mycotoxins 9, 12volatiles 184, 204, 205

nutritional valuecarambola 265–7chives 337–9irradiated foods and nutrition 70–1leeks 378, 379

ochratoxin 83–4ochratoxin A (OTA) 3, 4–5


ocimene 185oestradiol 144oleoresins xxv, xxvii, 99

caraway 284–5celery 327, 333lemongrass 409, 413packaging and storage 87, 92–3

on-farm storage 76onion 116, 120, 495

potato onion see potato onionshallots see shallots

orchards 237–8oregano xx, 116, 120

cardiovascular disease 127, 133–4mycotoxins 17, 24

organic cakes xxiorganic manure xxiorganic production 57–8, 79

caraway 277guidelines xxispearmint 507–8

oxalic acid 265oxidation 88oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC)

assay 132oxygenated monoterpenes 183–4oxygenated sesquiterpenes 184ozone 32

packaging xxii–xxiii, 77, 86–102essential oils 87, 91–2future trends 100microbiological safety 98–9new packaging materials 100oleoresins 87, 92–3printing 97–8product formats and packaging techniques

87–91selection of packaging materials 93–4types of packaging materials 94–7

pandamarilactam 456, 457pandamarilactone 456–7pandamarilactonine 456, 457pandamarine 455–6pandan wangi 453–9

chemical structure 455–7cultivation, production and processing

454–5description 453–4functional properties 458uses in food 457–8

pandanamine 456, 457pandanin 457Pandanus amaryllifolius 453–4

see also pandan wangipaper packaging 94paprika xx, xxiv–xxv, 6, 7parsley 116, 120pasteurisation 244Pathani Hing asafoetida 223pathogenic bacteria 61, 62

enteric bacterial pathogens 154–9experimental assays 156–7

532 Index

mechanisms of action 157–9see also microorganisms

PC-SPES 144pepper 91

black pepper see black pepperCapsicum see Capsicumlong pepper see long pepperwhite pepper see white pepper

pepper leaf curl virus (Pep-LCV) 310peppermint 116, 120, 184, 460–81

botanical description 460–1chemical composition 470–1cultivation and production 462–9distribution and history of cultivation

461–2economic aspects 462medicinal uses 462, 473–4mycotoxins 12, 17, 19, 24other economic uses 474–5quality issues 475–8

adulterants and safety assessment 477–8pesticide residues 476

uses in food industry 462, 471–3varieties 463–5

peppermint tea 462, 473Peppermint Water 473percolation 407Perilla 482–93

anti-microbial activity 488–90biotechnology 487–8botany 483–4chemical composition 486–7chemovars and their genetics 483–4cultivation 484–6as a spice 490–1varieties 483

perillaketone 489perillaldehyde 486periwinkle 145–7peroxidases 304–5personnel health and hygiene requirements 78pesticide residues xix, 41–59, 84

analytical methods 44–9control in herbs and spices 49–54, 55, 56integrated pest management 53, 54–7organic production 57–8peppermint 476potato onion 500regulation 42–4

pesticide risk indicators 43pests, insect 62, 63

caper bush 239–40carambola 262–3caraway 275

celeriac 315celery 320chives 342galanga 349IPM 53, 54–7, 342leeks 375, 376–7lemongrass 405long pepper 433lovage 444pepper fruits 309, 310peppermint 467–8potato onion 497–8shallots 385–6spearmint 511

phase 2 enzymes 131–2phenolics 157, 158, 441–3, 471–2

caraway 280phenylalanine 180, 181phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) 304phenylpropenes 177, 178–9

biosynthesis 180, 181, 304–5see also volatiles

photoconductivity detector 47phototoxic reactions 55, 331phthalides 440–1, 449physical hazards 105physical tests 415phyto-chemicals 141phytophthora blight 310pickling

capers 243–4celery 326

picrocrocin 165Pieridae 240Piper

betle (Betelvine) 145, 148longum (long pepper) 148, 420, 421–2

histology of root 422–3see also long pepper

peepuloides 420, 421, 422see also long pepper

retrofractum 420, 421, 422see also long pepper

piperadione 427piperic acid 426piperidine 426piperine 424, 425–6, 429

extraction 426structure 425, 426

piperolactam A 427piplartine 427‘Pippalmul’ 422pitta 140–1plant density 372–3

Index 533

plant diseases see diseases, plantplant identification practice 107, 108–10

documenting 109steps in developing 109

plant nutritioncaper bush 238–9carambola 262effect on chemical composition of leek

368–9spearmint and nitrogen uptake 514see also fertilisers; manures/manuring

plantingcarambola 261–2long pepper 432peppermint 463–5shallots 384–5spearmint 505

plastic jars 91pod types 301

pungency levels 307pollination 235polyethylene terephthalate (PET) 95polypropylene 95post-harvest handling 52

capers and caperberries 243–5Capsicum 306–7caraway 275–6celery 321chives 342–3leeks 380long pepper 434lovage 445–6peppermint 468–9potato onion 498–9, 500prevention of contamination 75–6shallots 386

potato onion 495–501chemical composition and uses 496medicinal properties 499production 497–9quality 500toxicity 500uses in food processing 499

potato sprout inhibitor 290potato virus Y (PVY) 310powdery mildew 310prevention of contamination 75–9

harvesting and on-farm processing 75–6hygiene and health requirements for

personnel 78on-farm storage 76packaging 77processing factory 76–7production 75

sampling and laboratory analysis 79storage 78transportation 78

primary metabolites 278proanthocyanidins 158process control 70processed celery juice blends 325processing facilities 76–7production

asafoetida 223capers and caperberries 242Capsicum 306–7caraway 271–2celery 319chives 341–3galanga 348–9galangal 359guidelines xxileeks 370–8lemon balm 392–4lovage 439pandan wangi 454–5peppermint 462–9potato onion 497–9prevention of contamination 75quality spices xix–xxiiishallots 383–6spearmint 504–9see also cultivation

progesterone 144propagation

capers and caperberries 235–7carambola 261celeriac 314celery 320chives 341lemon balm 393lemongrass 403long pepper 432lovage 443–4pandan wangi 454Perilla 484–5shallots 384

propylene oxide (PPO) 83propylidenephthalide 440prostate cancer 138protected cultivation 375protocatechuic acid 426protoplast culture 464Provencal herbs 144pruning 238psoralen 441, 442pulegone 179, 477–8pungency

534 Index

Capsicum 301–5, 306, 307potato onion 500

punishment 303purification 26, 27

qualified health claims 42qualitative methods 48quality 61–6, 74

asafoetida 227capers and caperberries 247Capsicum 306–7carambola 263–4caraway 291–3celery 331–4controls and pesticide residues 52–3improvement by irradiation 64–6leeks 380–1lemon balm 396, 397lemongrass 414–16long pepper 434peppermint 475–8potato onion 500production of quality spices xix–xxiiishallots 387spearmint 514, 515, 516

quality assurance (QA) 103–10quality standards 41–2

India 63–4quercetin 360

radiation processing see irradiationradiation therapy 139radicals, free 129–30, 131radioisotopes 68–9radura symbol 72ramps (wild leeks) 366RAPD profiling 435red pepper 116, 120

mycotoxins 5, 6, 7, 13–15see also Capsicum

reference dose (RfD) 44refrigerated formats 88–9regulation

irradiation 71, 72mycotoxin control 33pesticide residues 42–4

regulatory agencies, analytical methods of47–9

reversed phase liquid chromatography 26rheumatoid arthritis 329root division 444root knot nematode 310root oil, caraway 284rosemary xx, 116, 117, 120, 144

cardiovascular disease 127mycotoxins 17, 24–5volatiles 204–6

rosmarinic acid 472rust 375, 376, 467, 510

S-alk(en)yl cysteine sulphoxides (ACSOs) 338safety

assessment and peppermint 477–8irradiation and 70–1microbiological safety and packaging 98–9see also toxicity

saffron 116, 120cancer 143, 147colour xxvgut immunity 164–5mycotoxins 9, 12

safranal 165safrole 186sagapenum 225, 226sage xx, 116, 120sambal 225, 226sample preparation 20–5, 44, 45sampling 20–5, 79sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) agreement

72sarcoma 139Scoville Heat Units 301–4, 307screw pine 453

see also pandan wangiseason of sowing/planting 371–2seasoning-like substances 441, 442secondary metabolites 179, 278–9

see also volatilesseco-tanapartholides 158seed bed preparation 308seed collection 406seed lipids 486–7seed propagation

caper bush 235–7carambola 261leeks 372lemongrass 403see also sowing

Semecarpus anacardium (Bhela/marking nuttree) 148

Semecarpus ‘Lehyam’ SL 143–4semi-quantitative methods 48sensory evaluation 414–15separation 26, 44, 45–6sequence characterised amplified region

(SCAR) markers 305sesamin 427sesquiterpene hydrocarbons 184

Index 535

sesquiterpenes 177, 178biosynthesis 180–3oxygenated 184

shallots 365, 381–7botany 382chemical composition 383cultivars 383–4cultivation and production 383–6description 381–2origin and distribution 382–3quality issues 387uses in food industry/processing 386–7

sharecropping 49shikimate biosynthetic pathway 180, 181, 484side-effects 165–6Sidha medicine 428sifters 80Sinbar (terbacil) 466, 467, 476single residue methods (SRMs) 48SKAL 58skin 246–7, 289

contact dermatitis 489slippery elm bark 161sodium bisulphite 32sodium bisulphite method 416soils

caper bush 234carambola 262caraway 272–3celeriac 314celery 319chives 341leeks 371lemongrass 402long pepper 431–2lovage 443pepper fruits 308peppermint 462–3shallots 384spearmint 504–5

solid phase extraction (SPE) 45solubilised spices 92solvent extraction 407sotolon 441, 442sowing

Capsicum 308caraway 273–4celeriac 314celery 320see also seed propagation

spearmint 460, 502–19biosynthesis and molecular genetics 503–4chemical composition 503cultivation and production 504–9

food uses 512functional benefits 512–16important Indian varieties 508–9medicinal uses 512pests and diseases 510–11quality issues 514, 515, 516volatiles 184, 206–8

Special Crop Value Chain Round Tables 104spent grass 407–8spice extracts 87spiced carrot soup with ginger and lemongrass

411Spices Board of India xxispiral gravity separators 81–2Spirit of Peppermint 473spores 61, 62, 98–9star anise 116, 120star fruit see carambolasteam distillation 327, 406steam sterilisation 83sterilisation 82–3stolon rot 511stolons 463stomach cancer 138storage 86–102

Capsicum 309carambola 264factors causing deterioration during 93leeks 381mycotoxin prevention 28prevention of contamination 78

on-farm storage 76requirements 93–4shallots 387

sumach 116, 120supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC) 48supercritical fluids (SCFs) 45surgery 139sweet pepper see Capsicum

T-2 toxin 3tandem quadrupole LC and GC/MS/MS 49tannins 158, 441–3tapping asafoetida 225–6taraxasterol 144tarragon 116, 120Taxus baccata (yew) 148tears, asafoetida 223teas, herbal

lemongrass 409–10peppermint 462, 473

technical barriers to trade (TBT) agreement 72terbacil (Sinbar) 466, 467, 476terpenes 177–8, 179

536 Index

biosynthesis 180–3, 503–4found in herbs and spices 183–4see also volatiles

Thai cooking 410–13thermal processing see heat treatmentthermionic detectors 46thin layer chromatography (TLC) 26, 47thiosulphinates 338, 339thrips 310, 375, 377thyme xx, 116, 120, 126

cardiovascular disease 129volatiles 208

thymol 157, 185, 208tilio 17, 25Tinospora cordifolia (Amrut) 148tissue culture 454

galanga 349–50tobacco ring spot virus 511Tom Ka Kai 412Tom Yum Kai 412Tom Yum Koong 412Tom Yum Poh Tak 412tormentil 162toxicity

caraway 290–1celery 331long pepper 431peppermint 477–8Perilla 489potato onion 500

traceability 106trade, international 41

asafoetida 224caraway 271–2celery 319irradiation and 71–2lovage 439

transgenic plants 464transplanting

caper bush 238Capsicum 308celeriac 314celery 320leeks 373lemongrass 403

transportation 78travelling wave (T-wave) technology 49trichothecenes 4


Trikatu 428Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity

(TEAC) assay 132tube packaging format 88–9

tumour necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) 489turmeric xx, xxiii, 116, 120, 164

cancer 147cardiovascular disease 129colour xxv, 65, 66mycotoxins 9, 12, 17, 25packaging and storage 90, 92volatiles 184, 209–11

turmerone 186, 209twill bags 89two spotted mite (TSM) 467–8

ultra performance liquid chromatography(UPLC) 49

umbelliferone 441, 442Umeboshi 490Unani medicine 428underground onion see potato onionUnited States (US)

Department of Agriculture 71, 72EPA 43–4, 55FDA 42, 44Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and

Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) 55Food Quality Protection Act 1996 43–4irradiation 72National Center for Complementary and

Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) 141regulation of pesticides 42, 43–4, 55

unqualified health claims 42UPC code 97–8urinary problems 329ushak 222–3, 225, 228UV absorption 46

vanilla xx, 116, 120vasicine 429vata 140–1Vateria indica (Kundura, Indian Copal tree)

148vaticanol C 144vegetarian pad Thai 412verification 107vermicompost 508very low density lipoprotein (VLDL) 130veterinary medicine 289–90vinegar, pickling in 243–4vitamin C 300volatiles 177–218

biosynthesis of the components of volatileoils 179–83

capers 233celery 322–4classification 177–9

Index 537

and plant sources 183–211major volatiles in herbs and spices

183–5, 186volatile oil constituents 185–211

waterirradiation and 70irrigation see irrigation

weed controlCapsicum 309caraway 274–5leeks 374lemon balm 393lemongrass 404lovage 444–5peppermint 466–7spearmint 506–7

wei tong ming 162white pepper 13, 91, 116, 120

mycotoxins 9–10, 11, 15–17, 18white rot 376white-tip disease 375–6whole herbs/spices 89–91

Capsicum fruits 303whole seeds

caraway 281–2, 291–2, 293celery 114, 119, 317, 326, 331–3

wild leeks (ramps) 366

wilt 310Withania somnifera (Ashwagandha) 142,

144–5, 148World Health Organization (WHO) 108World Trade Organization (WTO) 72

X-rays 67, 68, 69, 70

yew 148yield

capers and caperberries 242–3carambola 263caraway 275celeriac 316galanga 348–9leeks 378lemon balm 393long pepper 434

Yum 412Yum seafood 413

Z-asarone 414Z-ligustilide 440, 441zearalenone (ZEN) 3, 4, 5

control 30, 31see also mycotoxins

zingiberene 186

Contents

Contributor contact details ................................................................................ xiii

Introduction ........................................................................................................ xixI.1 Production of quality spices ........................................................... xixI.2 Herbs and spices as sources of natural colours and flavours ....... xxivI.3 References and further reading ...................................................... xxviii

Part I Improving the safety of herbs and spices ....................................... 1

1 Detecting and controlling mycotoxin contamination of herbsand spices .................................................................................................. 3D. Heperkan, Istanbul Technical University, Turkey1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 31.2 Naturally occurring mycotoxins in herbs and spices .................... 41.3 Mycobiota of spices and herbs and possible mycotoxin

production ....................................................................................... 131.4 Detecting mycotoxins in herbs and spices .................................... 191.5 Preventing and controlling mycotoxin contamination .................. 271.6 Future trends ................................................................................... 331.7 Sources of further information and advice.................................... 341.8 References ....................................................................................... 34

2 Controlling pesticide and other residues in herbs and spices ........... 41K. J. Venugopal, AVT McCormick Ingredients (P) Ltd, India2.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 412.2 The regulation of pesticide residues .............................................. 422.3 Analytical methods for detecting pesticide residues .................... 442.4 Control of pesticide residues in herbs and spices ......................... 492.5 Integrated pest management and organic production ................... 542.6 Acknowledgements ......................................................................... 582.7 58

3 Irradiation to decontaminate herbs and spices ................................... 60A. Sharma, Bhabha Atomic Research Centre, India3.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 603.2 Quality considerations .................................................................... 61

References .......................................................................................

vi Contents

3.3 Application of ionizing radiation ................................................... 673.4 Nutritional and safety aspects ........................................................ 703.5 International approval ..................................................................... 713.6 SPS application to boost international trade ................................. 713.7 Detection of irradiated spices and herbs ....................................... 723.8 References and further reading ...................................................... 73

4 Other decontamination techniques forherbs and spices ....................................................................................... 74C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India4.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 744.2 Preventive measures against contamination .................................. 754.3 Organic production ......................................................................... 794.4 GAP, GMP, ISO 9000, HACCP, and ISO 22000 .......................... 794.5 Decontamination techniques .......................................................... 804.6 Sterilization of herbs and spices .................................................... 824.7 Detoxification ................................................................................. 834.8 Sources of further information and advice.................................... 844.9 References ....................................................................................... 85

5 Packaging and storage of herbs and spices .......................................... 86K. King, Gourmet Garden, Australia5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 865.2 Consumer trends driving innovation ............................................. 865.3 Herb and spice product formats and packaging techniques ......... 875.4 Essential oils ................................................................................... 915.5 Oleoresins ....................................................................................... 925.6 Storage requirements for fresh and dried herbs and spices ......... 935.7 Types of packaging materials ........................................................ 945.8 Printing ............................................................................................ 975.9 Microbiological safety of herbs and spices ................................... 985.10 New packaging materials used in herbs and spices ...................... 1005.11 Future trends ................................................................................... 1005.12 101

6 QA and HACCP systems in herb and spice production .................... 103C. Kehler, Canadian Herb, Spice and Natural Health Coalition,Canada and J. Schooley, Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Canada6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1036.2 HACCP planning for herb and spice production .......................... 1046.3 Plant identification practice ........................................................... 1086.4 Future trends ................................................................................... 1106.5 Acknowledgement .......................................................................... 1106.6 Bibliography ................................................................................... 110

Part II Herbs and spices as functional ingredients and flavourings ..... 111

7 The range of medicinal herbs and spices ............................................. 113T. S. C. Li, Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacific Agri-FoodResearch Centre, Canada7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 113

References .......................................................................................

Contents vii

7.2 The role of medicinal herbs and spices ......................................... 1187.3 Major constituents and therapeutic uses of medicinal herbs

and spices ........................................................................................ 1187.4 Future trends ................................................................................... 1217.5 Sources of further information ...................................................... 1217.6 References ....................................................................................... 121

8 Herbs, spices and cardiovascular disease ............................................. 126H. Collin, University of Liverpool, UK8.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1268.2 Chemical composition of herbs and spices ................................... 1278.3 Herbs spices and cardiovascular disease ....................................... 1298.4 Measurement of antioxidants ......................................................... 1328.5 Complex mixtures versus single compounds ................................ 1348.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................... 1358.7 References ....................................................................................... 135

9 Herbs, spices and cancer ......................................................................... 138S. Maiti and K. A. Geetha, National Research Centre for Medicinaland Aromatic Plants, India9.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 1389.2 What is cancer? .............................................................................. 1399.3 Cancer therapy in modern medicine .............................................. 1399.4 Complementary and alternative medicines (CAM) ...................... 1409.5 Mechanism of action of herbs and spices ..................................... 1429.6 Evidence supporting the functional benefits of herbs and spices 1429.7 Botany of some important herbs in cancer therapy ...................... 1459.8 References ....................................................................................... 149

10 Herbs, spices and gut health .................................................................. 151C. C. Tassou, National Agricultural Research Foundation, Greece10.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 15110.2 Herbs and spices as digestive stimulants ...................................... 15210.3 The effects of herbs and spices on enteric bacterial pathogens ... 15410.4 Herbs and spices as growth promoters in animal studies ............. 15910.5 Anti-inflammatory activity ............................................................. 16110.6 Effect on gut immunity .................................................................. 16310.7 Adverse effects ............................................................................... 16510.8 Future trends ................................................................................... 16610.9 Sources of further information ...................................................... 16710.10 References ....................................................................................... 167

11 Volatiles from herbs and spices .............................................................. 177T. J. Zachariah and N. K. Leela, Indian Institute of SpicesResearch, India11.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 17711.2 Classification of volatiles ............................................................... 17711.3 Biosynthesis of the components of volatile oils ........................... 17911.4 Volatiles and plant sources ............................................................. 18311.5 References ....................................................................................... 211

viii Contents

Part III Particular herbs and spices ........................................................... 219

12 Asafetida .................................................................................................... 221C. K. George, Peermade Development Society, India12.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 22112.2 World trade ..................................................................................... 22412.3 Chemical constituents .................................................................... 22512.4 Extraction ........................................................................................ 22512.5 Processing ....................................................................................... 22612.6 Quality issues .................................................................................. 22712.7 Main uses ........................................................................................ 22712.8 References ....................................................................................... 229

13 Capers and caperberries ......................................................................... 230G. O. Sozzi, Universidad de Buenos Aires and CONICET, Argentinaand A. R. Vicente, CONICET–UNLP, Argentina13.1 Introduction: brief description ....................................................... 23013.2 Chemical composition .................................................................... 23113.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 23313.4 Uses in food processing ................................................................. 24313.5 Functional and health benefits ....................................................... 24513.6 Quality issues and future trends .................................................... 24713.7 References ....................................................................................... 247

14 Carambola ................................................................................................. 257K. N. Babu and D. Minoo, Indian Institute of Spices Research,India and K. V. Tushar and P. N. Ravindran, Center forMedicinal Plants Research, India14.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 25714.2 Description ...................................................................................... 25814.3 Origin and distribution ................................................................... 25814.4 Cultivars and varieties .................................................................... 26014.5 Climate ............................................................................................ 26014.6 Propagation ..................................................................................... 26114.7 Planting ........................................................................................... 26114.8 Soils, water and nutrients ............................................................... 26214.9 Pests and diseases ........................................................................... 26214.10 Harvesting and yield ...................................................................... 26314.11 Keeping quality .............................................................................. 26314.12 Food uses ........................................................................................ 26414.13 Food value ...................................................................................... 26514.14 Medicinal uses ................................................................................ 26714.15 Other uses ....................................................................................... 26714.16 References ....................................................................................... 267

15 Caraway .................................................................................................... 270S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India15.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 27015.2 Cultivation ....................................................................................... 27215.3 Chemical structure .......................................................................... 27715.4 Main uses in food processing ........................................................ 280

Contents ix

15.5 Functional properties ...................................................................... 28515.6 Toxicity ........................................................................................... 29015.7 Quality specifications ..................................................................... 29115.8 References ....................................................................................... 293

16 Cayenne/American pepper ..................................................................... 299S. Kumar, R. Kumar and J. Singh, Indian Institute of VegetableResearch, India16.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 29916.2 The genus Capsicum ...................................................................... 30016.3 Pod types and quality breeding goals ............................................ 30116.4 Uses in food processing ................................................................. 30116.5 Cultivation ....................................................................................... 30716.6 Conclusions ..................................................................................... 30916.7 References ....................................................................................... 311

17 Celeriac ...................................................................................................... 313A. A. Farooqi, C. Kathiresan and K. N. Srinivasappa, University ofAgricultural Sciences, India17.1 Introduction and description .......................................................... 31317.2 Production ....................................................................................... 31417.3 Further Reading .................................................................................. 316

18 Celery ......................................................................................................... 317S. K. Malhotra, National Research Centre on Seed Spices, India18.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 31718.2 Cultivation ....................................................................................... 31918.3 Post-harvest handling ..................................................................... 32118.4 Cultivars .......................................................................................... 32118.5 Chemical structure .......................................................................... 32218.6 Main uses in food processing ........................................................ 32418.7 Functional properties ...................................................................... 32818.8 Quality specifications ..................................................................... 33118.9 References ....................................................................................... 334

19 Chives ........................................................................................................ 337H. Chen, Beijing Vegetable Research Centre, China19.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 33719.2 Chemical composition and nutritional value ................................. 33719.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 34019.4 Varieties .......................................................................................... 34319.5 References and further reading ...................................................... 344

20 Galanga ..................................................................................................... 347P. N. Ravindran and G. S. Pillai, Centre for Medicinal PlantsResearch, India20.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 34720.2 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 34820.3 Tissue culture studies ..................................................................... 34920.4 Functional properties ...................................................................... 35020.5 Chemistry ........................................................................................ 35120.6 Uses ................................................................................................. 352

x Contents

20.7 K. rotunda ....................................................................................... 35320.8 References and further reading ...................................................... 353

21 Galangal .................................................................................................... 357P. N. Ravindran and I. Balachandran, Centre for Medicinal PlantsResearch, India21.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 35721.2 Production ....................................................................................... 35921.3 Molecular pharmacology ................................................................ 36021.4 Functional properties ...................................................................... 36021.5 Alpinia officinarum Hance (lesser galangal, Chinese ginger) ...... 36221.6 Alpinia calcarata (lesser galangal) ................................................ 36321.7 References and further reading ...................................................... 363

22 Leek and shallot ....................................................................................... 365K. R. M. Swamy and R. Veere Gowda, Indian Institute ofHorticultural Research, India22.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 36522.2 Leek ................................................................................................. 36622.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 37022.4 Uses in food industry/processing ................................................... 37822.5 Functional properties ...................................................................... 37822.6 Quality issues .................................................................................. 38022.7 Shallot ............................................................................................. 38122.8 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 38322.9 Uses in food industry/processing ................................................... 38622.10 Quality issues .................................................................................. 38722.11 References ....................................................................................... 387

23 Lemon balm .............................................................................................. 390H. Turhan, Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Turkey23.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 39023.2 Chemical composition .................................................................... 39123.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 39223.4 Main uses ........................................................................................ 39423.5 Functional/health benefits .............................................................. 39423.6 Quality issues .................................................................................. 39723.7 References ....................................................................................... 397

24 Lemongrass ............................................................................................... 400B. P. Skaria, P. P. Joy, S. Mathew and G. Mathew, Aromatic andMedicinal Plants Research Centre, India24.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 40024.2 Species and varieties ...................................................................... 40024.3 Origin and distribution ................................................................... 40124.4 Cultivation and processing ............................................................. 40124.5 Physiology and Biochemistry ........................................................ 40824.6 Chemical composition .................................................................... 40824.7 Uses in food processing ................................................................. 40924.8 Functional properties ...................................................................... 41324.9 Quality issues .................................................................................. 414

Contents xi

24.10 References ....................................................................................... 416

25 Long pepper .............................................................................................. 420K. N. Babu and M. Divakaran, Indian Institute of Spices Research, India;P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India; andK. V. Peter, Kerala Agricultural University, India25.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 42025.2 Chemical composition of long pepper .......................................... 42325.3 Uses ................................................................................................. 42825.4 Cultivation ....................................................................................... 43125.5 Quality specifications ..................................................................... 43425.6 Biotechnology ................................................................................. 43425.7 Future .............................................................................................. 43525.8 References ....................................................................................... 436

26 Lovage ........................................................................................................ 438M. H. Mirjalili, Shahid Beheshti University, Iran andJ. Javanmardi, Shiraz University, Iran26.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 43826.2 Chemical composition .................................................................... 43926.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 44326.4 Use in food ..................................................................................... 44626.5 Functional/health benefits .............................................................. 44826.6 References ....................................................................................... 450

27 Pandan wangi ........................................................................................... 453S. Wongpornchai, Chiang Mai University, Thailand27.1 Description ...................................................................................... 45327.2 Cultivation, production and processing ......................................... 45427.3 Chemical structure .......................................................................... 45527.4 Uses in food .................................................................................... 45727.5 Functional properties ...................................................................... 45827.6 References ....................................................................................... 458

28 Peppermint ................................................................................................ 460P. Pushpangadan and S. K. Tewari, National Botanical ResearchInstitute, India28.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 46028.2 Description ...................................................................................... 46028.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................. 46228.4 Chemical composition .................................................................... 47028.5 Commercial uses ............................................................................ 47128.6 Quality issues .................................................................................. 47528.7 References ....................................................................................... 478

29 Perilla ......................................................................................................... 482P. N. Ravindran, Centre for Medicinal Plants Research, India andM. Shylaja Providence Women’s College, India29.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 48229.2 Crop production and management ................................................. 48429.3 Chemical composition .................................................................... 486

xii Contents

29.4 Biotechnological approaches ......................................................... 48729.5 Functional properties and pharmacological studies ...................... 48829.6 References and further reading ...................................................... 491

30 Potato onion (Multiplier onion) ............................................................. 494U. B. Pandey, National Horticultural Research and DevelopmentFoundation, India30.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 49430.2 Chemical composition and uses .................................................... 49530.3 Production ....................................................................................... 49630.4 Uses in food processing ................................................................. 49830.5 Medicinal properties ....................................................................... 49830.6 Toxicity ........................................................................................... 49930.7 Quality ............................................................................................. 49930.8 References ....................................................................................... 500

31 Spearmint .................................................................................................. 502N. K. Patra and B. Kumar, Central Institute of Medicinal andAromatic Plants, India31.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 50231.2 Chemical composition, biosynthesis and genetics of

essential oil .................................................................................... 50331.3 Cultivation and production ............................................................ 50431.4 Diseases, pests and their control ................................................... 51031.5 Food uses ........................................................................................ 51231.6 Medicinal uses ................................................................................ 51231.7 Functional benefits ......................................................................... 51231.8 Quality issues .................................................................................. 51631.9 References ....................................................................................... 517

Index ................................................................................................................. 520

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