handbook local good practices (gp) for education for...
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Handbook
“Local Good Practices (GP) for Education for All in Japan and
their Application to Developing Countries”
-Promotion of school attendance of children and
involvement of local community in school―
March, 2009
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“Local Good Practices (GP) for Education for All in Japan and their Application to
Developing Countries” - Promotion of school attendance of children and
involvement of local community in school -
Published March 31, 2009
Publisher: Office of “the International Cooperation Initiative”
The Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEST)
3-2-2 Kasumigaseki Chioda-ku Tokyo 100-8959, Japan
Tel: 03-5253-4111
Copyright, All Rights Reserved – MEST
Photo (the bottom of the cover page): “Graduation ceremony of a Komori-School 4th
batch” KOMORIGAKKO NO JISSHOTEKI KENKYU, Waseda University Publishing
(1995)
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This handbook was produced as the outcome of the project “Research on Local Good
Practices (GP) for Education for All in Japan and their Application to Developing
Countries” implemented in 2008-2009. The project received a research grant from “the
International Cooperation Initiative” Scheme of Japanese Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEST).
The project members are as follows:
Ashir Ahmed, Kyushu University, Japan
Satoshi Iijima, Kyushu University, Japan
Reiko Ogawa, Kyushu University, Japan
Taro Komatsu, Kyushu University, Japan *Project leader
Yasuaki Shinya, Kyushu University, Japan
Masahiro Motokane, Kyushu University, Japan
Kuniaki Yamashita, Kyushu University, Japan
Shoko Yamada, Nagoya University, Japan
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The structure of the handbook
*Introduction: Purpose of the handbook
* Current status of Education for All in developing countries
* Historical and social background of basic education development in Japan
Local Good Practices (GP) for Education for All in Japan
Issue 1 Parents lack interest in education and are unaware of what schools offer
GP1 (School Sports Day) → Local residents participate in school sports festival
GP2 (School Cultural Day) → Children show parents their daily learning outcomes
Issue 2 Lack of community involvement in school
GP3 (Fathers’ involvement in school) → Fathers offer their skills at school
GP4 (Children Make Lunch Day) → Children make their lunch with help from adults
Issue 3 Girls and women do not receive education because of their work
GP5 (Special School at Silk Mills) → Factories offer education to working children
GP6 (Nyokoba Education) → Special curriculum offers training to girls and women
Issue 4 Children have to take care of their younger siblings
GP7 (The Komori-School) → Girls can go to school with their younger siblings
Issue 5 Poor children lack interest in school and do not know outside world
GP8 (Mannen Elementary School) → School principal investigates reasons for children
not coming to school and devises educational arrangements to cater to these children
Issue 6 Minority group do not receive education because of social discrimination
GP9 (Adult Literacy Class) →Minority groups learn at adult literacy classes
Issue 7 Children do not go to school because of hunger
GP10 (School Lunch) → School provides lunch meal with support from the community
Issue 8 Children lost parents in disasters
GP11 (Okayama Orphanage) → Private orphanage offers protection and education for
orphans
Issue 9 Many youth do not receive education
GP12 (Secondary Night Schools) → Youths receive secondary education at night
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*Introduction: Purpose of the handbook
The purpose of this handbook is to introduce school enrollment and attendance
promotion measures implemented at the local level during the process of the
modernization and post-war reconstruction as well as in present day Japan. It also
looks at the unique promotion measures for involvement of local communities in school.
These measures are referred to as Good Practice (GP) in this handbook. We hope that
this handy book helps the people of the countries involved with the aim to achieve the
"EFA: Education for All" by gaining the understanding and cooperation of local
residents.
Main intended users for this handbook are as follows: local and central government
officials, nongovernmental organization staff, members of civic organizations or
advocacy groups, community leaders, aid workers and researchers.
It is widely recognized around the world that education is a human right and essential
for development of individuals as well as the society. The realization of the EFA was set
as a goal that every country should achieve. Concrete goals were set for realization by
2015 including the universal access to elementary education. However, the real
implementation of this education policy that was established by international
conferences and the central government is vested in the local people concerned with
education. Even if policies such as the free compulsory education system or automatic
grade promotion system are decided by the central government, it may not always prove
effective in all local areas. It is often the local people concerned who have innovative
ideas that create and implement the measures reflecting the actual conditions of the
locality.
In Japan, the school enrolment rate did not reach 30% at the end of the 19th century.
Universal elementary education was achieved about 30 years later. Afterwards, Japan
became a developed nation and became the world's largest donor of development
assistance measured by the amount of contribution in the 1990s. How did this country
achieve the EFA? It was a fact that the central government had strong leadership in
Japan. However, the EFA policy was actually realized by the local people concerned.
This handbook refers to the distinctive EFA measures implemented by local actors
including schools in Japan. These Japanese examples show that the EFA is not only
realized by the leaders at the top, but is mostly achieved by the initiative and
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cooperation of various stakeholders who are involved in education at the local level. In
fact, this is the message of this handbook.
We included GPs in contemporary Japan as well. The issues of access to basic education
are nearly solved in contemporary Japan. However, it is pointed out in recent years that
the tie between schools and local residents has been weakened. Extra-curricular
activities such as “dietary education” are conducted involving local residents as human
resources and other methods to solicit interests of local residents in schools are tried. By
gaining understanding from local residents, schools can expect their support to raise the
quality of school education and can widen the roles of schools including lifelong learning
for adults. Incidentally, gaining understanding and cooperation from local residents is
essential to increase children’s school enrolment and attendance as well. From this
perspective, the contemporary Japanese GPs involving communities in schools can
provide some suggestions to today's developing countries.
How to use the Handbook
There are various factors that constrain realization of the EFA. In the previous page,
"the structure of the handbook", the Good Practices of Japan are classified according to
issues. We suggest that the users of this handbook refer to the GP addressing the
similar issues to the ones that your local area has.
Description of each GP avoided detailed information and explanation to make it
adaptable to various local contexts, but some users may feel not enough information is
provided. Every region has it own history, culture, and social background. The practices
that worked in one area or time may not always apply to other times and places as they
are. This handbook is produced with the intention to offer "ideas" to the people involved
in the EFA.
In producing this handbook, we actually examined the applicability, and relevance of
some of the Japanese GPs to local contexts of developing countries. Pakistan from
Southern Asia and Ghana from Africa were chosen as survey countries. We asked a local
NGO, the Social Action Bureau for Assistance in Welfare and Organizational
Networking (SABAWON) in Pakistan and a university research center, the Center of
Research in Improving Quality of Primary Education in Ghana (CRIQPEG) of the Cape
Coast University in Ghana for cooperation. In examining the GPs, SABAWON actually
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implemented two GPs at school in the North West Frontier Province and the Cape Coast
University undertook action research following the implementation process of one GP.
The results of the study are described in【Application】of the pertinent GP for your
reference.
In addition, this handbook includes two brief essays as an introduction to the
description of GPs. The first essay summarizes the current status of EFA in the
developing countries. The progress of the EFA and the mainstream educational reform
are described, so that the significance of this handbook was positioned in that context.
The second essay explains about historical and social backgrounds of basic education
development in Japan. The essay was written with the intention to help users of this
handbook to place and comprehend the GPs in a wider social context of Japan through
pre-modern, modernization, post-war reconstruction and the present day.
A copy of this handbook can be downloaded from the website below.
http://e-archive.criced.tsukuba.ac.jp/en/
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* Current status of Education for All in developing countries
Amongst various policies and reforms currently underway in developing countries, the
drive to achieve universal access to basic education and the decentralization of
educational management can be singled out as the most common challenges faced by
their policy makers and practitioners.
The representatives from 189 countries came together in New York in September 2000
and developed the "Millennium Development Goals" (MDG) for realization of world
poverty reduction and peace. Eight MDG goals which are considered indispensable to
ensure dignity and improvement of peoples’ lives were set to achieve by 2015; education
is regarded as a necessary means for the development and eradication of poverty and it
is one of the goals to have all children complete the primary education by 2015. In the
same year, the "World Education Forum" was held in Dakar, Senegal. In step with the
Millennium Development Goals, pledges were made to complete the compulsory
education goals by 2015, eliminating gender discrepancies, and achieving a 50%
improvement in the adult literacy rate.
Unfortunately, the analysis indicated that many countries will not be able to achieve the
goal of universal primary education and the 50% improvement of the literacy rate by
2015 based on past and current rates of progress. According to the EFA monitoring
report (2008), 58 countries will not be able to achieve the generalization of primary
education at the elementary level at the current rate by 20151. In addition, the report
points out that the discrepancies in access to education and the quality of the education
not only between nations but also between local areas and between social groups within
nations exist and are even widening. The discrepancies mean not only that there are
still many children and adults who do not fulfill their right to an education, but also
that enlarged inequalities separate the people who do receive the right and people who
do not, resulting in the loss of social cohesiveness, which could lead to various forms of
conflicts.
The reasons why children do not want to or cannot receive education are diverse. The
problems of the supply side such as the lack of financial and human resources and
inefficient administration result in a lack of educational facilities (schools), teachers,
desks, chairs, teaching supplies, and restrooms as well as absenteeism of the teachers.
1 EFA Global Monitoring Report 2008, UNESCO
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On the demand side, the problems are: no funds to buy learning supplies due to poverty;
children are needed for domestic labor; lack of parental understanding about education
(education contents may not meet the needs of the learners or their parents). The
problems of finance and insufficient manpower on the supply side have no immediate
and sustainable solution. However, as to promoting administrative efficiency and
increasing parents’ understanding of education, the situation can be improved to some
extent, depending on the measures and interventions taken. The measures that address
the local reality are highly likely to succeed. But action on such measures comes from
the ideas of the people concerned on the local level. The decentralization of the
educational administration was implemented in many developing countries specifically
for the purpose of accelerating this result.
The decentralization of the educational administration aims at offering more effective
delivery of education opportunity, more direct participation of local residents in policy
making, closer monitoring of the programs by the residents, and widening fiscal
resources for education. It is assumed that this will improve the delivery of educational
services. Authority is transferred to local governments or local schools. People who
perform policymaking and implementation are local politicians elected by local
residents and local government officials appointed by them, as well as the school
principals and teachers rather than the national parliamentarians and the officials of
the Ministry of Education. The implementation of educational administration and
school management are required based on the local characteristics and the needs of the
local residents who exercise jurisdiction over them, while at the same time maintaining
policies consistent with those of the central government.
In addition, decentralization is anticipated to allow various local stakeholders to be
involved actively in policy making and administration enforcement. In many developing
countries, the non-governmental organizations (NGOs), the Civil Society Organizations
(CSOs) including the universities are already active in this field. They may work not
only to provide the basic social services to marginalized groups, but also form policy
suggestions (advocacy) for the official government agencies. In recent years, more and
more organizations are forming partnerships with the government to try to improve
social services to local residents.
As mentioned above, administrative decentralization involves trying to improve the
quality of education by giving authority to those closer to local residents and by having
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these local stakeholders being directly involved in the process. However, the results
obtained in many developing countries have not been as good as expected. The reasons
are that there was insufficient infrastructure to implement the policy at the local level
and difficulties in fair and smooth enforcement owing to political intervention of various
forms. Still, it is also probably true that many local administrative officials and school
officials, who became responsible for offering social services with the decentralization
reform, still cannot overcome the mentality of top-down policy formulation and
implementation and hesitate to come up with innovative local solutions.
Meanwhile, it should be pointed out that there exist local administrations of developing
countries that have been implementing various unique measures after and even before
the administrative decentralization began. Changes of the national educational policies
could promote changes in the consciousness of the officials in charge of the local
administration. However, as far as the EFA experiences of Japan are concerned, the
national education policies (such as free tuition system) are important factors, but even
more important factors are the initiative of the people (local administrative officials,
principals, citizen groups, business persons) to provide educational opportunities for all.
Also in developing countries, there are many examples of such initiatives where those in
charge of providing education involved local stakeholders in implementing measures to
provide more children with education that would better meet their needs. Learning
mutually those innovative practices across the world would certainly be beneficial to the
realization of EFA.
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*Historical and Social Background of Basic Educational Development in Japan
1.Pre-Modernization Era
Modern education in Japan began in 1872 with the introduction of the first unified
education system. Prior to this, Japan did not have a form of modern state and was an
aggregate of warlords. Local governments (feudal clans called Han) had their own
educational systems, but they were meant mostly for military nobility, not common
people. In fact, the ruling class was negative about educating common people.
From around the mid-18th century, the commodity economy began. The commodity
economy made it necessary for common people to acquire basic numeracy. People
exchanged papers, kept accounting records and handled administrative documents.
Also, the common people wanted to learn because they wanted to be engaged in artistic
activities and acquire culture. Then, “Terakoyas,” private elementary schools, began
operating to teach the common people basic numeracy. Terakoyas started responding to
the demands of the common people, but the village lords also supported the
establishment of Terakoyas that taught village children because they saw Terakoya
education as essential to maintain the order in the village. Terakoyas expanded mostly
in cities, though. In Edo (Tokyo), the literacy rate reached 80%. Throughout Japan, the
literacy rate was said to be around 20% to 30%. The rapid expansion of Terakoyas is
attributed to its educational contents relevant to daily life of the common people.
Despite the passiveness of the governments towards education for common people, their
learning activities were spread all over Japan.
2.Introduction of modern education system
In Japan, even prior to the modernization, the would-be leaders of the Meiji government
(1868~) were studying western education systems by translating relevant documents
and visiting France and the Netherlands. The new modernized educational system was
established in 1872 based on the outcome of their study. The new system aimed to
create a unified educational system in Japan. However, the modernized school
education was not initially well accepted by the common people who had been
accustomed to the traditional learning style. Some even revolted against the new
educational system. It was clear that the common people were not very pleased with the
new modernized school education system.
In 1877, five years after the introduction of the modern education system, the
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enrolment rate of compulsory education was approximately 40%. However, the real
ratio was said to be around 30% since only 70% of enrolled children actually did go to
school. The education administration wanted to raise the enrolment rate, and employed
various measures to entice children to come to school. For example, they gave a special
medal to those children coming to school and a special flag to those schools that were
successful in enrolling children. In some cases, the police threatened non-enrolled
children or their parents to forcefully encourage the children to come to school. Still, the
enrolment rate did not increase.
In particular, the girls’ enrolment did not show much increase. This was because there
was a dominant view at that time that girls did not need education. Even when the
enrolment rate reached 50% around 1890, the girls’ enrolment rate was merely 30% as
opposed to 50% for boys’. The gap between boys and girls was apparent.
3.Parents’ understanding of education
When the modernized school system began, elementary schools were constructed at the
center of the village. In some villages, the school shared a building with a public office.
Village people felt that the public office was not easily approachable. Therefore it was
only natural that they felt some distance to the school. Until around 1880, it was taken
for granted that children from families with stable jobs tended to inherit them, rather
than going to school.
In order to increase the enrolment rate, it was judged crucial that parents and
community people understand and accept the school education. Therefore, it was
deemed necessary to show the parents how important school education was, how
interesting it was, and what advantages it can give when children start working.
In order to increase understanding of parents towards school education, various
activities were organized for adults. Adults were invited to come to school and shown
facilities and learning materials accompanied by lectures and films to explain about the
roles of education. In fact, this type of learning activities for adults later became “social
education” or “life-learning” in Japan. It can be said that the life-learning originates
from the activities to help parents understand the importance of school education. In
addition, the schools organized Sports Day or Students’ Arts Exhibitions and invited the
parents. These school activities were meant to raise the interest of parents in schools.
The parents were not only observers, but also participants of some activities. Through
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these events, parents developed understanding of schools and the link between schools
and the community became closer.
The newly established Meiji government started reorganizing pre-modern village
communities in order to construct a centralized administration system. Around this
period, the village communities that had maintained social order on their own started
disintegrating. Then, schools were expected to play a role as a new force to unite village
communities. The schools were well positioned to serve this role since they were located
at the center of the village and equipped with facilities to be used as a community center
as well. As for teachers and school principals, the rare secondary school graduates in the
village took the roles, and acted also as informed counselors for the village people.
4.Teachers education and networking
Japanese modern education began with the establishment of a “Normal School,” that is
a school for would-be teachers. In 1872, the National Normal School was established in
Tokyo prior to the promulgation of the Education Ordinance, the first education law
concerning the educational system. The National Normal School invited Professor
Marion Scott from the United States as a teacher trainer and taught students coming
from all over Japan with translated versions of training manuals. The students later
returned to their home regions and taught students coming from the local areas at local
normal schools. In this way, the new teaching technique spread all over Japan. Later,
when the students who were sent overseas to study on a government mission returned,
they were invited to the National Normal School as the leading teacher-trainers to
teach new educational theories and teaching methods. Then, the students again spread
the new information to would-be teachers at local normal schools and provided
in-service training at local schools. This “cascade system” served well to disseminate
new educational information in the beginning of the modernization era in Japan.
In 1886, the Ministry of Education reorganized the Normal Schools. The National
Normal School in Tokyo became a higher training institute for secondary school
teachers. Other prefectures were allowed to establish only one Normal School to
maintain its standards. The tuition of Normal Schools was free. Students were provided
with accommodation and were rented uniforms. Because of this policy, the brightest
ones even from the poor families aspired to enter the Normal Schools to become
teachers. The students of Normal Schools acquired a sense of loyalty to the nation and
responsibility to educate the people. The boarding school arrangement made it easier to
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nurture such attitudes of students. The would-be teachers developed a strong sense that
education was essential to the national development and they would take an important
part in the process. This strong sense of responsibility that teachers possessed towards
education led to voluntarism that enhanced enrolment rate and educational
development in local areas.
It should be noted that students of regional Normal Schools were obliged to work as
teachers in a respective region after graduation. Half of the cohort of students was
allowed to enter Normal Schools on the basis of recommendation by district governors.
After graduation, the students were obliged to serve each district they came from. In
this way, the Normal Schools trained students from all districts and made them work as
leaders of local communities in their home districts upon graduation. Schools gained
confidence from the local community by employing those trusted by the local residents.
As for the networking, teacher associations were formed in villages, cities and
prefectures from around 1880s. This association included not only teachers but also
educational administrators. The teacher associations were in principle private entities,
but their major positions were occupied by governors and mayors. The associations were
also financially supported by the government; thus they had a public character as well.
Then, the national teacher association was created as an umbrella organization of all
teacher associations. Each teacher association issued a newsletter informing their
members of educational information and exchanged the newsletters with other teacher
associations to share information. In this way, good practices implemented in a local
area soon became known to teachers around the country.
5.Expansion of compulsory education and increase of enrolment rate
In the 1900s, free tuition became established as the Japanese economy grew. The
enrolment rate increased as the community became revitalized with the school at the
center of its activities. In 1907, the duration of compulsory education was extended from
4 years to 6 years. By that time, the enrolment rate reached over 90% for both boys and
girls.
This increase of school enrolment is partly due to the improved economic situation; but
most of all, it is due to the teachers’ strong sense of responsibility towards education,
schools efforts to gain understanding, confidence from parents, and everyone’s
realization that education would provide a venue for success in society.
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GP1 School Sports Day
Currently, School Sports Days are implemented at almost all schools in Japan. They
were started in the 1880s when modern school systems were introduced into villages.
With modernization, cohesiveness of the village community became weakened. School
Sports Days increased awareness among parents towards school education and
functioned to strengthen the community ties.
【Issues】
Modernization in Japan began in the 1880s and a unified educational system was
introduced under the centralized administrative framework. In the beginning, the
modern school system, which took over the education conducted voluntarily at temples,
was not accepted well by the local community and the attendance rate at elementary
schools was at a standstill. Also, the disintegration of the village community was
becoming an issue. Traditional village events such as seasonal festivals were no longer
performed, so the villagers were losing their sense of belonging to the community.
【Implementation】
* In Japan, it is said that the “Athletic Sports Festival” held at the Imperial Naval
College in 1874 was the first Sports Day. Later, it began to be held at elementary
schools.
Management
School Sports Days are normally held in each individual school, but in case the size of
the schools is too small, several schools jointly organize it. Since School Sports Days are
considered to be the most important event in school, the schools distribute the school
calendar to the parents in the beginning of each academic year, and inform them of the
schedule of School Sports Day. Because the event is very important to local communities,
・ Parents’ indifference to modern school education ・Weakening of community ties
Issues
・Increase in parent’s awareness
of school education ・Strengthening of community ties ・Improved enrollment rate
School Sports
Day
GP Outcomes
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the schedule is notified also to the community associations through the PTA. The PTA
obtains and supplies the equipment that is necessary for the organization of School
Sports Days and helps with the preparations. In the program, there are many activities
where the children have to cooperate and perform together, including group games and
gymnastic formations. Therefore, before School Sports Day, children practice and
prepare for around one month, mostly during physical education classes. Children,
especially senior students, share the responsibility of managing the whole event such as
preparation of signboards and equipment, program announcements, guiding of children
etc. Cleanup after the School Sports Day is also undertaken by the children themselves.
Content
In elementary schools, the School Sports Day program ranges from physical events such
as running races, and recreational events including throwing the ball in the basket, tug
of war, group games, and gymnastic formations, many of which need team work.
Children participate in various programs with different educational purposes. Usually,
all children are divided into two teams; red and white, and these two teams compete.
The team is organized across grades and classes and children have chance to interact
with those of different grades. Competitions are performed based on grade and sex and
scores are added to each team that children belong to.
Participation of parents and young children
One of the notable features of School Sports Days is the participation of the local
community. School Sports Days are organized in a friendly picnic style atmosphere so
that parents and the community residents feel free to come and participate in the event
and familiarize themselves with the schools. When the enrollment rate was low, local
residents came to School Sports Days and during the event conversations between
teachers and parents took place. Teachers took advantage of this opportunity and
encouraged the parents to send their children to school. In the current School Sports
Days, kindergarteners and nursery school children who will attend elementary schools
in the next academic year are invited to participate. First grade children give small gifts
to children who will attend elementary schools next year with the intention that the
children feel welcomed and look forward to school.
【Legal aspects】
Currently, in the educational guidelines, School Sports Days are defined as educational
activities outside the curriculum designated as “special activities” which will contribute
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to socialize children. Each school can decide how to organize the Sports Day.
【Actors Interaction】
Approach
Budgetary support
【Preconditions】
Minimum equipment required to organize sport events
Space at school for organizing sporting events
Understanding of the local administration
【Outcomes】
School Sports Days were started as a main event of a village when the village
communities were collapsing in the process of modernization. Villagers brought lunch
from home and came to see the sport festival at the school. They also took part in
various programs which increased parent’s affinity for school. Then, many other events
of the village began to be held centered around school which contributed to promoting
community cohesiveness and further schooling of children. For children themselves,
School Sports Days enhanced their health and taught them the importance of
teamwork.
【Impact】
In the 1890s, the School Sports Day became widespread throughout the country. The
village communities were seeking for stronger ties. The concern for children’s physical
development and health promotion was increasing among the people who were in
School
Initiative
Cooperation
Principal Executive committee
(Teachers and
community members)
School staff
Local community
Parents and children
Local residents
Local educational
administration
Preparation and
cooperation with
implementation
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educational administrations.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
The success factor of School Sports Days was the recreational aspect of it that allowed
the local residents to casually participate in school events. Originally School Sports
Days began in order to give children the opportunity to play sports and games, but later
it also functioned to increase awareness among parents, who were not associated with
schools or had less understanding of schools, about school education. By making School
Sports Day participatory, it enhanced the interest and commitment of parents, who
were otherwise distanced from the schools. Increased interests of parents towards
schools resulted in the increase in the school enrollment of children. Before and now,
School Sports Days are held on Sundays so that the parents can easily participate
because they are off from work. In present day Japan, the enrollment rate is no longer
an issue, but School Sports Days continue to play a role in increasing parents’ interests
and involvement with school.
Constraints
The preparation of School Sports Days takes time depending on its scale and frequency.
If it is organized too often, it becomes a heavy burden on school managers and teachers.
【Application of GP1 School Sports Day】
In the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, the local NGO “SABAWON” (Social
Action Bureau of Assistance for Welfare and Networking) supplied sport equipment to
an elementary school near Peshawar and implemented School Sports Days in
cooperation with the school staff and village community.
Implementation
NGO "SABAWON" approached the parents and school staff and undertook the
preparations. Soccer and cricket were popular among the children so these were
selected as programs to be held at Sports Day. Since the selected school had no
schoolyards, children were taken by the teachers to the nearby empty lot after school
and a School Sport Day was implemented.
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Actors Interaction
Participation
Approach
Supply of sport equipment
Coordination
Outcomes
The GP School Sports Day was a success in enhancing the interest and the expectation
of children who participated in the School Sports Day and their parents. At public
schools in rural areas, usually only the classes prescribed by regular curriculum are
conducted. Some of the parents’ who assessed the School Sports Day said; “at school,
children sat still and listened to what teachers say like a small bird in a cage.
Implementation of a school event like a School Sports Day is welcome. It is good for
children’s physical development and we as well as our children have become more
interested in schools.” On the School Sports Day, some 10 out-of-school children also
participated.
Lessons learned
Since the GP School Sports Day in Pakistan was implemented on weekdays, the
participation of parents was limited. The organizers felt that the school children felt
more affinity with school thanks to the Sports Day. However, SABAWAN analyzes that
for the children who are not enrolled in school, the School Sports Day does not
necessarily lead to the increase in attendance of children; the poverty has to be
addressed. Still, if such an effort is continued and positive participation of parents and
the local community is obtained, it is expected to increase the parents’ understanding of
School
Support
Cooperation
Principal Classroom
teachers
School staff
Local community
Parents and children
(Mainly school
children)
Local residents
Local NGO
Local educational
administration
Increasing
awareness
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the significance of education. Poverty was one of the factors of non-enrollment at schools
in Japan as well; however, parents’ increased perception of education as means to get
out of poverty eventually led to the improvement in the enrollment rate.
Grouping of children
Playing a soccer game Children having fun playing cricket
"We hope the School Sports Day will be held
often."
NGO staff exchange opinions with community
members.
Listening to the explanation about the School
Sports Day
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GP2 School Cultural Day
In the present day, School Cultural Day is organized at many schools in Japan. Cultural
Day was started when the enrollment rate was low in Japan. It was started in Kobe to
show the parents who did not understand the meaning of school education how the
school education was useful for their children.
【Issues】
Around the end of the 19th century soon after the universal education policy was
introduced in Japan, there were parents who did not have their children attend school
because they did not understand the significance of school education. Even for those
parents who had their children in school were not particularly enthusiastic about
children’s schooling. Therefore, school staff felt it necessary to show the learning
outcomes of the children.
【Implementation】
*Around 1890, School Cultural Day began in a school in Kobe. Then it became
widespread throughout the country. Later, School Cultural Day became an opportunity
to inform and seek understanding from the parents of the outcomes of new educational
practices the educational administration and schools introduced.
Purpose
School Cultural Day aimed to encourage students’ schoolwork and to increase parents’
understanding of school education.
Contents
In the beginning, programs such as singing of songs learnt at school, recitations,
reading compositions of their own, and comments and lectures of the teachers were
shown to their parents to enhance understanding of school. Since the purpose of the
Parents not interested in school education
Issues
・Increased awareness among
parents towards education
・Increased enrollment rate
School
Cultural Day
GP Outcomes
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School Cultural Day was to show the achievements of daily learning in public, teachers
guided the children to be able to express themselves in public. School Cultural Day was
also an opportunity to teach children manners and how to socialize at gatherings where
parents and people from the community participated.
From 1910 to 1920 in Japan, new educational practice based on a child-centered
approach was implemented (Taisho Free Education). New effects of school education
such as creativity and the ability to express one’s self were needed to be shown to the
parents. Consequently, School Cultural Day became the place to develop children’s
creativity centered on theater and music or to show the outcome of educational
activities that used body expression. Since the children’s performances were
entertaining, some parents came to look forward to the School Cultural Day.
【Legal aspects】
School Cultural Day as well as School Sports Day is positioned as “Special Activities” in
the educational guidelines. Schools can decide whether they will organize School
Cultural Day or not and how it will be implemented. In many secondary schools,
students voluntarily initiate cultural programs.
【Actors Interaction】
Visit school
Approach
Understanding and cooperation
【Preconditions】
Space in schools to perform School Cultural Day (utilization of classrooms and gyms)
Understanding and cooperation of local government
【Outcomes】
School
Initiative
Cooperation
Principal Executive committee
(Teachers and students)
School staff
Local community
Parents and children
Local residents
Local educational
administration
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For parents whose children were in school, School Cultural Day offered understanding
of daily learning outcomes of their children. On the other hand, for parents whose
children did not attend schools, it gave chances of knowing what school education was
like. School Cultural Day contributed to increase the school attendance and enhanced
parents’ and communities’ interest in education.
【Impact】
School Cultural Day that began in Kobe is now organized in many schools in Japan.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
One of the most important factors for the success of School Cultural Day is to plan it in
a way that children’s parents can happily participate. It provides an opportunity for the
parents to familiarize themselves with school. It motivates children to work hard by
providing a venue to present their school achievements in public. In addition, when
group presentations are performed or students themselves plan the event, it becomes an
opportunity for them to learn about collaboration and develop a sense of responsibility.
Constraints
School Cultural Day, like School Sports Day, takes time to prepare depending on how
they organize it. If these events take place too often, it imposes a heavy burden on
school managers and teachers. Therefore many of the recent Cultural Days are planned
and implemented by children themselves.
School Cultural Day in old times2
2 “Photos for Social Studies” http://www51.tok2.com/home/kimutoshi/)
School Cultural Day in present day
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GP3 Fathers’ involvement in school
In contemporary Japan, the tie between communities and schools has been weakened.
Particularly, the fathers who have school-aged children do not have many opportunities
to attend school events. Also, there are many retired men who do not have close ties to
the local community. The challenge was to link these two groups in the local community
to the schools in order to increase school resources as well as to vitalize the
communities.
【Issues】
In contemporary Japan, people move frequently so new communities are always being
created. The people who settled down in these new communities do not know each other
well. For children, school becomes a place where they can get to know each other, but for
many adult males who work during the daytime, and for retired men, they do not have
any place to socialize. However, such men have much knowledge and various skills that
they acquired through their work experiences. Meanwhile, schools increasingly felt
incapable of responding to diverse educational needs of the community including those
of adult learners. Therefore, the idea is to make use of the human resources such as
fathers and retired men in order to broaden and strengthen the capacity of the school,
and increase community cohesiveness.
【Implementation】
*In the 1980s, people from all over Japan migrated to Akitsu-City, Chiba Prefecture, to
settle on reclaimed land along Tokyo Bay and a new community was created. However,
the social interaction among adults, especially men, was very limited. At Akitsu
elementary school, the school created opportunities inviting men from the community to
teach children various skills that they had acquired through jobs, life experiences, and
・ Fathers (and retired
men) are not active in the
local community.
・ School resources are
limited.
Issues
・ Stronger community
ties
・More human resources
at school
Fathers’
involvement in
school
GP Outcomes
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their own hobbies. In fact, not only men but also many women participated in teaching
as well. The participation of local residents in extra-curricular activities of school
strengthened the community ties. Simultaneously, school came to function as a place for
lifelong learning for adults.
Management
The "Community Room Steering Committee" was organized composed of 15 members
including parents who have school-aged children and those from the local community.
The Committee was launched as a forerunner of the PTA. The Committee is in charge of
the management of various extra-curricular activities that men perform at school. In
this way the activities are managed by local community members. The Committee
members possess the door key of the classroom used for activities and take
responsibility for all facilities and equipments in the room. The school principal
participates in the Committee as an observer. Under this Committee, around 40
extra-curricular activities called “club activities” take place. Classrooms are used after
school or on holidays. Activities are conducted about 200 days a year.
Activities
Various club activities are conducted utilizing the knowledge, wisdom, and skills of the
fathers. Also, any community members who do not have school-aged children can
initiate a new club activity or participate in any existing club activities. There are also
some activities linked to regular school classes. Concrete examples are described below.
1. Carpentry Club
The fun of carpentry with its various tools and materials is taught to children. The club
members produce things that the school can use for educational purpose. For example,
the members created a chicken house and donated it to the school. The school uses this
chicken house in science and life environmental studies classes. Also, children and
several members of the club made a wooden signboard, a sandbox (for children to play
in), and a flowerbed and donated all of them to a nearby kindergarten.
2. Clean environment club
The club members and the children learn the importance of environmental protection.
As a part of their activities, for example, the adults and children work together and
collect garbage around the school every morning.
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3. Rice-growing club
There is a rice field in the schoolyard, and children learn about rice growing as part of
the regular curriculum. Men who were engaged with rice growing for a long time act as
teachers or assistants to help teach children.
【Legal aspects】
In the Fundamental Law of Education in Japan, which was amended in 2006, the
significance of "lifelong learning" is stated that human beings should keep on learning
for their entire lifetime. To promote “lifelong learning”, some schools were designated as
model schools to promote learning for local communities. The Akitsu elementary school
is one of these model schools.
【Actors Interaction】
Management
助言
Advice
【Preconditions】
Commitment from fathers and retired men
Classrooms available in schools (depending on the number of activities)
【Outcomes】
By participating in various activities taking place at school, the local community
members came to know each other well. As a consequence of developing a strong
community, Akitsu-City has a low crime rate now. Children can have opportunities to
Local community
School
Observer
Cooperation
Principal
Community Room
Steering Committee
Local educational
administration
School
teachers
Extra-Curricular
Activities
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interact with local community members, whom they otherwise have few opportunities
to meet. For men who participated in the extra-curricular activities, it became a venue
for mutual learning among the community members.
【Impact】
Due to the weakening of community ties, this GP of Akitsu, Chiba Prefecture which
aimed at the regeneration of the community centering around school and utilizing
various knowledge and skills that fathers and retired men have had spread all over
Japan. Some communities set up child-rearing centers at schools where parents can get
together to exchange information, while others have established group activities for
retired people. This GP became widespread in Japan since school exists in every
community and by initiating activities that the community members can participate in,
it contributed to develop and strengthen the capacity of the community.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
In general, the resources of school in terms of people, materials and finance are limited.
However, school, primarily being a non-profit organization, can be a place where
volunteers who have enthusiasm can easily participate. Therefore, the factor for the
success of this GP is to use the character of school as a non-profit entity to involve
various people like fathers and retired men in local communities on a voluntary basis in
developing the capacity of the school as well as strengthening the local community.
Constraints
For the local community to participate in extra-curricular activities as teachers or
learners, it is necessary to have the understanding of the local educational
administration. There must be confidence towards the self-governance capacity by the
community or its potentials to develop such capacity through this kind of activity.
Fathers and retired men
from the local community
interact with children at
school.
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GP4 Children Make Lunch Day
In present day Japan, the environment around children is changing rapidly. It is
becoming difficult for schools alone to solve newly emerging problems children face,
such as the deterioration of children’s health owing to changing dietary habits. One
school decided to use the children’s lunch to seek and strengthen the cooperation with
local residents. In this GP, children make lunch by themselves with support from their
parents; they get to experience the feeling of gratitude.
【Issues】
In Japan in the 1980’s when the period of high economic growth ended, schools
experienced the problems of classroom disruption, school violence, and an increase in
student dropout rates. The problem was that children suffered a decrease in the feeling
of self-worth and complained of feeling empty inside. The causes were many. A lack of
communication between generations in the nuclear family, the demands of modern
Japanese companies that required one or increasingly both parents to commute long
distances, work long hours and work on holidays, and the consequent reduction in
family time when families could have fun and relax together all contributed to this
problem. In addition, the stress on the family structure contributed to children’s health
problems due to changing dietary habits. These problems were too big for schools to deal
with them alone.
【Implementation】
*The practice of Children Make Lunch Day started with the initiative of Mr. Kazuo
Takeshita, a principal of junior high school from Takamatsu-city, Kagawa prefecture.
Mr. Takeshita thought that the best way to deal with the problem of emptiness inside is
for children to learn to appreciate others and be appreciated by others. Then, Mr.
Takeshita began his experimentation by having children make a lunch box by
themselves and bringing it to school. Children started observing how their parents cook
・School lack resources
・Children feel empty inside
Issue
・ Strengthened tie between school and the community
・ Children learned to be
thankful
Children
Make Lunch
Day
GP Outcomes
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in order to learn cooking. This led to the development of appreciation by children for
their parents preparing meals every day. Also, children felt a sense of pleasure when
they were thanked by their family members when they gave out the extra food they
could not fit in their lunch box. Moreover, communication between parents and children
increased. Later, Children Make Lunch Day spread throughout Japan. Many schools
now use the opportunity to strengthen the cooperation with the local community by
involving the local residents in the event. In some cases, older local residents come to
school and cook traditional meals with children. Children can then learn about
traditional life.
Preparation
Children Make Lunch Day is usually implemented for junior high school students aged
between 13 and 15, or elementary school senior grades aged 11 and 12. For parents, it is
normal that they feel anxiety such as “I never had my child handle a kitchen knife,” “My
child had never operated the gas cooker,” “My child always wakes up late and does not
have time to cook.” Therefore, it is important that the school makes an effort to seek
parents’ understanding about the event, using opportunities such as the PTA or school
newsletter. Schools inform the parents that: 1) Children Make Lunch Day is a school
event, thus schools take responsibility to teach children the basics of preparing lunch
and do not impose an excessive burden on parents; 2) schools carefully prepare the
event by making “Study Cards” or “Challenge Cards” (a lunch preparation plan
containing illustration, information regarding the amount to be cooked and diet) with
home economics teachers, class teachers and a dietician, while making the utmost effort
to avoid any accidents; 3) the adults should believe children’s potentiality and growth of
self-independence.
Activity
In Japan, parents usually make lunch and have their children carry their lunchbox to
school with them; however, on the “Children Make Lunch Day”, the children themselves
plan a menu, buy materials for lunch, cook it, fill their lunchboxes and then clean up.
“Children Make Lunch Day” is implemented about once a month during a semester (five
times a year). On the first “Children Make Lunch Day”, some students show the whole
class the lunch they have made that morning. It does not matter if there are some
children who got their parents to help them because they will eventually feel guilty and
will try making lunch at home voluntarily several times before the second “Children
Make Lunch Day” comes around. Afterward, they will ask earnestly their parents to
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show them how to make lunch. Therefore, every time the “Children Make Lunch Day”
comes around, the parents and teachers will notice the children improve their skills for
making lunch and increase their talking to their parents. Parents are also involved
before they know it.
Reflection
Every time Children Make Lunch Day has ended, the lunch prepared by children is
recorded by a camera and the photo of the lunch is placed on an individual “Challenge
Card” for each student. Children name each lunch such as “pep lunch” and “spring wind
lunch” according to a particular theme that the school may set for each Children Make
Lunch Day so that they easily remember what they cooked and reflect how it went. At
the end of the year, children themselves make self-evaluations based on three criteria:
cooking technique, knowledge about diet, and motivation.
【Legal aspects】
In Japan, the Course of Study issued by the Ministry of Education maintains the
minimum standard of the quality of elementary and lower secondary education.
However, the curriculum is in the jurisdiction of each individual school, and the school
principal is responsible for it. In order to encourage this type of GP responding to the
changing environment of children and involving the parents and the community for
support, it is important to encourage and ensure legally the autonomous school
management.
【Actors Interaction】
S
School
Initiative
Principal Executive
Committee
・Home economics
teacher
・Class teacher
・Dietician
・Local residents
Local Community
Parents
Children
Local residents
Local Education
Administration
Support
Offer opportunity for dialogue with children
Advice
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【Preconditions】
Access to kitchens, appliances, and time to prepare
Understanding of local administrative administration
【Outcomes】
It is difficult to assess the educational outcomes of one activity. However, many of those
involved in Children Make Lunch Day feel the activity is worthwhile. Moreover,
children’s self-evaluation generally shows that they are improving in all three criteria:
skills, knowledge and attitudes. In addition, the community and families are also
changing positively as Mr. Takeshita wanted to change the environment the children
grow up in. This program also helps increase the parent’s understanding and
cooperation with the school events and activities. This allows the schools to be a starting
place for families and local residents to learn and continue learning into the future.
【Impact】
Although the methods and purposes vary from kindergartens to universities, as of
January 2009, 283 schools all across Japan are implementing the “Children Make
Lunch Day” program. This GP, which began with only one school, has spread quickly
with grassroots support. A major factor in the spread of “Children Make Lunch Day” is
the support of the local newspapers, which often leads to increasing the confidence and
encouragement of the people involved in its implementation.
【Lessons Leaned】
Keys to success
In addition to the school principal’s initiative and cooperation from teachers, it is
important that the local education administration supports this type of GP. When the
school principal Takeshita approached the superintendent of local educational boards to
consult on his idea of Children Make Lunch Day, the superintendent immediately
offered support. The prefectural educational administration was also supportive of the
initiative. In fact, the administration once received a phone call from a parent for
opposing the initiative, but decided to leave it to the school principal to make a decision.
Constraints
There are some children who are not enthusiastic about cooking by themselves. Also
there are parents who doubt the effectiveness of such an initiative. Some teachers also
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express complaints as they are busy with a variety of demands imposed on them. It
often turns out, however, that many of them express satisfaction after the event. Still,
some school principals may feel inhibited by these opposing voices.
【Application of GP4 Children Make Lunch Day】
In the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan, the GP “Children Make Lunch Day”
was tried by the local NGO. The local NGO “SABAWON” (Social Action Bureau of
Assistance for Welfare and Networking) worked on an elementary school near
Peshawar and implemented this GP in cooperation with people concerned with the
school. In Japan, there is the culture to make and bring a lunch box to school, but not in
Pakistan. Instead of making a lunch box, the GP “Children Make Lunch Day” was
implemented so that children made their lunch together at school.
Process
In preparation, SABAWON took the initiative to talk with the local government
education office, the school officials, and community residents. They received
permission to implement this activity from the local education administration. Hujra,
an informal meeting space in the village, was used to discuss the activity with the
villagers and parents with school aged children. Fifty 5th graders from the elementary
school came to participate in “Children Make Lunch Day” after discussing it with their
parents. The children were divided into five groups of ten children each. Each group
talked about what they would cook and what cooking equipment they would need.
Actors Interaction
Participation
Approach
School
Initiative
Cooperation
Principal Executive committee
(Mainly teachers)
School staff
Local NGO
Local educational
administration
Local community
Parents and children
(Mainly school
children)
Local residents
Approach
Coordination
Coordination
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Outcomes
SABAWON analyzed the result of the GP “Children Make Lunch Day” in Pakistan and
concluded that it produced the following four outcomes: the activity built teamwork
between the children; the children handled the assigned work well; the children were
able to find solutions as a group; and the activity enhanced their interest and
expectation for school. On the day, six out-of-school children also came to join in the
activity. This trial was slightly different from the “Children Make Lunch Day” in Japan,
but both enhanced the interest and understanding of the children and local residents
towards schools.
Lessons learned
In Pakistan, the government-run schools do not have such a good reputation and are
considered more monotonous than the private schools. This “Children Make Lunch Day”
GP was implemented at a government-run school as an extracurricular activity as a
kind of Life Skills Training and was well received by both the children and their parents.
One of the parents who participated gave this evaluation: “The administration should
positively encourage and support this activity. The activity activates the mind and
bodies of the children. Children have the right to receive such an education.” To
implement and continue the activity like “Children Make Lunch Day” at schools, more
positive involvement and support of the local governments are needed. However, the
local educational administration was currently very busy after the decentralization and
the local NGO acknowledged that they had difficulties reaching the local government
education office. As for the activity’s sustainability, all the necessary cooking
ingredients and utensils for cooking and eating were brought by the participants. Since
no financial help was received from outside, schools themselves could possibly continue
this activity in the future, if it receives support from the community.
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Preparation meeting for "Children Make Lunch
Day" Children start cooking ingredients brought by
children of every group.
Children share work and cut vegetables. Completed lunch and the child who participated.
Children are having lunch with friends which they
made with teamwork. Boys do not have many
opportunities to prepare meals at homes.
After implementation of this GP, parents and
local residents exchange views.
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GP5 Special School at Silk Mills
From the end of the 19th to the beginning of the 20th century, modernization in Japan
has led to the development of industry. These industries at the early stage of capitalism
were labor-intensive and many girls from poor families were obliged to work. In Nagano
Prefecture, educational opportunities were provided to those poor girls who were
engaged in the silk-reeling industry.
【Issues】
The silk-reeling industry was a key industry that contributed to the modernization of
Japan. However, the demand for cheap labor forced girls from poor backgrounds to work
in factories. These girls were school-aged but since they had to work, they were deprived
of their educational opportunities.
【Implementation】
*Nagano Prefecture, which was aiming to increase the enrollment rate in compulsory
education, issued a notice to open special schools at silk mills and instructed factories to
give compulsory education to these girls. Each silk mill carried this out by obtaining the
cooperation of neighboring elementary schools. The methods of special schools at silk
mills have various characteristics mentioned below.
Location
There were two cases: one was special schools that were delegated to neighboring
elementary schools; the other was established within the factories. The former was
usually carried out every other day due to constraints of school resources. Both share
similar characteristics concerning special school implementation.
Assignment of teachers
Teachers were dispatched from elementary schools or retired teachers were employed.
Girls could not attend school because they have to work in a factory.
Issues
Girls completed elementary school while working.
Special school
at silk mills
GP Outcomes
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The factories covered the expenses. Even the factory owners who were not enthusiastic
implemented the activity due to strong enforcement from the administration.
Selection of subjects
Subjects were mainly Shushin (moral education), national language, and arithmetic. At
some places, physical exercise was also carried out in order to keep the children healthy.
Hours of teaching
The majority of the special schools carried out classes two hours a day for factory girls.
(General elementary schools had 28 hours per week). Hours for special schools for
factory girls were included in working hours. This enabled the girls to have classes
during daytime, not after work.
Certificate for Graduation
Examinations were conducted to certify completion. This enabled the children to
become elementary school graduates.
【Legal aspects】
The special schools at silk mills were considered equivalent to the three-year
elementary school defined by “the 1890 Elementary School Order”. In accordance with
this Order, Nagano Prefecture established special school regulations and accredited this
educational activity.
【Actors Interaction】 (In the case of special schools at factories)
Guidance and accreditation Teachers dispatched
Promotion of learning
Silk Mill
Owner of
the Mill
Special School
Teachers in
charge of each
subject
Local community
Parents
Children
(Especially girls)
Local educational
administration
Elementary
School
Understanding of
special schools Understanding
and cooperation
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【Preconditions】
Understanding and cooperation of mill owners
Space and minimum facilities to open classes within factories
Existence of a nearby elementary school
Understanding and cooperation of the local governments
【Outcomes]
Since it became possible to receive education while engaged in labor in silk mills, many
factory girls could receive elementary school education. As a result, the girls’ school
enrollment rate improved. Moreover, by explaining the importance of compulsory
education to mill owners, the corporate sector developed an understanding of the
significance of education.
【Impact】
The special schools at silk mills were implemented in Nagano from 1914 and lasted
until around 1940. After World War II, child labor became completely prohibited in
Japan (Legally, there is a punitive clause for employers), so that the special schools
became no longer necessary.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
The success of the special schools at silk mills was due to the fact that they established
an education system for girls who had to work due to poverty to be able to learn without
stopping their work. Regarding the implementation, it was important that the
educational administration of Nagano Prefecture took initiative, tried to gain the
understanding and cooperation of the mill owners, and issued relevant administrative
orders.
Constraints
When teachers were dispatched from nearby elementary schools, traveling of teachers
became a problem in case there was no school in the neighborhood. Also, it was difficult
to implement the special schools if the mill owners did not fully cooperate. In principle,
factories are for profit so administrative and legal actions to persuade them to cooperate
were necessary.
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GP6 Nyokoba Education
Vocational Skills Training for Girls
When the modernization of Japan began in the 19th century, the view that women
should attend school was not common and the girls’ school enrolment rate was low. At
this time, women were required to master sewing or handicraft and morality whether
they choose to work or get married. It was “Nyokobas” that taught such skills, together
with reading and writing.
【Issues】
When the modern school system started, the girls’ school enrolment rate did not rise.
For the government, it was important to change the stereotype perception that girls and
women did not need to learn. At that time, there were girls who worked as geishas
(female entertainers versed in traditional classical music and dance) and yujos
(courtesans) in Kyoto. Many girls were held in servitude because of their parents’ debts
and were made to work in menial jobs at okiyas (the lodging house where geisha live)
and in the red light districts when they were young. Some girls began to work as
geishas and yujos at around 15 or 16 years old. Some girls, when they became free after
the contracted period expired, needed to master skills called “Nyoko” (handwork such as
sewing and handicrafts) in order to make a living.
【Implementation】
* In Japan, local administrations had the responsibility to ensure education for all.
However, it was difficult to have girls go to school under the pre-modern perception that
women did not need to go to school. Volunteers in Kyoto-City established an institution
to teach Nyoko in 1873. Kyoto city supported this idea and established the first Nyokoba
(“ba” refers to the place). Some 80 Nyokobas were established in Kyoto within ten years.
These Nyokobas, often located within school premise, were for elementary school-aged
girls who worked mainly in okiyas and in the red light districts. During the same period,
・Low girls enrolment
・Poverty
Issue
s ・Increased girls enrolment
・Increased independence of girls
Nyokoba
education
GP Outcomes
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in Kyoto, Nyokobas were also established for older geisha girls and yujos. The purpose
of those Nyokobas was to provide vocational education, so that women could find proper
work when they became free after the contracted period expired. Another type of
Nyokoba promoted further education for girls who finished elementary education.
Contents of education
Every Nyokoba had its own curriculum. In addition to skills such as sewing, embroidery,
cooking, etiquette, tea ceremony and Japanese flower arrangement, more basic skills
such as calligraphy and arithmetic were taught. Moral education was also included.
Teachers
Usually, experts who were familiar with Nyoko were employed as teachers at Nyokoba.
They were masters of private sewing schools and primary teachers who could sew.
Management
As for the operation of Nyokoba, a governing body was founded by influential local
leaders in elementary school districts. The governing body collected investment money,
donations, and membership fees from their members as well as from others in order to
run Nyokobas. Moreover, sale profit from the products that the students made was also
earmarked for expenses. The sustainability of Nyokoba was assured by these policies.
Many Yujos were held in servitude because of their parents’ debts. After the contracted
period expired, they would become free. In view of this, the cooperation with the
contractors who were employing these women was also essential to run the Nyokobas.
There were three types of Nyokobas as follows:
1. For geisha or yujo
Girls were taught Nyokos to acquire skills to make a future living. The Nyokobas were
established in the red light districts. There, yujos were taught Nyokos to make a living
when they came back to society after their contracts were over.
2. For school-aged girls
Nyokobas were established at elementary schools to offer education for girls working in
okiyas and in the red light districts. This had the advantage that reading and writing
could also be taught. The girls’ school attendance was also promoted by teaching Nyokos
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at school so children who were reluctant to try modern education would attend to
master the Nyoko skills and also learn to read and write.
3. For girls who graduated from elementary school
There were Nyokobas where girls who graduated from elementary school were taught
not only sewing, required etiquette, and morality for women, but also advanced general
education. Such Nyokobas that included modern education were established in
elementary schools, but there were Nyokobas established some other places as well.
Some Nyokobas hired foreign teachers and offered English education.
【Legal aspects】
From a legal point of view, the Nyokoba was not included in the school education.
However, government authorities administered the Nyokoba school affairs. Later,
Nyokobas were reformed into sewing schools by the revision of the law. As for Nyokobas
for yujos, with the enactment of the anti-trafficking law, the importance of Nyokoba
became increasingly recognized as it offered yujos the possibility to leave the yujo work
and find proper job and therefore many more were established.
【Actors Interaction】
School
Nyokoba A
Nyokoba B
Local community
Yujo
Nyokoba
Local educational
administration
Red light districts
and Okiya
Yujos
Going to school School-aged girls
Graduated
girls
Proceed to
higher education
Support
Support
Teaching
and advice
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【Preconditions】
Space to establish and operate Nyokobas (in schools and workplaces)
Understanding and cooperation of managers when implemented at workplaces
【Outcomes】
Working girls who could not go to regular school or girls who had no interest in modern
school had opportunities to receive basic education and vocational training through
Nyokobas. The girls’ school enrolment rate was substantially raised by these efforts.
【Impact】
Nyokobas were started in the city of Kyoto and then spread throughout Japan.
Dressmaking and English conversation in modern Nyoko were added later and the
comparatively wealthier class wanted to learn these skills. It lasted until 1885.
Subsequently, Nyokobas became no longer necessary by the institutionalizing of the
sewing schools and by the lack of need for Nyokoba that teaches mostly handwork as
modern industries developed.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
It is important to address the learning needs of women to promote their school
attendance. Before, the view that “women did not need academic skills” was dominant
in Japanese society. Many women themselves had negative attitudes about learning at
school. The reasons for the success of this GP are considered to be as follows: the
original purpose of Nyokoba education was to teach skills required for work or marriage
preparation to women. Through Nyokoba education, however, girls and women acquired
basic learning skills including reading and writing taught at regular schools.
Constraints
In the case where Nyokoba education is conducted for geisha and yujos, it was essential
to have full cooperation from their employers. Even with administrative orders from
local government authorities, these women may not feel secure engaging in learning, if
their employers did not have a good understanding of their needs.
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GP7 The Komori-School
When the coverage of modern general education expanded in Japan, there were girls
who could not go to school because they had to take care of infants in their own or
somebody else’s home. The Komori-Schools were created in an effort to provide such
girls with opportunity to learn.
【Issues】
Modern general education began in Japan at the end of the 19th century, but the
perception that there was no need for girls to go to school was deep-rooted in those days.
Moreover, the practice of family labors and the absolute poverty were big factors
preventing girls from attending school. Traditionally, girls had the responsibility for
domestic work such as baby-sitting (“Komori”), house sitting and cooking. In poor
families, many school-aged girls took care of their own younger brothers and sisters in
their homes or worked in somebody else’s home. Taking care of their younger brothers
and sisters in their own homes was considered to be a natural duty for girls from 8 to
around 17 years old. Meanwhile, baby-sitting other people’s children was a paid
occupation, bringing important incomes to their families. That is why these girls could
not go to school.
【Implementation】
*The first Komori-School for children who were baby-sitting was started at Akatsuka
School in Tokyo in 1878. Komori-Schools were not official schools like ordinary
elementary schools. From a legal point of view, they were classified differently from
normal elementary schools but nonetheless considered as the regular education, even
though the content of the education was somewhat simplified. Girls were permitted to
attend school with babies they were nursing (often carrying babies on their back).
Girls could not attend school because of family duty (childcare). .
Issue
s Girls who were involved in
childcare could go to school.
Komori- School
GP Outcomes
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Classroom management
Children came to school with the infants in their care and the classes were often
disrupted by noises of these infants. The teachers in charge did not receive special
training to deal with this, but they did devise several methods to help.
1. Komori-Schools were equipped with some toys. Those toys were lent to the infants
while the class was in progress.
2. The baby-sitters hung a colored string where the infant on their backs could reach.
When the infants started crying, teachers swung the string and attracted the attention
of the babies.
3. When many babies started crying at the same time, teachers stopped the class and
turned the class into a music lesson with everyone singing.
Management of Komori-School
Some Komori-Schools (classes) were operated at elementary schools; others were
operated in other institutions. The management of each operation is explained below.
1. Implementation at elementary school
① A special class (Komori-class) was created and conducted in school during regular
school hours.
② A branch school of an elementary school was used as a Komori-School; full-time and
part-time schoolteachers were hired and assigned to teach at Komori-School.
③ Some classes were held in vacant classrooms after school or on Sundays. Classes
were taught by volunteer schoolteachers.
As an example, the Komori-School, in Nagano was operated as a special class in the
elementary school. In this Komori-School, students were taught with a special
curriculum, with shortened years and reduced school hours. In many cases, the classes
were open only two or three days in a week. Because of the shortage of classrooms, some
Komori-Schools held two shifts such as morning and afternoon classes. Since most of
the children could not buy textbooks, teachers did not use textbooks but employed
verbal instruction methods with the help of wall charts, etc.
The teachers in charge of the Komori-school received little or no pay. Because teachers
in those days were taught during their formal training to do their best to serve to their
nation and local community, they thought that it was natural to work hard for
non-regular schools such as Komori-Schools even with little pay or without pay.
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2. Implementation at independent institutions
Some Komori-Schools were established as independent institutions and facilities. Many
of these schools were run and funded by temple managers and local women's societies. A
separate building was built in a temple or a kindergarten, but not many were built
because a large amount of funds were required for construction. In this arrangement,
teachers employed by the founder or volunteer schoolteachers taught the classes.
Similar to the Komori-Schools established at regular schools, the teachers were paid in
some case, but often they were volunteers.
【Legal aspects】
From the legal point of view, Komori-School was established based on the Article 17 of
the Educational Order (revised in 1880). It is written: “Those who wish to offer general
education to school-aged children outside regular schools or on a mobile class must seek
permission from a district supervisor.” In addition, there was a regulation in Article 36
of the Elementary School Order: “One can offer subjects of elementary school in home or
other places with permission from the mayor of the city, town, or village.” These orders
were effective in establishing the Komori-School. Yet, there were times Komori-Schools
were established without such official legal regulations.
【Actors Interaction】
Approach
Budgetary support
Advice
Approach
Elementary school
Initiative
Principal Full-time teachers
Part-time teachers
Local community
School-aged
baby-sitter girls
and their parents
Independent institutions(such as temples)
Philanthropists
Community associations (women's societies)
Local educational administration
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【Preconditions】
Space to establish Komori-School
Educational administration motivated to raise school enrolment rate
The existence of philanthropists who were willing to offer personal assets to education
【Outcomes】
The Komori-School gave learning opportunities to children who could not attend regular
school because they were baby-sitters. The girl’s school attendance rate at the beginning
of the 20th century in Japan was overwhelmingly low. It was necessary to make special
arrangements for baby-sitter girls for them to be able to learn. By establishing
Komori-Schools, the girl’s attendance rate rose sharply.
【Impact】
The Komori-School rapidly spread all over Japan around 1900, and it lasted until about
1930s. When the difference in school attendance between boys and girls was obviously
out of balance, there was need for such special arrangements for girls as the
Komori-School. However, the necessity of the Komori-School disappeared as social
circumstances changed as follows: the number of baby-sitting children decreased; child
welfare policy developed; child-care institutions expanded.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
In needy families, there were cases where children were involved in housework and
other labor, and it was often difficult for them to take regular compulsory education.
This GP was successful because it carefully considered the living condition of children
and arranged educational opportunity to cater to their needs.
Constraints
Many of the Komori-Schools could not be established without the support of
philanthropists who had an understanding for education. Also, it was very difficult to
ensure the provision of teachers and classrooms for Komori-Schools. In some cases, the
number of classrooms became in a short supply due to student increases in regular
schools, resulting in the abolishment of Komori-Schools to give space.
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GP8 Mannen Elementary School
When Japan was aiming at universal elementary education across the country, poverty
was a big barrier to some children for attending school. There was an effort to try to
create an educational system that responded to children’s actual conditions in poverty
areas, while trying to offer opportunities to show a new, better world to the children.
【Issues】
Since the modern school system was introduced in 1872, Japan established a policy
aimed at universal access to elementary education. To raise the enrolment rate, the
national and local governments were required to urge children from the poor families to
attend school. In Tokyo at that time there were several areas where the poor lived as
well as three areas of extreme poverty, where low-income households were concentrated.
In the latter half of the nineteenth century when the modernization began, the poor
from across the country gathered and settled in these areas. Additionally, when
modernization progressed with the rapid advancement of capitalism, some people fell
behind in the society. The government of those days had the challenges of raising the
enrolment rate by urging the poor to be enrolled in school and having Japan develop as
a modern state.
【Implementation】
*In 1902, the Emperor Meiji donated money to pay the educational expenses of the
local government in Tokyo in commemoration of the Crown Prince’s engagement. The
local government in Tokyo established five elementary schools for the poor with the
imperial donation. In the end, a total of 11 such schools were established. In 1903, the
first school was established in the three areas of extreme poverty and the second school
was built in the moderately poor area. One of the schools was built in Mannen-town, so
it was named “Mannen elementary school” by the first principal, Ryunosuke Sakamoto.
Mr. Sakamoto did his best to offer proper education to the poor children. He avoided
Children did not attend school because of poverty.
Issues
The poor children could go to school.
Mannen
Elementary School
GP Outcomes
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using the name "special elementary school" even though this school had a special
character. The school was named after the place just like ordinary public schools. This
was because he wanted the students in this school to feel just like the students in
regular schools.
Preparation
Since Mannen elementary school was established in a poor area, they had to find
children who were at school age in the poor community. The first principal, Mr.
Sakamoto, visited every house to look for children who should be enrolled. If he found a
child who was not in school, he asked his/her parents the reason.
The reasons why parents did not let their children come to school were investigated.
The reasons were as follows: 1) if the children go to school, family income will decrease
and living expenses will increase; 2) education was considered to be unnecessary; 3)
anxiety over free-tuition (anxiety that something else might be demanded); 4) some
children were not on the family register; 5) fear of being kidnapped; 6) There were many
illegitimate children.
Based on his research, Mr. Sakamoto persuaded parents to allow their children to be
enrolled in his school. He encouraged the children to come to school and tried to provide
them with an education that responded to their actual conditions.
Contents of education and techniques
1. To know a new and better world
Since children did not know the world outside of their own poor communities, teaching
about other worlds and societies was the first priority. The reason was because it was
believed that the children had the right to choose their own life after having received an
education, and not remain poor forever. Therefore it was necessary to learn about
alternative worlds. This idea was the basis for teaching all the subjects.
For example, poor households did not have things which were generally seen in the
houses of the middle class. When the word “kettle” was used in a Japanese language
class, the children did not know what it was. So daily objects such as “lid, bottom,
handle of the kettle” were taught using real things. In addition, specimens, wall charts,
and toys were used to teach. In this way, the children could have concrete images of the
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objects that teachers explained in classes. The children were also brought to other
towns on a train to have a real experience in the world outside poverty.
2. Education which responded to children’s actual conditions
Home visits were undertaken by the principal and teachers of Mannen elementary
school and the children’s actual conditions were investigated. Consequently, the school
was able to provide an education that responded to the children’s actual conditions. The
specific activities are mentioned here below.
① Many of the children were contributing to income. Compared to other children,
children who worked were considered healthy and disciplined, so teachers had
children do baby- sitting, newspaper delivery, sorting out chip waste, bookbinding,
and cigarette rolling at school. A special handicraft course was established to
produce ceramic toys. The income through these works was paid to children as a
salary.
② Some of the teachers utilized their own abilities to teach children various skills. For
example, there was a teacher, who was from a good family and she learned lace
making when she was young so she taught it to children. This was regarded as one
subject at school.
③ A bath and haircutting facilities were established in the school and this contributed
to improve the living conditions. All the expenses were charged to the Tokyo local
government.
④ In regular elementary schools, children came to school with a lunch box, having
classes in the morning and afternoon. In Mannen elementary school, however, two
separate sessions in the morning and in the afternoon were held for children who
could not bring lunch.
⑤ Regular night schools were established for children who could not come to school
during the daytime. A special night course was established for those who wanted to
learn regardless of their age.
⑥ A special class for children who could not be enrolled in classes of their own age and
needed support in their studies.
⑦ The duration of compulsory education was extended in 1907. Evening class was
opened for the senior students who needed to work during the daytime.
⑧ In order to strengthen teachers’ supervision and support, teachers decided to reside
in the school, so that they could give close attention to the children for 24 hours.
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【Legal aspects】
From the legal point of view, the mannen elementary school was established under the
Elementary School Order that the government established. As for its operation,
Mannen elementary school was under the supervision of the local government of Tokyo.
The tuition was free of charge, and the textbooks were rented.
【Actors Interaction】
Approach
Budgetary support
【Preconditions】
Infrastructure to work on income generation at school.
Support from local administration
【Outcomes】
The opportunity to attend school was given to the children of the poor families who had
no chances to attend school. Above all, the ideal of compulsory education was
transformed from a forced duty to a child’s right for education through the efforts of Mr.
Sakamoto. This also brought a drastic change to the thinking of the government.
【Impact】
Mr. Sakamoto served as a principal and led the Mannen elementary school until 1921.
People from all over the country visited the school to learn from their experience. The
efforts of Mannen elementary school lasted until 1932. Mr. Sakamoto thought that
School
Leadership
Principal Teachers
Administrative
staff
Local communities
Parents
Children
Youths
Local educational
administration
Offering opinions
to government
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50
these schools which cater to the poor community should not last long, so he was
determined to close the school within 30 years. In the end, the poverty in Japan in those
days that created the need to establish a special elementary school was improved, and
the Mannen elementary school was eventually transferred to another ward and was
renamed Ueno elementary school.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
By showing a new and better world to children, the possibilities in life and importance
of having a dream was taught to the poor children. This served as strong motivation for
learning. In addition, the content of the education and the teaching methods were based
on the children’s actual conditions.
Constraints
Parent’s lack of understanding towards education and the situation of child labor could
become constraints.
【Application of GP8 Mannen Elementary School】
In Ghana, there are women who have emigrated from the northern area and settled in
the suburb of Cape Coast, in the southern region along the coast. The women are very
poor and produce palm kernel oil for their living. Most of these women have never been
to school. Some of them have been divorced and have to support their families by
themselves. Their children are often out of school.
The Center of Research in Improving Quality of Primary Education in Ghana
(CRIQPEG) of Cape Coast University has been interested in supporting this woman’s
group. CRIQPEG studied Japanese GPs and was inspired by the initiative of Mr.
Sakamoto to try to provide education for the poor. In particular, CRIQPEG took interest
in the way Mr. Sakamoto prepared for his realization of Mannen Elementary School.
Just as Mr. Sakamoto did, a team of CRIQPEG researchers visited the women to try to
understand their living condition and their view on education. Reasons cited by most
women for not sending their children to school are identical to those remarked by
families visited by Mr. Sakamoto: 1) if the children go to school, their income will
decrease and living expenses will increase; 2) education was considered to be
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unnecessary. Following this research, the CRIQPEG team visits the women once a
month and encourages them to send their children to school by explaining the benefits
of education. Initially, the women repeated their remark “we need money,” but have
begun to understand that education is a key to getting out of poverty.
There are of course different conditions between Japan and Ghana that make it difficult
to apply the GP of Mannen Elementary School as it is to the local context in Ghana. For
example, in Ghana, many teachers leave schools for other work in the afternoon making
it rather difficult to organize evening classes or stay with the children all the time. Also,
teachers capable of providing vocational training are hard to find. The diversity of
languages is another issue. Those girls who immigrated from the north speak a
different local language from the language spoken in Cape Coast, thus making it hard
to adjust to the school life. CRIQPEG intends to plan arrangements to provide
education to the immigrant children and women, taking into consideration their living
conditions and needs. This approach is precisely the same as that taken by Mr.
Sakamoto.
CRIQPEG views its role as not just a research center but an active outreach
organization. In cities like Cape Coast, teachers come from afar. The teachers may not
feel a strong sense of attachment to the communities where they work. They may not
actively seek out-of-school children and encourage them to come to school. CRIQPEG
wants to be engaged in Education for All as a vital actor filling in gaps not fully
addressed by schools and administrations such as the women group from the north.
A QRIQPEG staff investigating the living
condition of women immigrants from the
north
A CRIQPEG staff discussing roles of
education with the women’s group
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GP9 Adult Literacy Class
In the 1920’s, the enrolment rate for compulsory education in Japan was nearly 100%.
The people who were socially discriminated against called “Burakumin” (“Buraku”
literally means “village” and “min” means the people), however, had difficulties in
attending school for a long time because of poverty and discrimination at school. An
education program for children and adults that addressed this problem started around
1960.
【Issues】
It is believed that almost all Japanese people learned to read and write when Japan
achieved nearly 100% enrolment for primary school education. Yet, it was a different
story for people called “Burakumin.” Burakumin refer to those people from
discriminated communities that were formed in the pre-modern Japan era. Even
though there is no legal discrimination now, various kinds of discrimination still exist.
In the past, there were many Burakumin who could not get jobs to make a living and
were reduced to poverty. Therefore, there were many cases where people could not pay
the expense to educate their children or they could not have their children attend school
because they needed them to work. In addition, some children bullied the children of
Buraku at school. Even some teachers used discriminatory language and gave
discriminatory treatment. For example; a Burakumin student was pushed to the back of
the line when students waited for their turn to drink water. When he complained to
his teacher about it, the teacher said that he could not help because he was Burakumin.
There were many children from Buraku communities who could not attend school
because of such treatment.
Because of such discrimination many people could not receive regular compulsory
education in discriminated communities. Even though many Buraku children started
Difficulties in attending
school because of social
discrimination
Issues
・Adult literacy improved.
・Awareness about social
discrimination enhanced.
・Understanding of the education
for children deepened.
Adult
Literacy
Class
GP Outcomes
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going to school with democratization of education after World War II, their parents had
problems because they could not read documents from the school to inform them what
to do. Around 1960s, there were still many illiterate people in these discriminated
communities (more than 80% in one area).
【Implementation】
*Literacy classes for adults in Buraku were operated in Fukuoka Prefecture. These
classes were called “Frontier School”. This expression comes from the feeling of the
operators and teachers who wanted them to overcome their struggle to become literates.
This “Frontier School” was the first literacy class for the discriminated communities.
Most people with illiteracy in Buraku were women, thus many learners who came to the
classes were women.
For learners, literacy classes became learning places not only for reading and writing
but also for learning about social discrimination, which was the very reason why they
could not read and write in the first place. They also learned about activities to promote
the Buraku liberation.
Location
Schools and public facilities available for the poor communities were used for literacy
classes.
Educational Philosophy
The education to promote Buraku liberation is called "Dowa education". "Dowa" consists
of two characters of “Do” and "Wa". The former means "equal" and the latter means
"harmony". Therefore, the expression "Dowa" implies the ideal "everyone is equal." An
adult literacy education that began as a part of Dowa education in Fukuoka had the
following two ideals:
1. Making Burakumin become literate is the basis to promote Buraku liberation
movement.
2. Buraku adults becoming literate guarantees the academic achievement of children
who are at school.
Content of education and techniques
In the literacy classes for Buraku people, they learned not only reading and writing but
also the reasons why they could not read and write (the social problems of
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54
discrimination against outcast people and its history). They learned that reading and
writing could lead to their own liberation. Thus, learning about the liberation
movement was an integral part of their study. The education technique, in the case of
Fukuoka, was that in the beginner's class, reading and writing were mainly taught. In
the intermediate class, educational materials on the liberation movement were used.
School teachers
In the areas where there were Buraku communities, teachers to assist children who had
difficulty in attending school were deployed at school. In Fukuoka, an organization
called "the Dowa Educators-Association" was formed with the support of the prefecture.
Teachers conducted training where they shared their practices of the Dowa education
with their fellow teachers.
【Legal aspects】
Literacy class had no specific legal status. It was regarded as a voluntary education
activity of teachers who wanted to promote Dowa education.
【Actors Interaction】
Approach
Approach (Request for support)
【Preconditions】
Space to establish adult literacy classroom
Learners’ interest in education
【Outcomes】
Adult literacy classes enhanced greater learning effectiveness by teaching reading and
Literacy class
Teachers who promote Dowa education
(Deployed in every school in ward)
Discriminated
communities
Adult illiterates
(Especially women)
Local educational
administration
Budgetary support (teacher allowance –
books, stationeries etc.
Provide facilities
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55
writing as well as discrimination issues to illiterate people. Presently, there are few
illiterate Burakumin. The adult literacy class has indeed increased parents’ interests in
and understanding of the education process of their children and helped the
establishment of the relationship between parents and the teachers.
【Impact】
Adult literacy classes that began as a part of Dowa education in Fukuoka spread out
afterwards in Buraku communities in the prefecture. Teachers who promoted Dowa
education all over the prefecture performed literacy classes in every district. At present,
the number of people who need to learn reading and writing has decreased, but
seminars to learn about discrimination against Burakumin have continued around the
country. The literacy classes gradually became places for people to understand and
become aware of the fact that they were once illiterate, that they had economic
problems and they had difficulties with job opportunities, and their children did not
have good academic achievements all due to discrimination against Burakumim. The
literacy classes also got them to think about what they should do to eliminate
discrimination. The literacy classes came to be regarded as means to free themselves
from discrimination.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
In adult literacy classes, success was not only due to the teaching of reading and writing
but also to the sharing of consciousness between learners and their teachers, who
promoted Dowa Education, that the illiteracy was caused by discrimination. This factor
enhanced the teachers’ eagerness for teaching and the learners’ eagerness for literacy
learning.
Constraints
When literacy classes were started, there was a social acceptance of Dowa education.
However, because there are only few illiterate people from the Buraku communities now,
some object to providing special financial support for Burakumin. They also object that
teachers are involved with Dowa educational affairs.
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GP10 School Lunch
In the present day, school lunch is supplied in many elementary and junior high schools
in Japan. Providing school lunch was originally started in Yamagata Prefecture so that
children who were suffering from hunger could come to school.
【Issues】
Based on the modern school education system of Japan, school teaching began in the
morning and lasted until the afternoon. So the parents prepared a lunch box and
children brought it and ate lunch during the noon break. However, poor children who
could not bring lunch could only observe their classmates eating lunch. Subsequently,
they stopped coming to school.
【Implementation】
*School lunch was first provided at a private elementary school in Tsuruoka City,
Yamagata Prefecture in 1888. In the beginning, the lunch was simply rice balls, grilled
fish and pickles. The aim of the school lunch was to increase the enrollment by
providing lunch at school especially to those from the poor families. This school was
located inside the compound of a Buddhist Temple called Daitokuji. The monk visited
all the houses in the village and chanted the sutra in order to collect money and food to
be used for school lunch.
【Legal aspects】
School lunch began in Yamagata and then became widespread throughout Japan. The
school initiated this project in cooperation with the community. In 1954, the National
School Lunch Act was established where the national government demanded the local
governments to provide lunch for compulsory education.
As a result, the system was created to allocate government budget funds that enabled
Children could not come to
school because of hunger.
Issues
・Increased school enrolment
・Improved Children’s health
School Lunch
GP Outcomes
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57
the schools to provide lunch at low cost. In addition, a public corporation called the
School Lunch Association was established all over the country to consistently provide
inexpensive and safe food.
【Actors Interaction】(School in Yamagata)
Providing funds Donation
Alms giving
【Preconditions】
Facilities to prepare lunch at school
Groups, such as religious organizations, private sectors, NGOs and public institutions
who are willing to provide funds
【Outcomes】
Children, who faced hunger every day, started to come to the school. The health
condition of the children has improved by providing nutritious food at school lunch.
【Impact】
School lunch began in Yamagata before World War II and it became widespread
throughout Japan. After the War, free compulsory education was introduced. Providing
school lunch became important to ensure that every child could receive education.
During that time, the devastation brought by the War resulted in food shortages all over
the country. Only a few schools could provide school lunch and even if they could, the
food was not nutritious. Supplies, such as milk and flour, were sold by the U.S.
Occupation Forces and nutrition was secured by providing children with these supplies.
School lunch has never been free of charge, but provided with very low cost subsidized
School
Initiative
Principal Preparation for
school lunch by
the cooperation of
teachers and
students
Local
community
Parents
Children
Local residents
Temples
Priests
Understanding of
significance of school
lunch
Promotion of
school enrolment
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58
by the government. Today, school lunch provides opportunities to learn about nutrition,
manners at meals, and food distribution and production systems as part of the
education.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
One of the factors for the initial success of school lunch is the existence of the groups (e.g.
temple in Yamagata) that understood the significance of the role of education, were
concerned with children’s health and were committed to provide long-term financial
assistance to sustain this project.
Constraints
Preparations for school lunch may force an excessive burden on school staff. It is
necessary to mobilize human resources and prepare the facilities which can supply
school lunch.
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GP11 Okayama Orphanage
During the Meiji period (1868-1912), modernization began. Japanese society was poor
then and there were many orphans. In order to deal with this situation, a children's
orphanage that offered education was founded in Okayama. This experience was useful
when disasters like the Nobi Earthquake left many children orphans as well.
【Issues】
Even when modernization was in progress, help for orphans was slow in Japan. There
was no system established to protect them and it was difficult for them to go to school
because of discrimination. Mr. Juiji Ishii, a medical student who later founded
Okayama orphanage, thought that if orphans grew up without parents, there was a
high possibility that they might become criminals. Besides the harm to the welfare of
the orphans themselves, this would cause possible future economic loss for the society.
【Implementation】
* Mr. Juji Ishii, a medical student from Miyazaki Prefecture heard a lecture by a British
orphanage director and was deeply moved. Afterward, he quit the academy of medicine
and founded an orphanage. He thought it was important to protect the orphans and
raise them starting from an early age. He rented a temple, where he sheltered and
educated them.
Protection of orphans
Since the children had no families, a system was set up. Mr. Ishii made groups of about
10 children and assigned caregivers to take care of them, just like the family. Mr. Ishii
also looked for parents who wanted to adopt children or to be foster parents.
Orphans brought about
by poverty and disasters
did not receive education.
Issues
・Orphans were protected.
・Orphans received education.
・Orphans became independent
Okayama
Orphanage
GP Outcomes
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Funding
Mr. Ishii organized an orphan association, invited people to join and pay for the
membership to run the orphanage. Initially, many sponsors were from the local area. He
also asked voluntary helpers throughout Japan for donations to cover expenses of the
orphanage. In addition, he received support from the powerful Ohara finance group.
While Ohara was in Okayama, he got acquainted with Mr. Ishii and was impressed with
his work. He became interested in social work. In this way, Ishii talked many
individuals into supporting this project and many did so.
Management
At the beginning, children were sent to a nearby elementary school. However, since they
were bullied because they were orphans, a private elementary school was founded in the
orphanage and the children were educated there. Workshops for printing, weaving, rice
milling and blacksmithing were set up in the orphanage. The children acquired
professional skills, and earned cash for the orphanage by operating their activities. A
musical band by orphans was organized and donations were collected. Administrative
costs including personnel expenses were covered by contributions.
【Legal aspects】
Until "the relief law" was established in 1932, the operation of children's orphanages,
which began with Okayama orphanage, did not receive legal protection and support.
Until then, children's orphanages had been administered by individuals and relied on
their own income and private companies’ good will for funds.
【Actors Interaction】
Approach
Cooperation
Financial support
Orphanage
Local community
Orphan associations
Benefactors
Financial groups
Orphan
association
Foster
parents
Orphans
Teachers at elementary school
Children's caregivers
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【Preconditions】
Benefactors who are interested in supporting the protection of orphans
【Outcomes】
Children who became orphans because of poverty and disasters were able to receive
education in a stable environment. The vocational training helped them to become
independent when they grew up.
【Impact】
After Mr. Ishii founded the children's orphanage in Okayama, he helped open children's
orphanages throughout Japan. When the Nobi Earthquake occurred in Aichi and Gifu
in 1891, many children lost their parents. Mr. Ishii took in over 1,000 of these children
and offered them education.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
The success factors were as follows: managers of children's orphanages organized
“orphan associations” to secure financial source, while seeking individual sponsors who
understood the significance of children's orphanages and supported them.
Constraints
The administration of the Okayama orphanage depended on Mr. Ishii completely. Once
Mr. Ishii died, the orphanage had to close. If the project depends entirely on one person,
it may not be sustainable.
Vocational workshop at Okayama Orphanage3
3 The story of Okayama Orphanage, Sanyo Shinbunsha (2002): a photo provided by Ishii Kinen Yuaisha
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GP12 Secondary Night Schools
In Japan in the postwar period, compulsory education was extended to junior high
school (grade 7-9). However, there were children who could not go to school because of
various reasons arising from poverty. Responding to this situation, secondary night
school was implemented for the youth who could not go to junior high school during
daytime.
【Issues】
In 1947, the School Education Act was enacted and compulsory education was extended
from 6 years to 9 years. However, due to the devastation of World War II, the number of
students who were long-term absent from school increased, especially in junior high
schools (grades 6-9), because of poverty.
【Implementation】
* In 1949, Kobe-City started secondary night school for students who could not
complete their junior high education because of long-term absence from school. This was
the beginning of secondary night school. Secondary night schools provided opportunities
to people who could not receive compulsory education in the postwar period. It was easy
for them to attend secondary night school since they engaged in work or did their daily
housework during the day.
The secondary night school aimed to teach the courses of compulsory education, using
school buildings or the facilities of the existing junior high schools. However, many of
the people who did not finish compulsory education had not taken even primary
education, so they had to first start by learning reading and writing. There were also
classes for foreigners which taught Japanese language. Of course, extra-curricular
Young people could not go to junior high school because they worked during daytime.
Issues
・ Young people could go to secondary night school while working during daytime. ・Increase in the enrollment rate of secondary schools.
Secondary Night Schools
GP Outcomes
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activities and school excursions aside from regular school subjects were conducted as
well just as at regular schools. In the beginning, teachers taught as volunteers, but
before long, authorized teachers were assigned.
Current secondary night school
There are also secondary night schools in present day Japan. In recent years. this
includes various groups: Koreans living in Japan for a long time who do not have
Japanese literacy; Chinese returnee children and their families; and foreigners who
recently came to Japan. There is also an increase in children who are not enrolled owing
to being truant. Aside from secondary night schools, there are literacy night classes
which both young and adult students can attend. Since the literacy classes are meant to
acquire reading and writing skills, they are not considered to be part of regular school
education. Literacy classes are run by volunteers and there is no need of graduation. On
the other hand, authorized teachers are necessary for secondary night schools and
graduation certificate will be given.
Learners at the current secondary night schools
1. Returnee children
After World War II, when Japanese evacuated from war-torn China and returned to
Japan, they asked Chinese families to look after their children. After normalization of
Japan-China diplomatic relations in 1972, the children began to return to Japan to look
for their parents. When the children retuned to Japan, their family members often came
with them, so they needed to learn Japanese to make a living in Japan.
2. Koreans living in Japan
The Korean Peninsula was colonized by Japan from 1910 to 1945 and many Koreans
were forced or semi-forced to work or to live in Japan. After the war, many Koreans
returned to the independent South and North Korea, but some could not return and had
to stay in Japan. Since when they decided to become permanent residents in Japan, the
demand to acquire Japanese literacy skills increased.
3. Truant students
Since the 1970s, children who could not adapt themselves to Japanese school education
increased. At first, they were flatly called “students who refuse to attend schools”, but
now the simpler and inclusive term, “truant student” is used to recognize the complexity
of reasons why children do not come to school. One out of 36 students at school is a
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truant student (about one student per class) and some of them became students at
secondary night school.
【Legal aspects】
Since the law prohibited the implementation of compulsory education at night,
“secondary night school” was implemented as an exceptional case. In fact, there was a
time when central and local governments tried to abolish secondary night school.
However, in the end the governments had to acknowledge the continued demands from
the society for secondary night school and came to support it.
【Actors Interaction】
Demand to establish
secondary night school
Budgetary support
【Preconditions】
Security for implementation of school at night
Understanding and support of local educational administrative bodies
【Outcomes】
Secondary night schools, which began in Kobe, incorporated various learners who could
not complete compulsory education. By completing secondary education, learners could
find more jobs and their lives were improved. Learners who finished compulsory
education could master skills to make a basic living.
Secondary night school
Guidance and
supervision
Principal Teachers of
secondary
night school
Local community
People who did not
graduate from junior
high school.
(No age limit)
Local educational
administration
Encouragement
to come to school
Initiative
Budgetary support
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【Impact】
Secondary night schools began as an exceptional case in the beginning, but then they
spread through the whole country. Before long, the need for schools spread to adults
who were not able to finish compulsory education. In the 1960s based on a general rule
that compulsory education should be provided during daytime, the Ministry of
Education aimed to abolish secondary night schools. In response, graduates and
teachers of the secondary night schools urged local education authorities and the
Ministry of Education to continue to support secondary night schools. As a result, the
administrations began to allow or support the schools. Also, the necessity of the school
was recognized by the new needs from Chinese returnee children and their families,
increased foreign workers, Koreans living in Japan, and children not enrolled owing to
being truant. Subsequently, the secondary night schools were established in Tokyo,
Osaka, Kyoto, Kanagawa, Hyogo, Chiba, Nara and Hiroshima.
【Lessons learned】
Keys to success
Secondary night schools responded to the motivation of learners who wanted to
complete secondary compulsory education. Although classes were opened at night, the
learners had high motivation and the schools also played a role in bringing solidarity
with people who were in the same situation.
Constraints
Not having legal basis and having little support from the local governments sometimes
made the management of secondary night schools difficult.