gypsum properties, production and applications
DESCRIPTION
GYPSUM PROPERTIES, PRODUCTION AND APPLICATIONSTRANSCRIPT
In Gypsum Properties Production and Applications ISBN 978-1-61728-308-6
Editor Delia H Sampson copy 2011 Nova Science Publishers Inc
Chapter 9
GYPSUM PROPERTIES PRODUCTION
AND APPLICATIONS
Habes A Ghrefata and Fares M Howari
b
a King Saud University Department of Geology and Geophysics PO
Box 2455 Riyadh 11451 Saudi Arabia b Environmental Science Program College of Arts and Science The University
of Texas of the Permian Basin 4901 East University Odessa TX 79762 USA
ABSTRACT
Gypsum is the most common sulfate mineral on earth and is commonly associated
with halite anhydrite sulfur calcite and dolomite in recent coastal (sabkha or salina)
andor continental (playa) evaporite deposits Gypsum can appear as transparent crystals
(selenite) fibrous elongated crystals (stain spar) granular and compact masses
(alabaster) and in rosette-shaped aggregates called desert roses The calcium sulfate-
water system occurs as three principal solid phases gypsum (CaSO42H2O) bassanite
(CaSO405H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) Only gypsum and anhydrite are stable phases of
these three phases Uncalcined gypsum and calcined gypsum are consumed in large
quantities worldwide principally for use in the construction and agricultural industries In
building it is used in plaster plaster of Paris wallboard cement and ceramic tiles In
agriculture it is used as an amendment to neutralize sodic soils and to promote the
growth of vegetables World resources of gypsum are large and widely distributed The
top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are China Iran Spain
United States Thailand Japan and Canada In 2009 crude and uncalined gypsum
production in United States were estimated to be 94 and 77 million tons respectively
The average values per metric ton reported by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude
gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum Demand for gypsum products is expected to
decreases in the coming decade as housing starts continue to drop
Corresponding author E-mail habesksuedusa Phone 0096614676233 Fax 00966-1-4676214
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 192
1 INTRODUCTION
Gypsum was derived from the Greek word gypsos which means plaster Originally it
referred to the form of gypsum which has been heated to a high temperature to drive off the
water in its crystal structure this is called calcined gypsum or Plaster of Paris Gypsum was
used in Egypt over 4000 years ago and was a traditional building material in Mediterranean
and Middle East countries It was introduced into Europe in the 13th
century as a wall plaster
Gypsum is one of the most widely used minerals in the world and of large commercial value
(Kyle 1992) Gypsum (CaSO4middot2H2O) differs from other calcium sulfate minerals such as
bassanite (CaSO4middot05H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) by the number of water molecules in its
crystalline structure Gypsum and Anhydrite are products of partial or total evaporation of
inland seas and lakes Both of these minerals occur in nature in a variety of forms Gypsum is
most commonly found in layered sedimentary deposits in association with halite anhydrite
sulfur calcite and dolomite This chapter will focus on physical and chemical properties of
gypsum world production of gypsum and prices and demand of gypsum as well Moreover
this chapter also focuses on several gypsum applications in industry and agriculture
2 PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM
Gypsum is very soft at 2 on hardness scale of Moho (Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is so
soft that a fingernail can easily scratch it It is characterized by a monoclinic crystal system
and a perfect cleave The specific gravity of gypsum is 23 It has a white streak and a
vitreous luster
Three principal solid phases in the calcium sulfate-water system occur gypsum
(CaSO42H2O) bassanite (CaSO405H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) (Deer et al 1992) Only
gypsum and anhydrite are stable phases of these three phases Anhydrite is only dominant in
water with a temperature greater than 44 C on Earth at standard pressure and neutral pH
(Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992)
Dry solid gypsum is a stable up to temperatures of 70 C at standard pressure at which
point bassanite is created Anhydrite is formed at temperature above 200 C (Holland and
Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is not stable under burial of more than a few
hundred meters at which point anhydrite is generated (Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000)
Gypsum is also converted to anhydrite when solid gypsum exposed to saline solutions (Deer
et al 1992)
According to Cloutis et al (2007) gypsum has been shown to be stable at Martian
surface pressures for periods of a few months bases on the on the spectral analysis
Gypsum has several variety names that are widely used in the mineral trade (1) Selenite
Selenite occurs as flattened and often twinned gypsum crystals (gt2 mm) Selenite crystals are
most often transparent and colorless (Figure 1) These crystals deposit below the water table
in a continuously subaqueous environment (Warren 1982) and show a pearl like luster (2)
Satin spar Satin spar occurs as compact fibrous elongated crystals (Figure 1) It shows a silky
luster and can exhibit some coloration (3) Alabaster A very fine grained massive white or
lightly-tinted variety of gypsum is called alabaster (Figure 1) Alabaster is an ornamental
stone used in fine carvings for centuries even eons and (4) Desert rose In arid areas gypsum
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 193
can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called desert rose
(Figure 1)
Gypsum is commonly associated with shallow and deep marine precipitate deposits as
well as coastal (sabkha or salina) and continental (playa) evaporite deposits (Warren 1982
Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000) Typical seawater contains approximately 015 dissolved
CaSO4 which equals about 17 cm precipitated gypsum per 100 m of evaporated seawater
(Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is generally the second mineral to
precipitate from evaporating seawater after calcite (Holland and Malinin 1979 Spencer
2000) In shallow marine environments gypsum is commonly deposited as crusts and
clusters while in deep marine environments gypsum is most often deposited as alabaster
gypsum (Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000)
Table 1 World production of gypsum (Thousand metric tons)12
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals)
Country 2006 2007e 2008 2009e
United States8 19000 r 17900 3 14400 9400
Algeria 1200 r 1200 3 1700 1700
Australia 4200 r 4200 4000 4000
Austriae4 1000 1000 1000 1000
Brazil4 1700 rp 1800 2100 2100
Canada4 9000 r 7700 3 5800 5500
Chinae 35000 r 37000 46000 42000
Egypte4 2000 2000 2000 2000
Francee4 4800 4800 4800 4800
Germany4 1800 r 1800 1900 1900
Indiae 2500 2500 2600 2600
Iran6 12000 re 12000 12000 12000
Japan 5800 r 5900 5800 5800
Mexico4 6100 r 6100 5100 4500
Poland4 1400 r 1600 3 1600 1300
Russiae 2200 2300 2300 2300
Spain4 11500 rp 11500 11500 11500
Thailand 8400 r 8600 3 8000 8000
United Kingdom4 1700 r 1700 1700 1700
Other countries 17700 21400 24700 27900
World total (rounded) 149000 153000 159000 152000 EEstimated
PPreliminary
RRevised
1World totals US data and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant digits may
not add to totals shown 2Table includes data available through July 15 2008
3Reported figure
4Includes anhydrite
5Less than 05 unit
6Data are for years beginning March 21 of that stated
8Excludes byproduct gypsum
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 194
Desert rose Satin spar
Selenite Alabaster
Figure 1 Pictures of Desert rose Satin Spar Selenite and Alabaster These pictures were obtained
from httpgwydirdemoncoukjomineralsgypsumhtm
In salinas and playas gypsum occurs as (1) gypsite a fine grained (lt60 mm) gypsum
crust dissolved and redeposited by rain (2) gypsarenite sand-sized (60 mm-1 mm) gypsum
crystals deposited in unstable or periodic salinity environments and (3) selenite Gypsum is
also presented as a continental evaporite when it is dissolved in and transported by
percolating groundwater which is pulled to the surface by capillary action depositing
gypsarenite selenite and anhydrite crystals as the water evaporates (Deer et al 1992
Langford 2003)
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 195
04 06 08 1 12 14 16 18 2 22 24
Wavelength (Micrometer)
Refl
ecta
nce (
off
set
for
cla
rity
)
Figure 2 The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al 1993) of gypsum
Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite
formation Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric
water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum
and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic
vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al 2005) Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog
acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer 1998 Golden et al 2005)
The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous
solution the temperature and pressure Gypsum and halite solubilities in water at 25C and 1
atmosphere pressure are 24 gL and 360 gL respectively (Ford and Williams 1989) In
distilled water at 20C gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25000 times more soluble
than calcite (Jackus 1977) Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure
gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40
C (Hardie 1967 Blount and
Dickson 1973 Sonnenfeld 1984 White 1988) Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher
temperatures as opposed to other salts Because gypsum dissolves over time in water gypsum
is rarely found in the form of sand However the unique conditions of the White Sands
National Monument New Mexico USA have created a 710 kmsup2 expanse of white gypsum
sand enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1000 years
Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in
the aqueous solution and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld 1984) The saline effect
produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
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Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
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Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
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Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
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Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
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Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
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Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
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Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
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Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
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Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
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Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
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Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
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Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
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Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
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Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
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Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
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Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
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Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 192
1 INTRODUCTION
Gypsum was derived from the Greek word gypsos which means plaster Originally it
referred to the form of gypsum which has been heated to a high temperature to drive off the
water in its crystal structure this is called calcined gypsum or Plaster of Paris Gypsum was
used in Egypt over 4000 years ago and was a traditional building material in Mediterranean
and Middle East countries It was introduced into Europe in the 13th
century as a wall plaster
Gypsum is one of the most widely used minerals in the world and of large commercial value
(Kyle 1992) Gypsum (CaSO4middot2H2O) differs from other calcium sulfate minerals such as
bassanite (CaSO4middot05H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) by the number of water molecules in its
crystalline structure Gypsum and Anhydrite are products of partial or total evaporation of
inland seas and lakes Both of these minerals occur in nature in a variety of forms Gypsum is
most commonly found in layered sedimentary deposits in association with halite anhydrite
sulfur calcite and dolomite This chapter will focus on physical and chemical properties of
gypsum world production of gypsum and prices and demand of gypsum as well Moreover
this chapter also focuses on several gypsum applications in industry and agriculture
2 PROPERTIES OF GYPSUM
Gypsum is very soft at 2 on hardness scale of Moho (Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is so
soft that a fingernail can easily scratch it It is characterized by a monoclinic crystal system
and a perfect cleave The specific gravity of gypsum is 23 It has a white streak and a
vitreous luster
Three principal solid phases in the calcium sulfate-water system occur gypsum
(CaSO42H2O) bassanite (CaSO405H2O) and anhydrite (CaSO4) (Deer et al 1992) Only
gypsum and anhydrite are stable phases of these three phases Anhydrite is only dominant in
water with a temperature greater than 44 C on Earth at standard pressure and neutral pH
(Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992)
Dry solid gypsum is a stable up to temperatures of 70 C at standard pressure at which
point bassanite is created Anhydrite is formed at temperature above 200 C (Holland and
Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is not stable under burial of more than a few
hundred meters at which point anhydrite is generated (Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000)
Gypsum is also converted to anhydrite when solid gypsum exposed to saline solutions (Deer
et al 1992)
According to Cloutis et al (2007) gypsum has been shown to be stable at Martian
surface pressures for periods of a few months bases on the on the spectral analysis
Gypsum has several variety names that are widely used in the mineral trade (1) Selenite
Selenite occurs as flattened and often twinned gypsum crystals (gt2 mm) Selenite crystals are
most often transparent and colorless (Figure 1) These crystals deposit below the water table
in a continuously subaqueous environment (Warren 1982) and show a pearl like luster (2)
Satin spar Satin spar occurs as compact fibrous elongated crystals (Figure 1) It shows a silky
luster and can exhibit some coloration (3) Alabaster A very fine grained massive white or
lightly-tinted variety of gypsum is called alabaster (Figure 1) Alabaster is an ornamental
stone used in fine carvings for centuries even eons and (4) Desert rose In arid areas gypsum
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 193
can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called desert rose
(Figure 1)
Gypsum is commonly associated with shallow and deep marine precipitate deposits as
well as coastal (sabkha or salina) and continental (playa) evaporite deposits (Warren 1982
Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000) Typical seawater contains approximately 015 dissolved
CaSO4 which equals about 17 cm precipitated gypsum per 100 m of evaporated seawater
(Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is generally the second mineral to
precipitate from evaporating seawater after calcite (Holland and Malinin 1979 Spencer
2000) In shallow marine environments gypsum is commonly deposited as crusts and
clusters while in deep marine environments gypsum is most often deposited as alabaster
gypsum (Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000)
Table 1 World production of gypsum (Thousand metric tons)12
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals)
Country 2006 2007e 2008 2009e
United States8 19000 r 17900 3 14400 9400
Algeria 1200 r 1200 3 1700 1700
Australia 4200 r 4200 4000 4000
Austriae4 1000 1000 1000 1000
Brazil4 1700 rp 1800 2100 2100
Canada4 9000 r 7700 3 5800 5500
Chinae 35000 r 37000 46000 42000
Egypte4 2000 2000 2000 2000
Francee4 4800 4800 4800 4800
Germany4 1800 r 1800 1900 1900
Indiae 2500 2500 2600 2600
Iran6 12000 re 12000 12000 12000
Japan 5800 r 5900 5800 5800
Mexico4 6100 r 6100 5100 4500
Poland4 1400 r 1600 3 1600 1300
Russiae 2200 2300 2300 2300
Spain4 11500 rp 11500 11500 11500
Thailand 8400 r 8600 3 8000 8000
United Kingdom4 1700 r 1700 1700 1700
Other countries 17700 21400 24700 27900
World total (rounded) 149000 153000 159000 152000 EEstimated
PPreliminary
RRevised
1World totals US data and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant digits may
not add to totals shown 2Table includes data available through July 15 2008
3Reported figure
4Includes anhydrite
5Less than 05 unit
6Data are for years beginning March 21 of that stated
8Excludes byproduct gypsum
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 194
Desert rose Satin spar
Selenite Alabaster
Figure 1 Pictures of Desert rose Satin Spar Selenite and Alabaster These pictures were obtained
from httpgwydirdemoncoukjomineralsgypsumhtm
In salinas and playas gypsum occurs as (1) gypsite a fine grained (lt60 mm) gypsum
crust dissolved and redeposited by rain (2) gypsarenite sand-sized (60 mm-1 mm) gypsum
crystals deposited in unstable or periodic salinity environments and (3) selenite Gypsum is
also presented as a continental evaporite when it is dissolved in and transported by
percolating groundwater which is pulled to the surface by capillary action depositing
gypsarenite selenite and anhydrite crystals as the water evaporates (Deer et al 1992
Langford 2003)
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 195
04 06 08 1 12 14 16 18 2 22 24
Wavelength (Micrometer)
Refl
ecta
nce (
off
set
for
cla
rity
)
Figure 2 The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al 1993) of gypsum
Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite
formation Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric
water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum
and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic
vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al 2005) Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog
acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer 1998 Golden et al 2005)
The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous
solution the temperature and pressure Gypsum and halite solubilities in water at 25C and 1
atmosphere pressure are 24 gL and 360 gL respectively (Ford and Williams 1989) In
distilled water at 20C gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25000 times more soluble
than calcite (Jackus 1977) Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure
gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40
C (Hardie 1967 Blount and
Dickson 1973 Sonnenfeld 1984 White 1988) Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher
temperatures as opposed to other salts Because gypsum dissolves over time in water gypsum
is rarely found in the form of sand However the unique conditions of the White Sands
National Monument New Mexico USA have created a 710 kmsup2 expanse of white gypsum
sand enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1000 years
Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in
the aqueous solution and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld 1984) The saline effect
produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
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H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
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Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
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Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
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Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
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2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
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Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
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Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
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Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
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Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 193
can occur in a flower-like form typically opaque with embedded sand grains called desert rose
(Figure 1)
Gypsum is commonly associated with shallow and deep marine precipitate deposits as
well as coastal (sabkha or salina) and continental (playa) evaporite deposits (Warren 1982
Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000) Typical seawater contains approximately 015 dissolved
CaSO4 which equals about 17 cm precipitated gypsum per 100 m of evaporated seawater
(Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum is generally the second mineral to
precipitate from evaporating seawater after calcite (Holland and Malinin 1979 Spencer
2000) In shallow marine environments gypsum is commonly deposited as crusts and
clusters while in deep marine environments gypsum is most often deposited as alabaster
gypsum (Schreiber and El Tabakh 2000)
Table 1 World production of gypsum (Thousand metric tons)12
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals)
Country 2006 2007e 2008 2009e
United States8 19000 r 17900 3 14400 9400
Algeria 1200 r 1200 3 1700 1700
Australia 4200 r 4200 4000 4000
Austriae4 1000 1000 1000 1000
Brazil4 1700 rp 1800 2100 2100
Canada4 9000 r 7700 3 5800 5500
Chinae 35000 r 37000 46000 42000
Egypte4 2000 2000 2000 2000
Francee4 4800 4800 4800 4800
Germany4 1800 r 1800 1900 1900
Indiae 2500 2500 2600 2600
Iran6 12000 re 12000 12000 12000
Japan 5800 r 5900 5800 5800
Mexico4 6100 r 6100 5100 4500
Poland4 1400 r 1600 3 1600 1300
Russiae 2200 2300 2300 2300
Spain4 11500 rp 11500 11500 11500
Thailand 8400 r 8600 3 8000 8000
United Kingdom4 1700 r 1700 1700 1700
Other countries 17700 21400 24700 27900
World total (rounded) 149000 153000 159000 152000 EEstimated
PPreliminary
RRevised
1World totals US data and estimated data are rounded to no more than three significant digits may
not add to totals shown 2Table includes data available through July 15 2008
3Reported figure
4Includes anhydrite
5Less than 05 unit
6Data are for years beginning March 21 of that stated
8Excludes byproduct gypsum
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 194
Desert rose Satin spar
Selenite Alabaster
Figure 1 Pictures of Desert rose Satin Spar Selenite and Alabaster These pictures were obtained
from httpgwydirdemoncoukjomineralsgypsumhtm
In salinas and playas gypsum occurs as (1) gypsite a fine grained (lt60 mm) gypsum
crust dissolved and redeposited by rain (2) gypsarenite sand-sized (60 mm-1 mm) gypsum
crystals deposited in unstable or periodic salinity environments and (3) selenite Gypsum is
also presented as a continental evaporite when it is dissolved in and transported by
percolating groundwater which is pulled to the surface by capillary action depositing
gypsarenite selenite and anhydrite crystals as the water evaporates (Deer et al 1992
Langford 2003)
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 195
04 06 08 1 12 14 16 18 2 22 24
Wavelength (Micrometer)
Refl
ecta
nce (
off
set
for
cla
rity
)
Figure 2 The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al 1993) of gypsum
Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite
formation Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric
water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum
and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic
vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al 2005) Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog
acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer 1998 Golden et al 2005)
The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous
solution the temperature and pressure Gypsum and halite solubilities in water at 25C and 1
atmosphere pressure are 24 gL and 360 gL respectively (Ford and Williams 1989) In
distilled water at 20C gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25000 times more soluble
than calcite (Jackus 1977) Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure
gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40
C (Hardie 1967 Blount and
Dickson 1973 Sonnenfeld 1984 White 1988) Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher
temperatures as opposed to other salts Because gypsum dissolves over time in water gypsum
is rarely found in the form of sand However the unique conditions of the White Sands
National Monument New Mexico USA have created a 710 kmsup2 expanse of white gypsum
sand enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1000 years
Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in
the aqueous solution and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld 1984) The saline effect
produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 194
Desert rose Satin spar
Selenite Alabaster
Figure 1 Pictures of Desert rose Satin Spar Selenite and Alabaster These pictures were obtained
from httpgwydirdemoncoukjomineralsgypsumhtm
In salinas and playas gypsum occurs as (1) gypsite a fine grained (lt60 mm) gypsum
crust dissolved and redeposited by rain (2) gypsarenite sand-sized (60 mm-1 mm) gypsum
crystals deposited in unstable or periodic salinity environments and (3) selenite Gypsum is
also presented as a continental evaporite when it is dissolved in and transported by
percolating groundwater which is pulled to the surface by capillary action depositing
gypsarenite selenite and anhydrite crystals as the water evaporates (Deer et al 1992
Langford 2003)
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 195
04 06 08 1 12 14 16 18 2 22 24
Wavelength (Micrometer)
Refl
ecta
nce (
off
set
for
cla
rity
)
Figure 2 The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al 1993) of gypsum
Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite
formation Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric
water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum
and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic
vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al 2005) Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog
acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer 1998 Golden et al 2005)
The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous
solution the temperature and pressure Gypsum and halite solubilities in water at 25C and 1
atmosphere pressure are 24 gL and 360 gL respectively (Ford and Williams 1989) In
distilled water at 20C gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25000 times more soluble
than calcite (Jackus 1977) Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure
gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40
C (Hardie 1967 Blount and
Dickson 1973 Sonnenfeld 1984 White 1988) Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher
temperatures as opposed to other salts Because gypsum dissolves over time in water gypsum
is rarely found in the form of sand However the unique conditions of the White Sands
National Monument New Mexico USA have created a 710 kmsup2 expanse of white gypsum
sand enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1000 years
Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in
the aqueous solution and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld 1984) The saline effect
produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 195
04 06 08 1 12 14 16 18 2 22 24
Wavelength (Micrometer)
Refl
ecta
nce (
off
set
for
cla
rity
)
Figure 2 The USGS library VNIR-SWIR spectra (Clark et al 1993) of gypsum
Sulfuric acid solutions moving through Ca-rich rocks may result in gypsum and anhydrite
formation Acidic waters are often either created by volcanic gases interacting with meteoric
water or by weathering of sulfides (Holland and Malinin 1979 Deer et al 1992) Gypsum
and anhydrite rich mineral assemblages are often produced by the action of sulfurous volcanic
vapors on Ca-rich rocks (Golden et al 2005) Gypsum can also be produced by sulfurous fog
acting on Ca-rich materials (Eckardt and Schemenauer 1998 Golden et al 2005)
The solubility of gypsum in water depends on the chemical composition of the aqueous
solution the temperature and pressure Gypsum and halite solubilities in water at 25C and 1
atmosphere pressure are 24 gL and 360 gL respectively (Ford and Williams 1989) In
distilled water at 20C gypsum and halite are respectively 183 and 25000 times more soluble
than calcite (Jackus 1977) Temperature experiments show that at one atmosphere pressure
gypsum has its maximum solubility between 35C and 40
C (Hardie 1967 Blount and
Dickson 1973 Sonnenfeld 1984 White 1988) Gypsum becomes less soluble at higher
temperatures as opposed to other salts Because gypsum dissolves over time in water gypsum
is rarely found in the form of sand However the unique conditions of the White Sands
National Monument New Mexico USA have created a 710 kmsup2 expanse of white gypsum
sand enough to supply the construction industry with drywall for 1000 years
Gypsum solubility is also affected by the type and concentration of the dissolved ions in
the aqueous solution and saline and common ions (Sonnenfeld 1984) The saline effect
produces an increase in the solubility of gypsum by the high ionic concentration ionic
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 196
strength of the solution This causes a decrease in the activity of the SO2 and Ca2+
ions The
solubility of gypsum in saline solutions and in brines is strongly dependent on NaCl
concentration (Ponsjack 1940 Schreiber and Schreiber 1977) Ponsjack (1940) showed that
NaCl concentrations of between 75 and 200 gL increase the solubility of gypsum by 3 to 4
times over that in pure water However if the dissolved ions in water include Ca2+
and SO4 -2
the common ion effect occurs and the solubility of gypsum decreases
Gypsum is a frequent but minor component in the soils of humidndashtemperate regions
where it is continuously leached and is considered transient In these regions gypsum only
occurs in significant quantities where the parent material of soil formation is derived from
evaporates and some other geological material of marine origin In arid and semi-arid
climates gypsum in soils or other surficial materials is more permanent (Drake 1997
Schuumltt 1998) If a sufficient amount of gypsum occurs in the soils may be classified as
gypsiferous Anhydrite forms rarely at the surface but only in arid and hot supratidal
environments (sabkha) in the presence of concentrated brines (Butler 1969 Shearman 1985)
Gypsum is found in nature most commonly as the sparingly soluble salt CaSO42H2O
(Nettlejohn et al 1982 Verhaye and Boyadgiev 1997) The concentration of a saturated
solution of gypsum is about 15 mM and so is more soluble than calcite which typically gives
in soil solution a concentration of between 1 and 10 mM Ca2+
depending on pH and partial
pressure of CO2 (Stumm and Morgan 1970)
United States Geological Survey (USGS) library spectrum of gypsum is shown in Figure
2 The spectrum of gypsum shows major absorption features in VNIR and SWIR regions due
to overtones and combination tones of molecular water (Hunt et al 1971a) The intensity of
the absorption features will decrease and their shapes will change when gypsum is mixed with
other salts and substrate minerals (Lindberg and Smith 1973) The absorption minimum
around 12 microm is due to a combination of the H-O-H bending fundamental and the first
overtones of the O-H stretch The absorption features between 14 and 16 microm are due to the
first overtone of the O-H stretching fundamental The absorption bands near 174 microm are due
to combinations involving the fundamental H-O-H bend the fundamental O-H stretch and
low frequency vibration modes of the structural water molecules The strong absorption
features near 19 microm are due to a combination of the O-H stretching and the H-O-H bending
fundamentals The absorption bands around 22 microm are attributed to a combination of the
fundamental O-H stretch and the first overtone of the water Gypsum and anhydrite showed
similar spectral behavior in the 5ndash25 μm range (Lane and Christensen 1998) The results of
Lane and Christensen (1998) also showed that emission features above 7 μm can undergo
dramatic changes as grain size is reduced below 100 μm
3 GYPSUM APPLICATIONS
Gypsum is consumed in large quantities worldwide principally for use in the
construction industries Also some of gypsum is used in agricultural applications More
information about gypsum uses in agriculture and industry is available at
httpwwwusagypsumcom
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 197
31 Gypsum Industrial Uses
Gypsum is used in building because it has fire-resisting quality and heat insulation and is
considered as a good sound absorbing material Moreover gypsum is easily converted in a
cementitious material and is quick setting and eliminates the need for formwork Gypsum is
used in a wide variety of industrial applications including
1 Portland cement
Gypsum is a component used in Portland cement It slows the hardening of cement
because of its physical makeup This allows the cement to be used much more easily than if it
hardened at its regular speed
2 Specialty concrete products
Specialty concrete contains specialized binders such as K silicate calcium aluminate
sulfur and oxysulfate or polymer resins In contrast to conventional construction products
specialty concrete is not based on Portland cement Instead specialty concrete is composed of
specialty cement such as potassium silicate that is mixed with water a coarse aggregate such
as gravel or crushed stone and a fine aggregate or sand
3 Plaster molds
Natural gypsum of high purity is used to produce special plasters for example for use as
plaster moulds in the pottery industry Gypsum plaster is a building material generated by
heating gypsum to 150 C The mixture is ground gypsum mixed with water and heated then
released as steam The mixture then cools and reforms as gypsum The use of plaster of Paris
as molds for casting concrete for building structures has wide applications
4 Filler in paint
Gypsum can be added to paint as a filler
5 Glass manufacturing
Small amounts of very pure gypsum are used in a wide range of industrial applications
including glass making
6 Chemical food and polymer additives
High quality calcium sulfate additives produced from high purity gypsum is used in a
wide range of industrial and chemical applications such as specialty cements used for grouts
and flooring High purity gypsum is also used to manufacture food and pharmaceutical
additives and polymer additives including thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
7 High strength floor underlayments
In new commercial construction gypsum concrete underlayments are applied over
structural concrete or precast concrete planks to create a smooth monolithic floor surface that
delivers superior strength sound control and fire resistance
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 198
8 Industrial plasters and gypsum cements for art and casting
Industrial plasters and gypsum cements readily blend with chemicals and aggregates to
achieve special properties Both wet and dry blending are performed with various chemicals
powders and granular materials such as talk and iron oxide Industrial plasters and gypsum
cements are noncombustible These materials provide a high degree of fire resistance and are
safe to handle and work with Some of these materials are nontoxic nonallergenic
odorless and nonirritating to the skin
9 Road and surface repair patching materials
Road repair products are designed to achieve high early strength These products offer the
advantage of allowing road repairs to busy thoroughfares to be accomplished within hours
thereby minimizing disruption of traffic Theses products include above grade repairs such as
bridge decks ramps parking lot decks and on grade road repairs These products are
available for different weather conditions
10 Thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
Calcium sulfate additives are extremely white non-abrasive resistant to mild acids and
safe to use These additives are used in a wide range of polymer applications such as
thermoplastics thermosets and coatings
11 Erosion and dust control products
Gypsum can be used to decrease wind and water erosion of soil Water infiltration rates
into soils as well as the hydraulic conductivity of the soil can be improved using gypsum
Severe dust problems can be decreased especially when combined with use of water-soluble
polymers
12 Hydro seeding
Hydro seeding is a method of applying seed directly to the soil surface using water as the
prime carrier to create a temporary micro environment to enhance seed development This
process is fast efficient and economical
32 Agricultural Gypsum Uses
Gypsum is used to treat soil as an amendment conditioner and fertilizer Gypsum is used
in a wide variety of agricultural applications
1 Gypsum improves soil texture and compacted soils
Calcium provided to the root zone combines sand silt clay and humus particles together
Thus water and air movement and plant root growth in the soil medium will be improved
(Chartres et al 1985 Greene et al 1988 Ilyas et al 1997) The compaction in soils can be
solved by application of gypsum especially when combined with deep tillage to break up the
compaction
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 199
2 Gypsum decreases bulk density of soil
Gypsum applications decrease bulk density of soil (Southard et al 1988) Untreated soil
by gypsum has a higher bulk density Many of the effects of gypsum however are limited to
shallow depths
3 Gypsum stops water runoff and erosion and soil crusting
Erosion begins when rain or irrigation drops strike bare soil detaching soil particles
Aggregates stabilized by gypsum are less prone to crusting and erosion since there is limited
runoff due to larger more stable aggregates (Gal et al 1984)
4 Gypsum improves swelling clays
Swelling clays and therefore swelling clay soils can be effectively treated by gypsum
(Mandal and Mandal 2002 Yilmaz and Civelekoglu 2009) As sodium is replaced by
calcium on these clays they swell less and therefore do not easily clog the pore spaces
through which air water and roots move Gypsum improves the expansive clay soils
significantly only up to an addition of 5 above this amount improvement being much less
significant and warranted by the increased cost of the gypsum involved
5 Gypsum increases value of organics
The use of gypsum helps rebuild the supply of soil organic matter and is a major means
for increasing the efficiency of its accumulation
6 Gypsum counteracts subsoil acidity
Gypsum leaches into the subsoil replacing aluminum and other acid forming ions thus
allowing roots to penetrate the hostile subsoil more readily
7 Gypsum helps reclaim sodic soils
Gypsum amends and reclaims soils high in destructive sodium and magnesium Sodium
and magnesium act the opposite as calcium in soils by destroying structure and reducing
water and air movement and root growth (Ilyas et al 1997)
8 Gypsum decreased ph of sodic soils
Gypsum has a substantial advantage for use in high pH or alkaline soils because of being
pH neutral This is because the sulfur in the compound lowers soil pH The presence of
gypsum in calcareous soils causes a small decrease in pH through the increased Ca2+
concentration in soil solution which would be expected to decrease the sorption of P
(Kordlaghari and Rowell 2006)
9 Gypsum enhances water use efficiency
Twenty five to 100 percent more water is available to crops depending on the soil type
and soil management practices Gypsum improves drainage through particle flocculation
10 Gypsum makes it possible to use low quality irrigation water
Gypsum should be applied to the soil or the irrigation water when soils or water are low
in total dissolved salts When the electrical conductivity of soils and water is low (~075 dSm
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 200
or less) surface soil sealing and water penetration problems occur if irrigation water does not
contain adequate calcium
11 Gypsum replaces harmful salts
Sodium chlorine boron and many other salts in higher levels in irrigation water and soil
are detrimental to plant growth and development since they rupture and destroy plant cells
Calcium from gypsum has a significant role in preventing the uptake of Na by plants
12 An excellent fertilizer source for calcium and sulfur
There are 16 nutrients required or essential for plants Calcium and sulfur are two of
them With calcium and sulfur deficiencies appearing more and more frequently gypsum is a
practical and economical source for these two nutrients
13 Gypsum helps with high bicarbonate irrigation water
Bicarbonates form free lime when water evaporates resulting in reduced available
calcium and increased soil pH The reduction of available calcium also leads to loss of soil
structure and reduced water infiltration
14 Gypsum makes slightly wet soils easier to till
Soils treated with gypsum have a wider range of soil moisture levels It is safe to till these
soils without danger of compaction or deflocculation
15 Gypsum prevents water logging of soil
Gypsum can improve the ability of soil to drain and not become waterlogged due to a
combination of high sodium swelling clay and excess water Infiltration rate and hydraulic
conductivity will be improved with the application of gypsum This will enhance the ability
of soils to have adequate drainage
16 Gypsum helps earthworms to flourish
A continuous supply of calcium with organics is necessary to earthworms Earthworms
improve soil aeration soil aggregation and mix the soil and can do the plowing for no-till
agriculture
4 GYPSUM PRODUCTION
The production of gypsum from 2006 to 2009 in selected countries in the world is
depicted in Table 1 More information about the world gypsum production is available at
(httpmineralsusgsgovminerals) The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in
descending order are China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada
Production of gypsum in recent years follows the global economy
Gypsum resources are large and widely distributed Global crude gypsum production in
2009 was estimated to be 152 Mt compared to 159 Mt produced in 2008 (Table 1) Global
production of gypsum in 2007 was the highest compared to one before 2007 China is the
leading producer of crude gypsum in 2009 with an estimated 42 Mt followed by Iran with 12
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 201
Mt Spain with 115 Mt the United States with 94 Mt Thailand with 80 Mt Japan with 58
Mt and Canada with 55 Mt (Table 1) Iran supplies much of the gypsum needed for
construction in the Middle East Spain the leading European producer is considered the main
supplier of both crude gypsum and gypsum products to Western Europe It is probably that
China will continue to be the worldlsquos leading gypsum producer for the near future because of
the expansion of Chinalsquos economy and its respective construction and infrastructure demands
An increased use of wallboard in Asia coupled with new gypsum product plants amplified
production in that region North American contributes to almost 10 of total world
production of crude gypsum Most gypsum is used in the production of cement or as a plaster
product in countries of Asia and Middle East World production is likely underestimated
because output by some foreign gypsum producers is used to manufacture products on site
which may not be reported Moreover production of gypsum from small deposits in
developing countries was intermittent and in many cases unreported
Gypsum output is categorized as either calcined or uncalcined Calcined gypsum is
produced from crude gypsum to manufacture wallboard and plaster products Uncalcined
gypsum is mainly used in Portland cement production and agriculture The production of
crude and uncalcined gypsum in United States declined from 94 and 140 Mt in 2009 to 144
and 180 Mt in 2008 (Table 1) The leading States in producing crude gypsum were in
descending order Nevada Iowa California Oklahoma Texas Arkansas New Mexico
Indiana and Michigan The amount of gypsum used in Portland cement declined from 38 Mt
in 2006 to 33 Mt in 2007 Agricultural use of gypsum decreased from 25 Mt in 2006 to 17
Mt in 2007 Gypsum production in United States declined because of the continues falter of
the housing and construction markets continued to falter The construction of new wallboard
plants and the expansion of existing plants decreased in 2009
Synthetic gypsum is generated as a byproduct of various industrial processes Synthetic
gypsum is used as a substitute for mined gypsum principally for wallboard manufacturing
cement production and agricultural purposes Expansion of synthetic gypsum resources will
continue in the United States Studies indicate calcium limestone demand is expected to
increase by about 70 during the next 10 years Calcium limestone is the primary component
required to transform sulfur dioxide to synthetic gypsum
Gypsum resources in the United States are adequate but unevenly distributed The United
States import large amounts of gypsum from Canada to manufacture wallboard particularly
in the eastern and southern coastal regions Gypsum imported from Mexico is used for
wallboard manufacturing along portions of the United States western seaboard
During 2007 prices for gypsum wallboard generally decreased in response to a
corresponding sharp decrease in demand The average values reported by United States
producers were $818 per metric ton for crude gypsum and $2202 per ton for calcined
gypsum in 2007 The average value for calcined gypsum used in plaster products was $1845
per 100 kilograms The average value of uncalcined gypsum used in agriculture was about
$2690 per ton and that used in cement production was about $1429 per ton The steep drop
in prices of gypsum was due to the abrupt decline in the housing construction sector on which
the gypsum industry is heavily dependent In 2009 the average values per metric ton reported
by US producers in 2009 were $85 for crude gypsum and $400 for calcined gypsum
Demand for gypsum depends mainly on the activity of construction sector particularly in
the United States About 95 of the gypsum consumed in United States is used for building
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 202
plasters the manufacture of Portland cement and wallboard products Demand for gypsum
products is expected to decrease in the coming years as housing starts continue to drop
CONCLUSION
Gypsum can be distinguished by several physical and chemical characteristics Gypsum
is a valuable and important mineral that is needed in many aspects of our life It can be used
in different industrial and agricultural applications World resources of gypsum are large and
widely distributed The top producing countries of gypsum in 2009 in descending order are
China Iran Spain United States Thailand Japan and Canada Demand for gypsum products
is expected to decrease in the coming years because housing is expected to decline
REFERENCES
Blount C W amp Dickson F W (1973) GypsumndashAnhidrite Equilibria in Systems CaSO4 ndash
H2O and CaCO4 ndashNaClndashH2O American Mineralogist 58 323-331
Butler G P (1969) Modern evaporite deposits and geochemistry of coexisting brines the
sabkha Trucial coast Arabian Gulf Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 39 70-78
Chartres C J Greene R S Ford G W amp Rengasamy P (1985) The effect of gypsum on
macroporosity and crusting of two red duplex soils Australian Journal of Soil Research
23 467-479
Clark R N Swayze G A Gallagher A King T V V amp Calvin W M (1993) The U S
Geological Survey Digital Spectral Library Version 1 02 to 30 microns US
Geological Survey Open File Report 93-592 httpspeclabcrusgsgov 1340 pages
Cloutis E A Craig M A Mustard J F Kruzelecky R V Jamroz W R Scott A
Bish D L Poulet F Bibring J P amp King P L (2007) Stability of hydrated
minerals on Mars Geophysical Research Letter 34 L20202 doi101029
2007GL031267
Deer W A Howie R A amp Zussman J (1992) An Introduction to The Rock-Forming
Minerals Harlow Essex UK
Drake N A (1997) Recent aeolian origin of surficial gypsum crusts in southern Tunisia
geomorphological archaeological and remote sensing evidence Earth Surface Processes
and Landforms 22 641-656
Ford D amp Williams P (1989) Karst Geomorphology and Hydrology Chapman amp Hall
LondonGutieacuterrez F 1994a Geomorfologacuteıa de la Regioacuten de Calatayud El Karst en
Yesos MsC Thesis Zaragoza University Spain
Fryberger S G (2002) Geological overview of White Sands NationalMonument Online at
httpwwwnpsgovwhsaGeology
Gal M Arcan L Shainberg I amp Keren R (1984) Effect of exchangeable sodium and
phosogypsum on crust structure-scanning electron microscope observations Soil Science
Society of America Journal 48 872-878
Golden D C Ming D W Morris R V amp Mertzman S A (2005) Laboratory-simulated
acid-sulfate weathering of basaltic materials Implications for formation of sulfates at
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
Schreiber B C amp El Tabakh M (2000) Deposition and early alteration of evaporites
Sedimentology 47 215-238
Schreiber B amp Schreiber E (1977) The salt that was Geology 5 527-528
Schuumltt B (1998) Reconstruction of palaeoenvironmental conditions by investigations of
Holocene playa sediments in the Ebro Basin Spain preliminary results Geomorphology
23 273-283
Shearman D J (1985) Syndepositional and late diagenetic alteration of primary gypsum to
anhydrite 6th Int Symp Salt The Salt Institute 1 41-55
Sonnenfeld P (1984) Brines and Evaporites Orlando Academic Press
Southard R J Shainberg I amp Singer M J (1988) Influence of electrolyte concentration on
the micromorphology of artificial depositional crust Soil Science Society of America
Journal 145 278-288
Spencer R J (2000) Sulfate minerals in evaporite deposits Reviews in Mineralogy and
Geochemistry 40 173-192
Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
- 198
- 199
- 200
- 201
- 202
- 203
- 204
-
Gypsum Properties Production and Applications 203
Meridiani Planum and Gusev Crater Mars Journal of Geophysical Research 110
E12S07 doi1010292005JE002451
Greene R S B Rengasamy P Ford G W Chartres C J amp Miller J J (1988) The
effect of sodium and calcium on physical properties and micromorphology of two red-
brown earth soils Journal of Soil Science 39 639-648
Hardie L A (1967) The gypsumndashanhidrite equilibrium at one atmosphere pressure The
American Mineralogist 52 171-199
Holland H D amp Malinin S D (1979) The solubility and occurrence of non-ore minerals In
H L Barnes (Ed) Geochemistry of Hydrothermal Ore Deposits 461ndash509 New York
John Wiley
Hunt G R Salisbury J W amp Lenhoff C J (1971a) Visible and near-infrared spectra of
minerals and rocks IV Sulphides and sulphates Modern Geology 3 1-4
Ilyas M Qureshi R H amp Qadir M A (1997) Chemical changes in a saline-sodic soil
after gypsum application and cropping Soil Technology 10 247-260
Jackus L (1977) Morphogenetics of Karst Regions Bristol Adam Hilger
Kordlagharia M P amp Rowell DL (2006) The role of gypsum in the reactions of phosphate
with soils Geoderma 132 105-115
Kyle J K (1992) Evaporites evaporitic processes and mineral resources In JK Melvin
(Editor) Evaporites petroleum and mineral resources Elsevier New York 556
Lane M D amp Christensen PR (1998) Thermal infrared emission spectroscopy of salt
minerals predicted for Mars Icarus 135 528-536
Langford R P (2003) The Holocene history of the White Sands dune field and influences
on eolian deflation and playa lakes Quaternary International 104 31-39
Lindberg J D amp Smith M S (1973) Reflectance spectra of gypsum sand from the White
Sands National Monument and basalt from nearby lava flow The American Mineralogist
58 1062-106
Mandal P K amp Mandal T K (2002) Anion water in gypsum (CaSO42H2O) and
hemihydrate (CaSO412H2O) Cement and Concrete Research 32 313-316
Nettlejohn W D Nelson R E Brasher B R amp Derr P S (1982) Gypsiferous soils in the
Western United States Soil Science Society of America Proceedings 10 147-168
Ponsjack E (1940) Deposition of calcium sulphate from sea water American Journal of
Science 239 559-568
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Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
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gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
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Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
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Habes A Ghrefat and Fares M Howari 204
Stumm W amp Morgan J J (1970) Aquatic Chemistry New York Wiley-Interscience USA
gypsum Online at httpwwwusagypsumcom USGS minerals information Online at
httpmineralsusgsgovminerals
Verhaye W H amp Boyadgiev T G (1997) Evaluating the land use potential of gypsiferous
soils from field pedogenic characteristics Soil Use and Management 13 97-103
Warren J K (1982) The hydrological setting occurrence and significance of gypsum in late
Quaternary salt lakes in South Australia Sedimentology 29 609-637
White W B (1988) Geomorphology and Hydrology of Karst Terrains Oxford Oxford
University Press
Yilmaz I amp Civelekoglu B (2009) Gypsum An additive for stabilization of swelling clay
soils Applied Clay Science 44 166-172
- 191
- 192
- 193
- 194
- 195
- 196
- 197
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