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Gulf of Mexico

Undersea topography of the Gulf of Mexico

Earth'soceans

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World Ocean

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The Gulf of Mexico (Spanish: Golfo de México) is an ocean basin largely surrounded by the North American continent and the island of Cuba. It is bounded on the northeast, north and northwest by the Gulf Coast of the United States, on the southwest and south by Mexico, and on the southeast by Cuba. In Texas and Louisiana it is often called the "Third Coast" in the United States, in comparison with the U.S. Atlantic and Pacific coasts. The shape of its basin is roughly oval and is approximately 810 nautical miles (1,500 km) wide and filled with sedimentary rocks and debris. It is connected to the Atlantic Ocean through the Florida Straits between the U.S. and Cuba, and with the Caribbean Sea (with which it forms the American Mediterranean Sea) via the Yucatan Channel between Mexico and Cuba. With this narrow connection to the Atlantic, the Gulf experiences very small tidal ranges. The size of the Gulf basin is approximately 615,000 mi² (1.6 million km²). Almost half of the basin is shallow continental shelf waters. At its deepest it is 14,383 ft (4,384 m) at the Sigsbee Deep, an irregular trough more than 300 nautical miles

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(560 km) long. The basin contains a volume of roughly 660 quadrillion gallons (2.5 × 106 km3). It was formedapproximately 300 million years ago as a result of plate tectonics.[2]

ExtentThe International Hydrographic Organization defines the southeast limit of the Gulf of Mexico as follows:

A line joining Cape Catoche Light (21°37′N 87°04′W [3]) with the Light on Cape San Antonio in Cuba,through this island to the meridian of 83°W and to the Northward along this meridian to the latitude ofthe South point of the Dry Tortugas (24°35'N), along this parallel Eastward to Rebecca Shoal (82°35'W)thence through the shoals and Florida Keys to the mainland at eastern end of Florida Bay, all the narrowwaters between the Dry Tortugas and the mainland being considered to be within the Gulf.

Geology

Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico

The consensus among geologists[4][5] who have studied thegeology of the Gulf of Mexico, is that prior to the Late Triassic,the Gulf of Mexico did not exist. Before the Late Triassic, the areanow occupied by the Gulf of Mexico consisted of dry land, whichincluded continental crust that now underlies Yucatan, within themiddle of the large supercontinent of Pangea. This land lay southof a continuous mountain range that extended from north-centralMexico, through the Marathon Uplift in West Texas and theOuachita Mountains of Oklahoma, and to Alabama where it linkeddirectly to the Appalachian Mountains. It was created by thecollision of continental plates that formed Pangea. As interpretedby Roy Van Arsdale and Randel T. Cox, this mountain range wasbreached in Late Cretaceous times by the formation of theMississippi Embayment.[6][7]

Geologists and other Earth scientists agree in general that the present Gulf of Mexico basin originated in LateTriassic time as the result of rifting within Pangea. The rifting was associated with zones of weakness within Pangea,including sutures where the Laurentia, South American, and African plates collided to create it. First, there was aLate Triassic-Early Jurassic phase of rifting during which rift valleys formed and filled with continental red beds.Second, as rifting progressed through Early and Middle Jurassic time, continental crust was stretched and thinned.This thinning created a broad zone of thick transitional crust, which displays modest and uneven thinning with blockfaulting, and a broad zone of uniformly thinned transitional crust, which is half the typical thickness, 35 kilometers,of normal continental crust. It was at this time that tectonics first created a connection to the Pacific Ocean acrosscentral Mexico and later eastward to the Atlantic Ocean. This flooded the subsiding basin created by rifting andcrustal thinning to create the Gulf of Mexico. While the Gulf of Mexico was a restricted basin, the subsidingtransitional crust was blanketed by the widespread deposition of Louann Salt and associated anhydrite evaporites.Initially, during the Late Jurassic, continued rifting widened the Gulf of Mexico and progressed to the point thatsea-floor spreading and formation of oceanic crust occurred. At this point, sufficient circulation with the AtlanticOcean was established that the deposition of Louann Salt ceased.[8][9]

During the Late Jurassic through Early Cretaceous, the basin occupied by the Gulf of Mexico experienced a periodof cooling and subsidence of the crust underlying it. The subsidence was the result of a combination of crustalstretching, cooling, and loading. Initially, the combination of crustal stretching and cooling caused about 5–7 km oftectonic subsidence of the central thin transitional and oceanic crust. Because subsidence occurred faster thansediment could fill it, the Gulf of Mexico expanded and deepened.[10]

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Later, loading of the crust within the Gulf of Mexico and adjacent coastal plain by the accumulation of kilometers ofsediments during the rest of the Mesozoic and all of the Cenozoic further depressed the underlying crust to its currentposition about 10–20 km below sea level. Particularly during the Cenozoic, thick clastic wedges built out thecontinental shelf along the northwestern and northern margins of the Gulf of Mexico.To the east, the stable Florida platform was not covered by the sea until the latest Jurassic or the beginning ofCretaceous time. The Yucatan platform was emergent until the mid-Cretaceous. After both platforms weresubmerged, the formation of carbonates and evaporites has characterized the geologic history of these two stableareas. Most of the basin was rimmed during the Early Cretaceous by carbonate platforms, and its western flank wasinvolved during the latest Cretaceous and early Paleogene periods in a compressive deformation episode, theLaramide Orogeny, which created the Sierra Madre Oriental of eastern Mexico.[11]

In 2002 geologist Michael Stanton published a speculative essay suggesting an impact origin for the Gulf of Mexicoat the close of the Permian, which could have caused the Permian–Triassic extinction event.[12] However, Gulf Coastgeologists do not regard this hypothesis as having any credibility. Instead they overwhelmingly accept platetectonics, not an asteroid impact, as having created the Gulf of Mexico as illustrated by papers authored by KevinMickus and others.[13] This hypothesis is not to be confused with the Chicxulub Crater, a large impact crater on thecoast of the Gulf of Mexico on the Yucatan Peninsula.Today, there are 7 main areas of the gulf:• Gulf of Mexico Basin, which contains the Sigsbee Deep and can be further divided into the continental rise, the

Sigsbee Abyssal Plain, and the Mississippi Cone.• Northeast Gulf of Mexico, which extends from just east of the Mississippi Delta near Biloxi to the eastern side of

Apalachee Bay.• South Florida Continental Shelf and Slope, which extends along the coast from Apalachee Bay to the Straits of

Florida and includes the Florida Keys and Dry Tortugas.• Campeche Bank, which extends from the Yucatan Straits in the east to the Tabasco–Campeche Basin in the west

and includes Arrecife Alacran.• Bay of Campeche, which is an isthmian embayment extending from the western edge of Campeche Bank to the

offshore regions just east of the port of Veracruz.• Western Gulf of Mexico, which is located between Veracruz to the south and the Rio Grande to the north.• Northwest Gulf of Mexico, which extends from Alabama to the Rio Grande.

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History

European exploration

Fishing boats in Biloxi

Graph showing the overall water temperature of theGulf between Hurricanes Katrina and Rita. AlthoughKatrina cooled waters in its path by up to 4 °C, they

had rebounded by the time of Rita's appearance.

Although Christopher Columbus was credited with the discoveryof the Americas by Europeans, the ships in his four voyages neverreached the Gulf of Mexico. Instead, Columbus sailed into theCaribbean around Cuba and Hispaniola. The first Europeanexploration of the Gulf of Mexico was by Amerigo Vespucci in1497. He followed the coastal land mass of Central Americabefore returning to the Atlantic Ocean via the Straits of Floridabetween Florida and Cuba. In his letters, Vespucci described thistrip, and once Juan de la Cosa returned to Spain, a famous worldmap, depicting Cuba as an island, was produced.

In 1506, Hernán Cortés took part in the conquest of Hispaniolaand Cuba, receiving a large estate of land and Indian slaves for hiseffort. In 1510, he accompanied Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar, anaide of the governor of Hispaniola, in his expedition to conquerCuba. In 1518 Velázquez put him in command of an expedition toexplore and secure the interior of Mexico for colonization.

In 1517, Francisco Hernández de Córdoba discovered the YucatánPeninsula. This was the first European encounter with an advancedcivilization in the Americas, with solidly built buildings and acomplex social organization which they recognized as beingcomparable to those of the Old World; they also had reason toexpect that this new land would have gold. All of this encouragedtwo further expeditions, the first in 1518 under the command ofJuan de Grijalva, and the second in 1519 under the command ofHernán Cortés, which led to the Spanish exploration, militaryinvasion, and ultimately settlement and colonization known as theConquest of Mexico. Hernández did not live to see thecontinuation of his work: he died in 1517, the year of hisexpedition, as the result of the injuries and the extreme thirstsuffered during the voyage, and disappointed in the knowledgethat Diego Velázquez had given precedence to Grijalva as thecaptain of the next expedition to Yucatán.

In 1523, Ángel de Villafañe sailed toward Mexico City, but was shipwrecked en route along the coast of PadreIsland, Texas, in 1554. When word of the disaster reached Mexico City, the viceroy requested a rescue fleet andimmediately sent Villafañe marching overland to find the treasure-laden vessels. Villafañe traveled to Pánuco andhired a ship to transport him to the site, which had already been visited from that community. He arrived in time togreet García de Escalante Alvarado (a nephew of Pedro de Alvarado), commander of the salvage operation, whenAlvarado arrived by sea on July 22, 1554. The team labored until September 12 to salvage the Padre Island treasure.This loss, in combination with other ship disasters around the Gulf of Mexico, gave rise to a plan for establishing asettlement on the northern Gulf Coast to protect shipping and more quickly rescue castaways. As a result, theexpedition of Tristán de Luna y Arellano was sent and landed at Pensacola Bay on August 15, 1559.

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On December 11, 1526, Charles V granted Pánfilo de Narváez a license to claim what is now the Gulf Coast of theUnited States, known as the Narváez expedition. The contract gave him one year to gather an army, leave Spain, belarge enough to found at least two towns of 100 people each, and garrison two more fortresses anywhere along thecoast. On April 7, 1528, they spotted land north of what is now Tampa Bay. They turned south and traveled for twodays looking for a great harbor the master pilot Miruelo knew of. Sometime during these two days, one of the fiveremaining ships was lost on the rugged coast, but nothing else is known of it.In 1697, Pierre Le Moyne d'Iberville sailed for France and was chosen by the Minister of Marine to lead anexpedition to rediscover the mouth of the Mississippi River and to colonize Louisiana which the English coveted.Iberville's fleet sailed from Brest on October 24, 1698. On January 25, 1699, Iberville reached Santa Rosa Island infront of Pensacola founded by the Spanish; he sailed from there to Mobile Bay and explored Massacre Island, laterrenamed Dauphin Island. He cast anchor between Cat Island and Ship Island; and on February 13, 1699, he went tothe mainland, Biloxi, with his brother Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville. On May 1, 1699, he completed a fort onthe north-east side of the Bay of Biloxi, a little to the rear of what is now Ocean Springs, Mississippi. This fort wasknown as Fort Maurepas or Old Biloxi. A few days later, on May 4, Pierre Le Moyne sailed for France leaving histeenage brother, Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne, as second in command to the French commandant.

Geography

Gulf beach near Sabine Pass

The Mississippi River Watershed is the largestdrainage basin of the Gulf of Mexico Watershed.

The Gulf of Mexico's eastern, northern, and northwestern shoreslie along the US states of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi,Louisiana, and Texas. The US portion of the Gulf coastline spans1,680 miles (2,700 km), receiving water from 33 major rivers thatdrain 31 states. The Gulf's southwestern and southern shores liealong the Mexican states of Tamaulipas, Veracruz, Tabasco,Campeche, Yucatán, and the northernmost tip of Quintana Roo.The Mexican portion of the Gulf coastline spans 1,743 miles(2,805 km). On its southeast quadrant the Gulf is bordered byCuba. It supports major American, Mexican and Cuban fishingindustries. The outer margins of the wide continental shelves ofYucatán and Florida receive cooler, nutrient-enriched waters fromthe deep by a process known as upwelling, which stimulatesplankton growth in the euphotic zone. This attracts fish, shrimp,and squid. River drainage and atmospheric fallout from industrialcoastal cities also provide nutrients to the coastal zone.

The Gulf Stream, a warm Atlantic Ocean current and one of thestrongest ocean currents known, originates in the gulf, as acontinuation of the Caribbean Current-Yucatán Current-LoopCurrent system. Other circulation features include the anticyclonicgyres which are shed by the Loop Current and travel westwardwhere they eventually dissipate, and a permanent cyclonic gyre inthe Bay of Campeche. The Bay of Campeche in Mexicoconstitutes a major arm of the Gulf of Mexico. Additionally, the gulf's shoreline is fringed by numerous bays andsmaller inlets. A number of rivers empty into the gulf, most notably the Mississippi River and Rio Grande in thenorthern gulf, and the Grijalva and

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Map of northern part of Gulf of Mexico

Usumacinta rivers in the southern gulf. The land that forms thegulf's coast, including many long, narrow barrier islands, is almostuniformly low-lying and is characterized by marshes and swampsas well as stretches of sandy beach.

The Gulf of Mexico is an excellent example of a passive margin.The continental shelf is quite wide at most points along the coast,most notably at the Florida and Yucatán Peninsulas. The shelf isexploited for its oil by means of offshore drilling rigs, most ofwhich are situated in the western gulf and in the Bay of Campeche.Another important commercial activity is fishing; major catchesinclude red snapper, amberjack, tilefish, swordfish, and various grouper, as well as shrimp and crabs. Oysters arealso harvested on a large scale from many of the bays and sounds. Other important industries along the coast includeshipping, petrochemical processing and storage, military use, paper manufacture, and tourism.

The gulf's warm water temperature can feed powerful Atlantic hurricanes causing extensive human death and otherdestruction as happened with Hurricane Katrina in 2005. In the Atlantic, a hurricane will draw up cool water fromthe depths and making it less likely that further hurricanes will follow in its wake (warm water being one of thepreconditions necessary for their formation). However, the Gulf is shallower; when a hurricane passes over the watertemperature may drop but it soon rebounds and becomes capable of supporting another tropical storm.The Gulf is considered aseismic; however, mild tremors have been recorded throughout history (usually 5.0 or lesson the Richter scale). Earthquakes may be caused by interactions between sediment loading on the sea floor andadjustment by the crust.

2006 earthquakeOn September 10, 2006, the U.S. Geological Survey National Earthquake Information Center reported that a strongearthquake, ranking 6.0 on the Richter scale, occurred about 250 miles (400 km) west-southwest of Anna Maria,Florida, around 10:56 AM EDT. The quake was reportedly felt from Louisiana to Florida in the Southeastern UnitedStates. There were no reports of major damages, injuries or casualties.[14] Items were knocked from shelves andseiches were observed in swimming pools in parts of Florida.[15] The earthquake was described by the USGS as amidplate earthquake, the largest and most widely felt recorded in the past three decades in the region. According tothe September 11, 2006 issue of The Tampa Tribune, earthquake tremors were last felt in Florida in 1952, recordedin Quincy, 20 miles (32 km) northwest of Tallahassee.

Maritime boundary delimitation agreementsCuba and Mexico: Exchange of notes constituting an agreement on the delimitation of the exclusive economic zoneof Mexico in the sector adjacent to Cuban maritime areas (with map), of July 26, 1976.Cuba and United States of America: Maritime boundary agreement between the United States of America and theRepublic of Cuba, of December 16, 1977.Mexico and United States of America: Treaty to resolve pending boundary differences and maintain the RioGrande and Colorado River as the international boundary, of November 23, 1970; Treaty on maritime boundariesbetween the United States of America and the United Mexican States (Caribbean Sea and Pacific Ocean), of May 4,1978, and Treaty between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of the UnitedMexican States on the delimitation of the continental shelf in the Western Gulf of Mexico beyond 200 nautical miles(370 km), of June 9, 2000.

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BiotaVarious biota include chemosynthetic communities near cold seeps and nonchemosynthetic communities such asbacteria and other microbenthos, meiofauna, macrofauna, and megafauna (larger organisms such as crabs, sea pens,crinoids, and demersal fish and cetaceans including endangered ones) are living in the Gulf of Mexico.[16] The Gulfof Mexico yields more finfish, shrimp, and shellfish annually than the south and mid-Atlantic, Chesapeake, and NewEngland areas combined.The Smithsonian Institution Gulf of Mexico holdings are expected to provide an important baseline of understandingfor future scientific studies on the impact of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill. In Congressional testimony, Dr.Jonathan Coddington, Associate Director of Research and Collections at the Smithsonian’s National Museum ofNatural History, provides a detailed overview of the Gulf collections and their sources which Museum staff havemade available on an online map [17]. The samples were collected for years by the former Minerals ManagementService (renamed the Bureau of Ocean Energy Management, Regulation and Enforcement) to help predict thepotential impacts of future oil/gas explorations. Since 1979, the specimens have been deposited in the nationalcollections of the National Museum of Natural History.

Pollution

Dead zone in the Gulf of Mexico

The major environmental threats to the Gulf are agricultural runoffand oil drilling.

There are frequent "red tide" algae blooms that kill fish and marinemammals and cause respiratory problems in humans and somedomestic animals when the blooms reach close to shore. This hasespecially been plaguing the southwest and southern Florida coast,from the Florida Keys to north of Pasco County, Florida.

The Gulf contains a hypoxic dead zone that runs east-west alongthe Texas-Louisiana coastline. In July 2008, researchers reportedthat between 1985 and 2008, the area roughly doubled in size andnow stretches from near Galveston, Texas, to near Venice,Louisiana. It is now about 8,000 square miles (21,000 km2), nearly the record.[18] Poor agricultural practices in thenorthern portion of the Gulf of Mexico have led to a tremendous increase of nitrogen and phosphorus in neighboringmarine ecosystems, which has resulted in algae blooms and a lack of available oxygen. Occurrences ofmasculinization and estrogen suppression were observed as a result. An October 2007 study of the Atlantic croakerfound a disproportioned sex ratio of 61% males to 39% females in hypoxic Gulf sites. This was compared with a52% to 48% male-female ratio found in reference sites, showing an impairment of reproductive output for fishpopulations inhabiting hypoxic coastal zones.

There are 27,000 abandoned oil and gas wells beneath the Gulf. These have generally not been checked for potentialenvironmental problems.

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Ixtoc I explosion and oil spillIn June 1979, the Ixtoc I oil platform in the Bay of Campeche suffered a blowout leading to a catastrophic explosion,which resulted in a massive oil spill that continued for nine months before the well was finally capped. This wasranked as the largest oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico until the Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010.

Deepwater Horizon explosion and oil spillOn April 20, 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform, located in the Mississippi Canyon about 40 miles (64 km)off the Louisiana coast, suffered a catastrophic explosion; it sank a day-and-a-half later.[19] It was in the process ofbeing sealed with cement for temporary abandonment, to avoid environmental problems. Although initial reportsindicated that relatively little oil had leaked, by April 24, it was claimed by BP that approximately 1,000 barrels(160 m3) of oil per day were issuing from the wellhead, about 1-mile (1.6 km) below the surface on the oceanfloor.[20] On April 29, the U.S. government revealed that approximately 5,000 barrels (790 m3) per day, five timesthe original estimate, were pouring into the Gulf from the wellhead. The resulting oil slick quickly expanded to coverhundreds of square miles of ocean surface, posing a serious threat to marine life and adjacent coastal wetlands, andto the livelihoods of Gulf Coast shrimpers and fishermen.[21] Coast Guard Rear Adm. Sally Brice O’Hare stated thatthe U.S. government will be “employing booms, skimmers, chemical dispersants and controlled burns” to combat theoil spill. As of May 1, 2010, the oil spill cleanup efforts are underway, but hampered by rough seas and the "tea like"consistency of the oil. As of May 27, 2010, USGS had revised the estimate of the leak from 5,000 barrels per day(790 m3/d) to 12,000–19,000 barrels per day (3,000 m3/d)[22] an increase from earlier estimates. On July 15, 2010,BP announced that the leak stopped for the first time in 88 days.

References[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Five_oceans& action=edit[2] Huerta, A.D., and D.L. Harry (2012) Wilson cycles, tectonic inheritance, and rifting of the North American Gulf of Mexico continental

margin. Geosphere. 8(1):GES00725.1, first published on March 6, 2012,[3] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Gulf_of_Mexico& params=21_37_N_87_04_W_[4] Salvador, A. (1991) Origin and development of the Gulf of Mexico basin, in A. Salvador, ed., p. 389-444, The Gulf of Mexico Basin: The

Geology of North America, v. J., Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.[5] Stern, R.J., and W.R. Dickinson (2010) The Gulf of Mexico is a Jurassic backarc basin. (http:/ / geosphere. geoscienceworld. org/ cgi/

content/ abstract/ 6/ 6/ 739) Geosphere. 6(6):739-754.[6] Van Arsdale, R. B. (2009) Adventures Through Deep Time: The Central Mississippi River Valley and Its Earthquakes. Special Paper no. 455,

Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado. 107 pp.[7] Cox, R. T., and R. B. Van Arsdale (2002) The Mississippi Embayment, North America: a first order continental structure generated by the

Cretaceous superplume mantle event. Journal of Geodynamics. 34:163–176.[8] Buffler, R. T., 1991, Early Evolution of the Gulf of Mexico Basin, in D. Goldthwaite, ed., pp. 1-15, Introduction to Central Gulf Coast

Geology, New Orleans Geological Society, New Orleans, Louisiana.[9] Galloway, W. E., 2008, Depositional evolution of the Gulf of Mexico sedimentary basin. in K.J. Hsu, ed., pp. 505-549, The Sedimentary

Basins of the United States and Canada, Sedimentary Basins of the World. v. 5, Elsevier, The Netherlands.[10] Sawyer, D. S., R. T. Buffler, and R. H. Pilger, Jr., 1991, The crust under the Gulf of Mexico basin, in A. Salvador, ed., pp. 53-72, The Gulf

of Mexico Basin: The Geology of North America, v. J., Geological Society of America, Boulder, Colorado.[11] gulfbase.org (http:/ / www. gulfbase. org/ facts. php)[12] Stanton, M. S., 2002, Is the Gulf's Origin Heaven Sent? (http:/ / www. aapg. org/ explorer/ 2002/ 12dec/ gom_impact. pdf) AAPG Explorer

(Dec. 2002) American Association of Petroleum Geologists. Tulsa Oklahoma.[13] Mickus, K., R. J. Stern2, G. R. Keller, and E. Y. Anthony (2009) Potential field evidence for a volcanic rifted margin along the Texas Gulf

Coast. Journal of Geology. v. 37, p. 387-390.[14] Observer News (http:/ / www. observernews. net/ artman/ publish/ article_001724. shtml)[15] United States Geological Survey, September 11, 2006 (http:/ / earthquake. usgs. gov/ eqcenter/ eqinthenews/ 2006/ usslav/ #summary)[16] Minerals Management Service Gulf of Mexico OCS Region (November 2006). "Gulf of Mexico OCS Oil and Gas Lease Sales: 2007-2012.

Western Planning Area Sales 204, 207, 210, 215, and 218. Central Planning Area Sales 205, 206, 208, 213, 216, and 222. Draft EnvironmentalImpact Statement. Volume I: Chapters 1-8 and Appendices". U.S. Department of the Interior, Minerals Management Service, Gulf of MexicoOCS Region, New Orleans. page 3-27 - 3-34 PDF (http:/ / www. gomr. mms. gov/ PDFs/ 2006/ 2006-062-Vol1. pdf).

[17] http:/ / ocean. si. edu/ %5Bfield_referring_node-path%5D/ science/

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[18] Joel Achenbach, "A 'Dead Zone' in The Gulf of Mexico: Scientists Say Area That Cannot Support Some Marine Life Is Near Record Size"(http:/ / www. washingtonpost. com/ wp-dyn/ content/ story/ 2008/ 07/ 31/ ST2008073100349. html?hpid=topnews), Washington Post, July31, 2008

[19] "Burning oil rig sinks, setting stage for spill; 11 still missing" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ news/ nation/ articles/ 2010/ 04/ 23/burning_oil_rig_sinks_setting_stage_for_spill_11_still_missing), by Kevin McGill and Holbrook Mohr (Associated Press), Boston Globe,April 23, 2010

[20] "Well from sunken rig leaking oil" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ lifestyle/ green/ articles/ 2010/ 04/ 25/ well_from_sunken_rig_leaking_oil),by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 25, 2010

[21] "Race to plug leaking oil well off La. spurs new tactics" (http:/ / www. boston. com/ lifestyle/ green/ articles/ 2010/ 04/ 27/race_to_plug_leaking_oil_well_off_la_spurs_new_tactics), by Cain Burdeau (Associated Press), Boston Globe, April 27, 2010

[22] "Gulf Oil Spill Worst in U.S. History; Drilling Postponed" (http:/ / news. nationalgeographic. com/ news/ 2010/ 05/100527-energy-nation-gulf-oil-spill-top-kill-obama/ ), by Marianne Lavelle, National Geographic, May 27, 2010

External links• Resource Database for Gulf of Mexico Research (http:/ / www. gulfbase. org/ )• Gulf of Mexico Integrated Science (http:/ / gulfsci. usgs. gov/ )•  "Mexico, Gulf of". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911•  "Mexico, Gulf of". Collier's New Encyclopedia. 1921.• Bathymetry of the Northern Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean East of Florida (http:/ / purl. fdlp. gov/ GPO/

gpo45168) United States Geological Survey• The Present State of the West-Indies: Containing an Accurate Description of What Parts Are Possessed by the

Several Powers in Europe (http:/ / www. wdl. org/ en/ item/ 4397/ ) written by Thomas Kitchin, 1778, in whichKitchin discusses, in chapter 1, why the Gulf should have been called the "West Indian Sea."

Coordinates: 25°N 90°W (http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Gulf_of_Mexico&params=25_N_90_W_type:waterbody_scale:10000000)

Article Sources and Contributors 10

Article Sources and ContributorsGulf of Mexico  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=594578229  Contributors: 2z, A Musing, ALC Washington, Abc518, Adashiel, AdventurousT92, Ahoerstemeier, Aille,Alansohn, AlexanderPar, AlexiusHoratius, All Is One, Alphachimp, Amakuru, Anastasia888, Anders7187, Andycjp, Angusmclellan, AnonGuy, Anonymous Dissident, Arad3333, ArglebargleIV,Armand85, ArnoldReinhold, Art LaPella, AshbyJnr, Askewchan, Avicennasis, Az1568, Az29, Balcer, Bamadude, Bart133, Barticus88, Bastique, Bazonka, Bejnar, Bemoeial, Betacommand,Betterusername, Bevo, Bierstein, Big Bird, Bkell, Blackcats, Bluebonnet33, Bob Burkhardt, Bobblehead, Bobblewik, Bobjagendorf, Bobo192, Bongwarrior, Boothferry, Brandonian9150,Breadchastick, Brian0918, Bruce1ee, Brumski, Bryan Derksen, CFIF, CJLL Wright, CLW, CMG, Cadiomals, Cadit, Calabe1992, Canadian-Bacon, Ccol7280, Cfpresley, Cgingold, Charigirl321,Chcknwnm, Cherry1000, ChongDae, Christian75, Classical geographer, Computerchippo, Conversion script, Copysan, Courcelles, Cowman109, Crum375, Cthompson, Cwolfsheep, Cyrius,Czarcalvinsk, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, DFS, DVD R W, Darth Panda, Davehi1, Dcljr, DeadEyeArrow, Deconstructhis, Deli nk, Den fjättrade ankan, Depoyster.dick, Deror avi, Diberri, Dinah legg,Dlvmx, Doc Tropics, Donald Albury, Download, Dr. Blofeld, Dricherby, Dylan620, E. Ripley, Ebillar, Ego White Tray, El C, Eliyak, Elliskev, Eluchil404, Englandd, Enkyo2, Epbr123,EscapingLife, Esemono, Estaurofila, Eu.stefan, EugeneZelenko, Ewen, Excirial, Eyu100, Falcanary, Falcon8765, Fanx, Favonian, Feinoha, Feydey, Fieldday-sunday, FinalRapture, Florescent,Fly by Night, Fraggle81, G Clark, GatorSlayerFSU, Gdo01, Gene Nygaard, Geologyguy, GerardM, Giftlite, Giraffedata, Git2010, Glacialfox, GoingBatty, Good Olfactory, GraemeL, Graham87,GregU, Hajor, Hcgclass1, Hike796, Hinto, Hires an editor, Hmains, Hokeman, Hooperbloob, Howcheng, Hunnjazal, Hut 8.5, Immunize, InfoCan, Infrogmation, Ivirivi00, J.delanoy, JLogan,JNW, JYolkowski, JaGa, Jarble, Jay ritchie, Jeffq, Jga49143, Jhendin, Joao Xavier, Joefromrandb, Joeypruitt, John Broughton, Joseph Solis in Australia, Jph, Jsayre64, Jusdafax, Jwb2, Kaare,Kanzure, Katefan0, Kegill, Kemiv, Ken Gallager, Khazar2, Kman543210, Koszmonaut, Ktr101, Kungfuadam, Kuru, Kutless fan1, Larry Dunn, Lawrenceyuen, LazyLadyBuggg, Lepedro,Lhlkjhlkjhlkjh, Librsh, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Little Mountain 5, Llort, LonelyMarble, Loodog, Looxix, Luna Santin, MER-C, MacDaid, Madman2001, Marquez, Materialscientist, Mattisse,McCF, Meaghan, Meegs, Mejor Los Indios, Mermaid Maritza, Michael Hardy, Michaelenandry, Mikenorton, Mikheil 88, Minghong, Mkdw, Moocha, Mushin, N2e, NYCRuss, Nagy,Nascar1996, Natalie Erin, Nautical Pirate, NawlinWiki, Nibuod, Nick Number, Niffweed17, Nsaum75, Ohnoitsjamie, Oneiros, Opokjjkjlkjkljklj, Orangemarlin, Originalwana, Orphan Wiki,OwenX, Oxymoron83, PBS-AWB, Palmeira, Paul August, Paul H., Pdcook, Peter Kaminski, Pevarnj, Pfly, Philip Trueman, Phoenix2, Piano non troppo, Pigman, Pit, Pmsyyz, Poeloq,PoliticalJunkie, Pollinator, Possum, Primadana1, Psiphiorg, Qmax, RPH, Rainier Schmidt, Rangoon11, RapidR, Redd Foxx 1991, Revolución, Riffic, Rjsterling, Rjwilmsi, Robsinden,Romanskolduns, Rossheth, RoyBoy, Rror, Rt66lt, Rtcpenguin, RussBlau, RyanCross, Ryulong, SPUI, Sadads, SarahStierch, SchreiberBike, Scooteristi, Scr0llwheel, Searchme, Seglea, Seraphim,SharkD, SherryBittinger, Shinyditto123456789, Shoeofdeath, Shriram, SkerHawx, Skraz, Skytigerman, Smashville, Smokizzy, Snek01, SnookiBallsHD1, Solarra, Sophitia, SpookyMulder,Srice13, SteveSmith, Student7, Sumsum2010, SuperHamster, TMC, TShilo12, Tbhotch, Teammm, Tempodivalse, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheNewPhobia, Theflyer, Themfromspace,Tickeater, Tide rolls, Tinton5, Toddst1, Tom, Tomthecool, Trevor MacInnis, Trusilver, TurcoGrande, Txnomad, TyA, Ultraviolet scissor flame, VI, Vanished userewfisn2348tui2f8n2fio2utjfeoi210r39jf, Vanka5, Vegaswikian, Visionthing, Vizcarra, Voxpuppet, Vp48750, Vsmith, Wavelength, Waxie23, Wedontneedoil, Wendell, West.andrew.g, Wetman,Wfaulk, Wiki1294, Wknight94, Woohookitty, Wwoods, YUL89YYZ, Yahadreas, Yerpo, Ytuereuuuu, Zereshk, Zyzzy2, 自 教 育, 585 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Fixed gulf map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fixed_gulf_map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NOAAFile:Oceanus.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Oceanus.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Serg!oImage:Sediment in the Gulf of Mexico.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Sediment_in_the_Gulf_of_Mexico.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: NormanKuringImage:Fishing Fleet in Biloxi.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fishing_Fleet_in_Biloxi.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors: Bobjagendorf, Dbenbenn, Ingolfson, Pibwl, Stunteltje, YassieImage:GulfMexTemps 2005Hurricanes.gif  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:GulfMexTemps_2005Hurricanes.gif  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Jenny Wu andBill Lau, Climate and Radiation Branch, NASA-GSFC.File:Wide natural beach near Sabine Pass.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wide_natural_beach_near_Sabine_Pass.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:User:JohntexFile:Mississippirivermapnew.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mississippirivermapnew.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike  Contributors:ShannonFile:Northern Gulf of Mexico map.png  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Northern_Gulf_of_Mexico_map.png  License: Public Domain  Contributors: MineralsManagement Service. Gulf of Mexico OCS RegionImage:Dead Zone NASA NOAA.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Dead_Zone_NASA_NOAA.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: NASA NOAAFile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF,Rei-artur, Rocket000

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