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Statues quo analysis, Characterization and Assessment of Performanceof Irrigation in Ethiopia
Seleshi B. Awulachew and Aster Denekew YilmaInternational Water Management Institute for Nile Basin and East Africa
Abstract
This paper first looks in to the backgroundon major challenges of Ethiopia with respectto poverty. It discuses the root cause of
poverty and its vicious cycle nature, theinterlink of population growth, the scarcityof land and natural resources, the extensionof agriculture in to marginal land, thedecreasing productivity, inability to investand deepening of poverty and furtheraggravation as a result of various shockssuch as drought, flood, war, etc. The paperalso looks in to the importance of the broadagricultural water management in generaland irrigation in particular with respect toincreasing productivity and capability to
break the vicious cycle and opportunity toreverse in to virtuous cycle that can helperadicate poverty and develop the pooreconomy. The paper also looks in to how
poor management of water resources andimpacts of variability of rainfall and relateddrought affecting the socio-economy and theoverall wellbeing of the country to theextent that significant population becamedependent on imported food. Results of
broad assessment of water resources,database of irrigation development and
potential, characterization by typology andmajor performance in Ethiopia are
presented. Key water resources informationrelated to each of the 12 river basins inEthiopia is summarized. Details of existingirrigation and future potential are alsocaptured in the paper. A geographicinformation system (GIS) databasedescribing irrigation by typology, region andlocation, scheme size, type of structures,water source, number of beneficiaries,
investment cost, etc, are some of theimportant attributes of the database. Inaddition, schemes that are operational andfailed are identified in the database. Basedon the broad database, performances of theschemes are highlighted. Furthermore, thevarious sites that are used in the detail studyand the selection criteria for the impact ofirrigation on poverty and environment
project and the specific characteristics ofthese sites are described.
Key words: poverty, water scarcity,database, GIS, irrigation, water resources.
1. Introduction
Ethiopia is mainly agrarian nation and therainfed system has always played a centralrole in Ethiopian society. Dependency onrainfed system has put more than 80% of thesociety at the mercy of meteorologicalvariability.
Ethiopia's agricultural population
76
78
80
82
84
86
88
90
1 97 9 -19 81 19 89 -19 9 1 19 99 -20 01 2 00 3 2 00 4
Year
P e r c e n t a g e
o f
p o p u l a t i o n
Figure 1: Ethiopias agricultural population(data extracted from the World BankDevelopment Indicator WB 2006b)
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Figure 1, shows the dependency ofEthiopian population on agriculture and in25 years the agricultural population reducedonly from 89% to 81%. Agriculture inEthiopia is dominated by small holder
production of cereals under rainfedcondition, accounting a total area ofapproximately 10 million hectares.According to Central Statistics Authority[CSA, 1995-1999], within agriculture, some60 percent of the output is from crops, withlivestock and forestry producing 30 percentand 7 percent respectively. Crop production
by area is predominantly cereals (84.55 percent) followed by pulses (11.13 percent)and others (4.32 percent). Five cropsaccount for almost all cereal production:maize (15.75 percent), teff ( Eragrostis tef )
(25.78 percent), barley (12.29 percent),sorghum (12.39 percent) and wheat (10.76
percent). According to Mulat et al (Mulat etal 2004), agriculture remains the mainactivity in the Ethiopian economy. It is themost important contributor to the countrysGDP: accounted, on the average, 65.5%,52.7% and 47.1% of the GDP during 1960-1973, 1974-1991 and 1992-2002,respectively.
Despite the above mentioned facts, there are
a number of factors that led to failure ofachieving food security in Ethiopia. Themajor causes for food insecurity in Ethiopiacan be associated to the following:- Population growth and associated
inadequate resource base to support- Lack of growth of production and
productivity- Vulnerability to climatic variability- Political instabilities and war- and poverty
The main development objective of theEthiopian Government is povertyeradication. Hence, the country'sdevelopment policies and strategies aregeared towards this end (MOFED: PASDEP2006). As Ethiopias economy and majorityof peoples livelihood is dependent onAgriculture, to develop the socio-economy
of Ethiopia and eradicate poverty, the policyand interventions should focus onAgriculture as entry point. The current ruraldevelopment policy and strategy of thegovernment clearly stipulates this as
priority.
Building further on the above factors, the poverty situation in Ethiopia is a viciouscycle in nature and requires key entry pointsfor intervention. The following figure is aschematic example showing poverty islinked to and aggravated by variousdemographic, biophysical, productionsystem, productivity and other socio-economic factors.
Figure 2: The vicious cycle of poverty andaggravating factors in Ethiopia
Socioeconomic development andcivilization of human being is closelyassociated to ability to utilize and controlwater resources. Water serves as a positiveinput for many activities and play negativeroles. Positively, it serves essential
biological needs, as basic element of socialand economic infrastructure, and as a naturalamenity contributing psychological welfare.Water also serves in negative roles such asflooding and diseases transmission. InEthiopia, as in all societies, there has always
been a struggle to reduce thenegative/destructive impacts of water and
Populationgrowth
Inability toinvest to
or improveland
productivity
Poor health,malnutrition
Deepening poverty
Poor productivity,food insecurity
Agriculture pushed in tomarginal land
Deforestation,land & waterdegradation
Scarcity of landin thesettlement areas
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enhance its positive/productive impacts, butwith limited focus and capacity. Theseefforts have been increased since the pastthree to four decades and more so during thelast few years. However, the ability to useand enhance the positive role of water and toreduce its negative impacts, in Ethiopia ingeneral has been low.
2. The Importance of Agricultural WaterManagement and Irrigation in Ethiopia
It is essential to increase agricultural productivity in order to eradicate poverty,improve the economy, and reducedegradation. Irrigation and improvedagricultural water management practice isimportant in Ethiopia for the following
major reasons:- Population in Ethiopia is rapidly
increasing (over 80,000,000 currently),land holding size particularly inhighland areas is decreasingsubstantially. Intensification andincreasing productivity of land andlabour is essential to produce enoughfood, particularly from the limitedavailable land.
- Agriculture is primarily rain feddependent. Unless the rain fed system is
upgraded through improved watermanagement, recurrent drought and dryspell continue to affect productivity andhamper agricultural production
- Ethiopias economy is stronglydependent on rain fed based agriculture,and rainfall variability impact costs theeconomy significantly. Therefore, unlessagriculture is de-linked from the strong
linkage to rainfall variability, theeconomy of the country will continue to
be severely affected. Particularly, thiscould be more severe under the strongimpact of climate change andvariability. WB (2006) and IWMI(2007) describe the impact of costs1/3rd of growth potential of Ethiopianeconomy. The impact of this can beshown from the recent information.According to MOFED (MoFED 2006),GDP Growth of Ethiopia in 2002/3 was-3.3% during the drought year while the
previous and latter years were positive.In 2004/5, GDP growth was 11.9% and2005/6 was 10.6%, which brings thethree year average down to 6.4%.
- Improved agricultural watermanagement and irrigation can increase
productivity of land, water and labor.The following figure based on CentralStatistical Authority data and Mulat et al(2004) shows the crop productivity and
productivity growth for the period of thelast two decades for major crops inEthiopia. However, recent data of2004/5 onwards and predicted
productivity data according to MOFED(2006) shows there has been increase in
productivity of cereals. The increase is
mainly attributed to increased input use(seed, fertilizers, and pesticides) andimproved water management foragriculture in certain areas. The strategyto achieve the future targeted resultfocuses to use intensification (irrigation,vertisol management, seed, fertilizer,
pest control) and expansion.
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Cereal Yields in Ethiopia (1980-2001)
0
0.2
0.4
0.60.8
1
1.2
1.4
1.6
1980 1983 1986 1989 1992 1995 1998 2001
Year
Y i e l d i n t o n
/ h a
Cereal Yield t/ha
Pulses yield in t/ha
Oilseed Yield t/ha)
Figure 3: Crop yield in Ethiopia for the period of 1980-2001 (Data source: Mulat 2004)
Productivity (Q/ha) plan
14.35
20 .0322 .91
25 .85
31.5734 .84
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
2 0 0 4 / 0 5 2 0 0 5 / 0 6 2 0 0 6 / 0 7 2 0 0 7 / 0 8 2 0 0 8 / 0 9 2 0 0 9 / 10
Year
Figure 4: Cereal productivity and productivity Plan of Ethiopia (Data source: MOFED, PASDEP2006)
- Contrary to the first bullet above, there areconsiderable land and water resources invarious relatively remote parts of thecountry. The constraining factors fordevelopment however are low infrastructurethat includes accessibility such as roads, and
communication; unregulated waterresources; no settled people to develop theresources; lack of capital; and lack ofknowledge and capacity. Improving on thesecan enhance development of these resources.Particularly, the irrigation developmentthrough improved infrastructure is an
important measure that may be pursued inEthiopia to cope with complex problems
leading to poverty and insufficient food production
The major sources of growth for Ethiopia isstill conceived to be the agriculture sector,as it is expected to be insulated from droughtshocks through enhanced utilization of thewater resource potential of the country(through development of small scaleirrigation, water harvesting, and on-farmdiversification), coupled with strengthenedlinkages between agriculture and industry
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(agro-industry), thereby creating demand foragricultural output (MOFED 2006).
Irrigation development, including large andmedium scale irrigation development, as
public schemes, commercial farming and for
small holders are getting importance underthe current government, particularly since2004.
3. Irrigation Status in Ethiopia
3.1 History
There is no documented history of watermanagement for agriculture. Remnants ofmillennium old water storage structures fornon-agricultural use around Axum in Tigray
show the oldest usage of water in acontrolled manner. Certain, non-irrigationrelated technologies to conserve water andsoil have been practiced by Konso people inthe South, at least for the last four hundredyears. However, there is no well-documented resource material on water usefor irrigation in Ethiopia. Modern irrigationdevelopment in Ethiopia is not havingcenturies old history. There is no writtenhistory on how Ethiopia has used irrigationtechnologies to secure agricultural
production, as the vast country with small population had adequate natural resources base and rainfall to produce the foodrequirements without the need to developirrigation.
Private concessionaires who operated farmsfor growing commercial crops such ascotton, sugarcane and horticultural cropsstarted the first formal irrigation schemes inthe 1950s in the upper and lower AwashValley. In the 1960s irrigated agriculture
was expanded in all parts of the AwashValley and in the Lower Rift Valley. TheAwash valley saw the biggest expansion inview of the water regulation afforded by theconstruction of the Koka dam and reservoirthat regulated flows with benefits of floodcontrol, hydropower and assured irrigationwater supply. In addition, the construction of
the tarmac Addis-Assab road opened theAwash Valley to ready markets in thehinterland as well as for export (Metaferia,2004). Although certain aspects of thedevelopment during the pre-Derge era havewrong doings in terms of property and landrights, there has been remarkable emergenceof irrigation development and establishmentof agro industrial centers. Teshome (2003)has reviewed and discussed the land tenuresystem in the various regimes in Ethiopia.These establishments were highly motivated
private sectors, which are both export anddomestic market oriented.
During the Derge era, all private farms werenationalized to establish the so-called statefarms, thereby ending the embryonic privatesector. The government pursued thedevelopment of medium and large-scaleirrigation schemes in a number of river
basins in addition to expansion in the AwashValley. The Amibara Irrigation Project inthe Middle Awash, Alwero Irrigation Projectin Gambella, Gode-West Irrigation nearGode town, the Omorrate Irrigation schemein Southern Omo, the Tana Beles, theFincha Suger State, etc are some of theexpansions, most of which are suspendedcurrently.
Following the downfall of the Derge, thecurrent government withdrew from theexpansion of State Farms and furtherconstruction of medium and large-scaleirrigation (Metaferia, 2004). This has beenthe trend until the aftermath of the 2002/3severe drought that has caused about 15Million population under extreme foodshortage. Not only the government hesitatedto expand medium and large scale irrigation
but also it has interrupted finalization of the
above 5 major irrigation projects started inthe former regime. On the other hand, thegovernment indeed provided certainattention on small scale irrigation mostly inthe food insecure areas. Nevertheless, in thewater sector development program (WSDP)it was identified to expand large andmedium scale irrigation by about 147,000 ha
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and small scale irrigation by about 127,000ha. As strategy of developing irrigationsector, the plan of the government targets todevelop a total of additional 274,612 ha ofland which brings the total irrigated area ofabout 478,000 ha by 2015. Despite ignoringthe medium and large-scale sector for adecade long, recently after the developmentof the water sector development program,there is a growing attention to the irrigatedagricultural sector. The revised strategy even
plans to put more irrigated land in short period of time.
3.2 Water Resources, Irrigation Typologyand Existing Schemes
Ethiopia has 12 river basins. The total meanannual flow from all the 12 river basins isestimated at about 122 BMC (WRMP,1999); Figure 5 and Table 1 show the river
basins and distributions of water resourcesin various basins. The water resourcesdistribution shows slightly higher values asextracted from recent master plan studies.
Figure 5: Ethiopias River Basins
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Table 1: Water resources distribution by river basins of Ethiopia
River Basin Area (Km 2) Runoff (Bm 3)Estimated groundwater potential(Bm 3)
Tekeze 82,350 8.2 0.20Abbay 199,812 54.8 1.80
Baro-Akobo 75,912 23.6 0.280.13 Rech/yr
Omo-Ghibe 79,000 16.6 0.42(.10) Rech /yr
Rift Valley 52,739 5.6 0.10Mereb 5,900 0.65 0.05Afar /Denakil 74,002 0.86 -
Awash 112,696 4.9 0.14Aysha 2,223 - -Ogaden 77,121 - -Wabi-Shebelle* 202,697 3.16 0.07Genale-Dawa* 171,042 5.88 0.14
Total 1,135,494 124.25 2.86Source: IWMI Working paper 123 (Awulachew et. al, 2007)
In addition, Ethiopia has also 11 fresh and 9saline lakes, 4 crater lakes and over 12major swamps or wetlands. Majority of the
Lakes are found in the Rift Valley Basin.For details refer Awulachew et al (2007).The total surface area of these natural andartificial lakes in Ethiopia is about 7,500km2, representing about 0.67% of area ofEthiopia. Most of the lakes except Ziway,Tana, Langano, Abaya and Chamo have nosurface water outlets, i.e. they are endhoric.Lakes Shala and Abiyata haveconcentrations of chemicals.
3.2 Irrigation Typology
The irrigation schemes in Ethiopia aredivided according to the following typology:
o Small scale: These are schemes lessthan 200ha. Two major categoriesunder this are modern schemeswhich usually have fixed orimproved water control/diversionstructures and water users
associations that have by laws andtraditional schemes developed andmanaged by community tradition
and usually characterized by nonfixed structures and practicedtraditionally.
o Medium scale: Schemes exceeding200ha but less than 3,000ha
o Large scale: schemes exceeding3,000ha
The latter two are mostly public schemes,owned and managed by the government, andin certain cases by large communities.
There are also irrigation typologies that arenot clearly captured in policy and strategydocuments. These are
o Water harvesting based irrigation;e.g. Household based minuteirrigation;
o Ground water irrigation;o In-situ Agricultural Water
Management.
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3.3 Existing Irrigation Schemes
One of the objectives of impact of irrigationon poverty and environment project is todevelop GIS database of irrigation schemesto understand the spatial distributions andtheir characteristics. Accordingly, a databasehave been developed for about 790 modernirrigation schemes having various attributessuch as name, administrative locations,georefenece, type of irrigation, typology,
etc. For details refer Awulachew et al(2007).
Based on this the following map is one ofthe products of the database, showingirrigation distribution in Ethiopia based onattribute of typology and regions. Note alsothat the map is not showing the complete listof the irrigation schemes, as some of thegeo-referencing information is missing andthe map represents 107 schemes of completelarge and medium scale irrigation and somesmall-scale irrigation.
OROMIASOMALI
AFAR
AMHARA
TIGRAY
SOUTHERNREGION
GAMBELLA
BENISHANGUL-GUMUZ DIRE DAWA
HARARI ADDIS ABEBA
G e n a l e R i v e r
A w a s h
R i v e r
W a b e s h e b e l e R i v e r
A b b a y R i v e r
An g e r e b R i v e r
G i b e
R i v e r
T e k e z e R i v e r
B a r o R i v e r
A t b a r a R i v e r
G o j e b R i v e r
Irrigation Schemes
Large Scale
Medium Scale
Small Scale
Rivers
Lakes
0 330 660165Kilometers
Figure 6: Existing Irrigation schemes distributed in the regional states of Ethiopia
According to MOFED (2006), with respectto irrigation development, within the
program period of PASDEP 2004/2005 to2009/2010, pre-design studies will becarried out for 17,988 hectares, full-fledged
design studies will be undertaken on464,051 hectares, and construction workswill be completed for 430,061 hectares.Currently, actual implementation projects atTendaho and Kessem totaling about 90,000ha in the Awash Valley, 7,000ha Kogairrigation development in Blue Nile RiverBasin are actually near completion. There
are also many additional scale development projects under construction invested byregional governments, donors and NGOsand private sector.
3.4 Irrigation Potentials by River Basins
In Ethiopia, under the prevalent rain fedagricultural production system, the
progressive degradation of the naturalresource base, especially in highly
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vulnerable areas of the highlands coupledwith climate variability have aggravated theincidence of poverty and food insecurity.Water resources management for agricultureincludes both support for sustainable
production in rain fed agriculture andirrigation (Awulachew et al 2005).
Currently, the MoWR has identified 560irrigation potential sites on the major river
basins. The total potential irrigable land inEthiopia is estimated to be around 3.7million ha (Awulachew et al 2007). Table 2and Figure 7 show the irrigationdevelopment potential by river basins inEthiopia. Detail characterization of the
potentials by basins is provided inAwualchew et al (2007).
Table 2: Irrigation Potential in the River Basins
Irrigation potentials (Ha)(Respective recent master plan studies)
WAPCOS, 1995Basin CatchmentArea (Km 2)
Smallscale
Mediumscale
Largescale
Total TotalDrainage Area
(km2
)
IrrigableArea(Ha)
% IrrigableArea of theCountry
Abbay 198,890.7 45,856 130,395 639,330 815,581 201,346 1001000 27Tekeze 83,475.94 N/A N/A 83,368 83,368 90,001 317000 8.5Baro-Akobo 76,203.12 N/A N/A 1,019,523 1,019,523 74,102 985000 26.5Omo-Ghibe 79,000 N/A 10028 57900 67,928 78,213 445000 12Rift Valley 52,739 N/A 4000 45700 139,300 52,739 139000 3.7Awash 110,439.3 30,556 24,500 79,065 134,121 112,697 205000 5.5Genale-Dawa 172,133 1,805 28,415 1,044,500 1,074,720 117,042 423000 11.4Wabi-Shebele 202,219.5 10,755 55,950 171,200 237,905 102,697 200000 5.4Danakil 63,852.97 2,309 45,656 110,811 158,776 74,102 - -Ogaden 77,121 - 77,121 - -
Ayisha (Gulfof Aden)
2,000 - 2,000 - -
Total 1,118,074.53 3,731,222 982,060 3,715,000 100 Note: The national water resources master plan (WAPCOS, 1995) was a desk study withoutsignificant field investigation.
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Figure 7: Irrigation Potentials in Ethiopia by River Basins
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The complete database is developed forexisting irrigation development and irrigation
potential. We trust that this database createsimportant information system and a foundationfor complete and comprehensive database thatcan be updated continuously for irrigationdevelopment in Ethiopia. The database is alsomade available to regional irrigationdevelopment bureaus and federal institutionsfor use and further updating. This informationsystem establishes a public good and anyinterested institution or individual can receivea copy. The available formats for sharinginclude GIS products, Microsoft Excel orMicrosoft Access database categorized pertypology, river basins and regions.
4. General performance of the irrigatedsystems
The performances of the existing irrigationschemes are highly variable. Some of theschemes from all typologies in terms of wateruse efficiency, productivity, sustainability are
performing very well, while some are not performing efficiently, interrupted while underconstruction, abandoned after implementation,or transferred from public to private orcommunity and their performances are notknown. Many successful schemes are
providing increased income, higher productivity, significant job opportunity andconsiderable contribution to the economy. Theexisting irrigated schemes are estimated atabout 2% of the total agricultural land butcontribute over 5% of the agricultural
production. On the other hand, there are also anumber of schemes with critical problemsleading to complete abandonment or under
performance, missing the targets of
performance in terms of land area developed,number of beneficiaries or sustainability. Theassessment related to the databasedevelopment, see also Awulachew et al (2007)reveals that 17% to 22% of schemes in theAmhara, SNNPR, Oromia and Tigray,
particularly small scale irrigation schemes fallunder this category.
A number of medium and large irrigationschemes, with a total area of 44,050 hectares,that were under construction, during the
previous government, were suspended by the present one. The underlying reason seems to
be the policy of market economy precludinggovernment involvement in such economicactivities added with the complexity of the
projects that were under establishment atremote areas with low infrastructure,insufficient labor and market linkage.However, the wisdom of the decision, forabandonment of development schemes onwhich hundreds of million have been invested,remains to be questionable. It might be wiserto finalize the schemes and settle smallholdersof the area and/or encourage private operatorsto take over under an attractive/ acceptablearrangement. On the contrary, privateinitiatives to takeover and finish some of theschemes - Meki-Zeway, Belbela & Wedecha,Alwero - either have not been accepted or have
failed of their own accord until recentlywhereby the former two have attracted theattention of flower farmers. According toMCE (2004) some of the schemes have beenturned over to party affiliated companies withlimited success. These projects represent
priority schemes for rehabilitation andcompletion.
Besides the suspended schemes a total of26,347 ha are transferred from public to
private or communal developers. Theoperation of this transferred schemes arevariable. Some are successful, some are failedafter transfer and the performances of some arenot known. MCE (2004) and Awulachew et al(2007) discuss these.
5. Conclusion
This paper, which is related to the widerimpact of irrigation on poverty andenvironment research project, providedinformation and database on the waterresources of Ethiopia, potential ofdevelopment, extent of existing developmentfocusing on irrigation development. It alsodiscussed irrigation development categorized
by various river basins and regions.Discussions were also made on schemes thatare non-operational or transferred tocommunity and private sector and theirimplication on performance.
Specific database is also developed for existingirrigation schemes having a number of
attributes. The developed database hasinformation about the existing irrigation
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schemes and potentials. The database underGIS environment, maps their spatialdistribution using point maps from thoseschemes for which geo-refenced data isavailable.
It is obvious that Ethiopia is extremlydependent on rain fed agriculture; its majorityof population are dependent on agriculturewithout limit to move out of the sector,agriculture being at low productivity, rapid
population growth and lack of innovation tomaximize the benefit of the combination of
population, land and water. Hence, most of the population are poor and agriculture and overalleconomy is vulnerable and remains very weakagainst the shocks of the climatic variability.
The last five years attentions towardsdevelopment taking the rural development policy and strategy, the water sector policy, theirrigation development strategy, the PASDEPactions are encouraging and hoped toaccelerate development endeavors. Ethiopiaschallenges towards development are immenseand require significant actions and effortsaddressing the various problems from varioussectors that speed up rapid development.
References
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Awulachew, S.B., Merrey, D.J, Kamara, A. B.,Van Koopen, B., De Vries, F. Penning,and Boelle, E., 2005. Experiences andOpportunities for Promoting Small-Scale/Micro Irrigation and Rainwater
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