guidelines for writing a research paper in linguistics

8/2/2019 Guidelines for Writing a Research Paper in Linguistics

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VYTAUTAS MAGNUS UNIVERSITY

FACULTY OF HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH PHILOLOGY

STUDENT GUIDELINES

FOR WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

IN LINGUISTICS

VIOLETA KALDAIT

Kaunas 2005


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CONTENTS

Preface

1. Writing a research paper: methodological guidelines.........................1

1.1Plagiarism ............................................................................................11.1.1 Tips on avoiding plagiarism........................................................21.1.2 Material requiring credit..............................................................3

1.2Work-in-progress discussions...............................................................41.3Research paper assessment.................................................................41.4Thesis defence ......................................................................................8

2. Organisation of a research paper .........................................................92.1Preliminaries .........................................................................................9

2.1.1 Title page....................................................................................9

2.1.2 Acknowledgements...................................................................102.1.3 Table of contents .....................................................................112.1.4 List of abbreviations..................................................................11

2.2Sections of a research paper .............................................................112.2.1 Introductory chapters...............................................................112.2.2 Theory, material and method....................................................122.2.3 Results.....................................................................................122.2.4 Conclusion................................................................................13

2.3Supporting material..............................................................................132.3.1 Appendices...............................................................................132.3.2 Documentation of sources........................................................14

2.3.2.1 References......................................................................142.3.2.2 Other source lists..............................................................152.3.2.3 Notes: endnotes and footnotes........................................16

2.3.3 List of tables and figures...........................................................172.4A first try: writing a term paper.............................................................17

2.4.1 Criteria for term paper assessment.........................................193. Writing with style..................................................................................21

3.1Writing as a conscious effort................................................................213.2Writing effectively.................................................................................22

3.2.1 Organising your arguments.......................................................223.2.2 Cohesion and coherence..........................................................23

3.2.3 Transitions.................................................................................243.3Questions of style................................................................................263.3.1 Revising and editing..................................................................26

4. Preparing the final typescript..............................................................294.1Length of a thesis.................................................................................294.2Format 294.3Capitalisation ......................................................................................304.4Headings and sub-headings................................................................304.5Presentation of linguistic data..............................................................31

4.5.1 Examples .................................................................................314.5.2 Tables and figures....................................................................32

4.6 Quotations .........................................................................................354.6.1 Direct quotations.......................................................................36

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4.6.2 Citing indirect sources...............................................................384.7Documenting sources.........................................................................38

4.7.1 Textual references ...................................................................384.7.2 References: a list of works cited...............................................394.7.3 Forms of reference exemplified................................................40

Appendix A: Title page................................................................................ 43Appendix B: Notes section...........................................................................45Appendix C: Contents page.........................................................................46Appendix D: Common abbreviations and expressions in Latin...................50Appendix E: Vocabulary aid........................................................................52References .......................................................................................55

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Preface

Studying for a Bachelor or Master degree at Vytautas Magnus University re-quires, in addition to a successfully completed programme of study, writingand defending a BA / MA thesis.

Most of our language students have some idea of what writing as acreative activity is all about. However, doing research and producing an ad-equate thesis may be a frustrating task. As Watson (1991: vi) in his book Writ-ing a thesis rightly points out, No one ever wrote a thesis by the light ofnature; and those who imagine that being intelligent and having something tosay are enough have been known to fall flat on their faces when they try.

This guide is intended to provide our language students with basic in-sights on writing a research paper in linguistics. The requirements were ap-proved of by the Department of English Linguistics Section. The main atten-tion in the guide is being paid to organisation of research material as well asformal and methodological aspects of the actual production of the paper.

Vytautas Magnus University, Kaunas V.K.

1 WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER:

METHODOLOGICAL GUIDELINES

Writing any research paper (RP) is a challenging activity. First, such a task re-quires specific writing skills which have to be learnt. Second, a potential writeris expected to be able to select, to internalise, to argue effectively, and to ar-range the subject matter in a lucid and logical way. And third, there are certainrequirements of form to be followed.

The main forms of scholarly writing at the Department of English Philo-logy are term papers, bachelor thesis and master thesis; the three differwith respect to their level of complexity in tackling and presenting the researchtopic. However, what unites all these forms of research is their approach to

the issue ofplagiarism.

1.1Plagiarism

The following passage from Gibaldi (1995: 104) sums up what is actually in-volved in documenting sources:

Nearly all research builds on previous research. Researchers com-monly begin a project by studying past work in the area and derivingrelevant information and ideas from their predecessors. This process islargely responsible for the continual expansion of human knowledge. Inpresenting their work, researchers generously acknowledge their debts

to predecessors by carefully documenting each source, so that earliercontributions receive appropriate credit.

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When earlier contributions are not given appropriate credit in somebodyswriting, we deal with the issue of p lagiarism. Alexander Lindey points out thatplagiarism derives from the Latin word plagiarius (kidnapper). In moderntimes the term refers to a form of cheating which has to do with the false as-

sumption of authorship. To put it another way, plagiarism is the wrongful act oftaking the product of another persons mind and presenting it as ones own(Gibaldi 1995: 26).

It should be stressed that plagiarism can be found in a variety of situ-ations. Therefore, it should be remembered at all times that a writer who failsto give appropriate acknowledgement when repeating anothers wording orparticularly apt term, paraphrasing anothers argument, or presenting an-others line of thinking is guilty of plagiarism (ibid.).

Plagiarism is considered to be a serious offence and as a rule impliescertain measures to be taken against the offenderin the worst case, evenrejecting the thesis. However, manuals on thesis writing often stress the idea

that academic plagiarism in student writing is often unconscious. Some sug-gestions of how to avoid producing a piece of writing that can be accused ofplagiarism are presented in Section 1.1.1.

1.1.1 Tips on Avoiding Plagiarism

The rules of thumb given below are taken from Mecham (1992: 43) andGibaldi (1995: 26-9). It is a regular practice to use other persons words and thoughts in your re-

search paper, but do not present them as your own. Always let your reader know when you move from your own words to

those of your source by introducing a quotation or a paraphrased portion. Every sentence with borrowed material (either ideas or words) must con-tain a signal to the reader: an authors name, quotation marks, page num-ber, or pronoun reference. List the author in the References section.

1.1.2 Material Requiring Credit

What you should document as a source is often determined by commonsense. For example, sources are not given for proverbs, well-known quota-tions or common knowledge.

Presented below is a list of material proposed by Lunsford & Connors

(1989) that requires appropriate acknowledgement in scholarly writing (asquoted in Mecham 1992: 44). Direct quotations and paraphrased material. Whenever you use anoth-

er persons words directly or use his/her ideas by paraphrasing or sum-marising, credit the source. Even if you quote a few words in the middle ofa paraphrase, set those words off in quotation marks.

Judgements, opinions, and claims of others. Whenever you summar-ise or paraphrase anyone elses opinion, give the source for that material.Even though the words may be completely your own, you need to givecredit for the idea.

Statistics, charts, tables, and graphs from any source. Credit all stat-

istics or graphic material, even if you yourself created the graph from datafound in another source.

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Information or help provided by instructors or others who might be con-sidered knowledgeable about your subject should be credited to that indi-vidual.

1.2 Work-in-progress Discussions

One of the best ways to evaluate how you are proceeding with your researchpaper, on the one hand, and to get some constructive feedback on somethingthat you have already produced, on the other, is the so-called work-in-pro-gress discussion. Such discussions are very important in that the responseyou get will necessarily help you to improve the quality of your paper.

With respect to those who are going to comment on your writing, theirgain is that responding to somebodys written work is a matter of analyticaland critical thinking, a skill which needs to be learnt and which comes onlywith practice.

The subsequent section contains a set of questions that should be

asked when evaluating any research paper, no matter what stage it is at. It isalso advisable to keep these questions in mind while preparing the final draftof your paper.

1.3 Research Paper Assessment

The points to be taken into account while assessing a research paper offeredbelow build mainly on the suggestions advanced by Mecham (1992: 31-2) andBjrk & Risnen (1997: 307, as cited in Katkuvien & ekauskien 1999:28). When you have received the assignment to comment on what your peer has

written, first, read the paper carefully. Be certain you understand what theauthor intends to do in the paper. After you are familiar with the contents of the paper, read it again to mark

problems you see in grammar, punctuation, spelling, sentence structure,wordiness, introduction of source material, etc.

A critique is an evaluation. While writing your comments, use the headingsbelow to guide you through the task.

1) Choice of topic. Has the student successfully limited and focused thetopic? Does the title predict the content and direction of the paper?

2) The aim/ hypothesis. Is it academically interesting, well-motivated? Is theaim clearly stated? Is the research topic defined properly?

3) Does the Introduction provide the necessary background, definition, orjustification of the issue that is researched?4) Theoretical framework. Is the choice of framework well motivated? Does

the writer show an awareness of other approaches and frameworks, andexplain why this particular one has been chosen?

5) Methodology. Is the research method chosen relevant to the topic andthe aims of the thesis? Are basic concepts and procedures explained ex-plicitly? Are the various categories properly defined? If there are statistics,are they used properly? Is there enough evidence for the claims that aremade?

6) Sources of information: Are all sources valid and useful? What is thequality of those sources? Is the paper free from plagiarism?

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7) Relation to other research. How relevant is the reviewed research? Is itcritically reviewed? Does the writer show an ability to compare critically, togeneralise, to select what is relevant? How clearly does the writer presenthis/her opinion?

8) Discussion of the results. Are the results supported by the evidence?Does the discussion give a helpful perspective to evaluate the results?How are the results related to those of other studies? Is the argument lo-gical?

9) Is the author of the paperthe speakerin the major portion of the paper? Aregeneralisations supported with relevant details to be convincing? Does allinformation have significance? Does all information move the discussionforward? Is it relevant?

10) Is introductory material proportionate to the main body of the paper?(Usually no more than of the paper should be devoted to introduction andbackground of the issue).

11) Are sub-topics logical? Are transitions between topics and sentencesappropriate and sufficient? Do they give the reader a clear sense of the unityof the entire paper?

12) Is the Conclusion concise, and does it give the reader a clear sense of fi-nality? Do the conclusions do more than merely repeat what has been saidbefore? Do they attempt to show wider implications of the studygivingsuggestions for further research or showing connections with other issues?Does the conclusion relate to the initial aim of the thesis?

13)Style and presentation. Is the study easy to read and follow? How is thereader guided along? How are academic conventions followed? Are thetextual references to other works correctly presented? Is there an accept-

able balance between quotation, paraphrase, summary and the like? Arethe tables, diagrams, etc. relevant and easy to understand? Is the overallorganisation clear? Is there a logical progression from section to section?

14) Are individual paragraphs properly developed, with a clear topicsentence? Is all material within a paragraph relevant to the topicsentence? Are there no one-sentence paragraphs?

15) Is the Table ofContents accurate, and are sub-topics worded exactly thesame as in the body of the paper?

16) Check documentation very carefully. Is every source cited in the body ofthe paper accurately listed in References? Does the References sectioncontain all the necessary information?

17) Check for style and mechanics. Note any instances of wordiness,misspelled words or punctuation errors.18)Now check the overall logic of the paper. Are parts clearly and signific-

antly tied to each other? Is argument convincing? Is the writer careful andthorough? Does the thesis do what it says it will? Is there something ori-ginal in the thesis?

19)Comment on overall neatness and appearance.

1.4 Thesis Defence

The oral defence of the thesis is viewed as a final step in your BA or MA stud-

ies.

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The grade given is mostly dependent on the quality of your BA / MAthesis. However, when the Examining Board is in doubt, a successful oralpresentation may influence the final evaluation of your work. It is therefore im-portant to track down any controversial aspects of your thesis beforehand, topredict questions you might be asked by your opponents, and to be aware of

some basic questions that you are expected to discuss during the oralpresentation. While preparing for the defence, concentrate on the following: the purpose of the paper the material and the method of research results and their discussion practical applicability of your work the strengths and weaknesses of your paper suggestions for future research

Remember, that once you are through with your thesis, not manypeople can compete with your knowledge of the subject matter. Just be sureto show it properly!

2 ORGANISATION OF A RESEARCH PAPER

According to Watson (1991: 30), scholarly authorship involves three stages:the first is finding something to say, the second is arranging it, and the third isexpressing it.

Arranging it means that there is a commonly accepted pattern of or-

ganising a paper. Conventionally, in English-speaking countries a paper in lin-guistics is segmented into the following blocks: preliminaries, introductorychapters including a chapter on theory and method, main body, conclusionand supporting material. This particular structuring applies first and foremostto BA and MA theses, and it is the aim of this chapter to discuss it in more de-tail. Writing a term paper will be dealt with separately in Section 2.4.

2.1 Preliminaries

Preliminaries include Title page, Acknowledgements, Contents page, andList of Abbreviations. We will consider them in this order.

2.1.1 Title Page

The information included into the title page is as follows: the title of the paper the students name (first and last) affiliation (the Department and University) the type of the paper (a term paper, a BA or MA thesis) the supervisors name the date of submissionAn example of the title page of a BA thesis is given in Appendix A.

2.1.2 Acknowledgements

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There is no one final answer as to whether a BA or MA thesis should containAcknowledgements, and which people should be mentioned there.

Sajavaara (1994: 21), for example, claims that Supervisors and otherpersons who have been responsible for tutoring at various stages of the thesis

through their formal capacity should never be thanked. The MHRA StyleBook(1996: 66), on the other hand, proposes a different approach:A preface may usefully follow the list of contents. General assistancethat you wish to recognizefrom supervisor, librarians, friends, grant-giving bodiesshould be acknowledged here. Acknowledgements ofspecific instances of assistance are frequently better placed in a noteat the relevant point in the text; acknowledgement of permission to re-produce illustrations, quotations, etc, should appear with the materialconcerned.

Practice shows, however, that the section Acknowledgements is more often

found in PhD theses and books.

2.1.3 Table of Contents

Before you are finished with your thesis, the Table of Contents will register nu-merous changes of your mind. The final version of the Contents is supposedto inform the reader not only about the topic of your paper but also about theway you are going to approach it.

Two examples of the Contents page are presented in Appendix C.2.1.4 List of Abbreviations

Abbreviations which will be regularly used throughout a research papershould be listed with a key and placed before the first page of the main text. Inthis connection, the MHRA Style Book(1996: 19) stresses the following: Never begin a sentence with an abbreviation. The first use of an abbreviation should refer the reader to this list.

2.2 Sections of a Research Paper

2.2.1 Introductory Chapters

There may be one or several introductory chapters in a thesis depending onthe amount of material to be dealt with.

The purpose of the introduction is to place your thesis in relation to thegeneral topic and to other work in the subject area. Therefore, introductionprovides an outline of your response to the topic and states your aim andhypotheses. It also informs what aspect(s) you intend to investigate in yourwork and gives a brief survey of the layout of your paper/thesis.

2.2.2 Theory, material and method

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Chapters of this block provide the necessary background information and dis-cuss theories that are relevant to your study.

The method chapter describes the exact steps that will be taken to ad-dress your hypothesis. The nature and extent of your data and the lines alongwhich your investigation will be carried out are described here.

2.2.3 Results

The suggested outline of the results chapters draws on Rudestam & Newton(1992) and Halverson & Stenstrm (2001).

There is no one answer how the results part should be organised. In alinguistic paper/thesis, presentation of findings and discussion of results isusually spread over several chapters.

Rudestam & Newton (1992: 80) recommend not to overburden thereader with a large mass of data. The task of the writer at this point is to givea simple but complete account of the results without getting into an extended

discussion of the meaning of the findings; the extended discussion belongs tothe discussion section.Therefore, start by presenting your results and then go on to analysing

them. Your results may be presented in the form of tables and figures, or listof examples, or both. Tables and figures should be properly introduced andfollowed by explanatory comments (for specific details, see Section 4.5.2).

Halverson & Stenstrm (2001: 2) are of the opinion that long and com-plicated sections should have a short summary at the end. The analysis of thedata usually makes up the larger part of the main body of the thesis.

2.2.4 Conclusion

As regards the concluding chapter, Halverson & Stenstrm (2001: 2) point outseveral important tracks to be followed. First, the concluding chapter sums upthe whole argument by presenting a general summary of the results; it alsostates the conclusions which can be drawn on the basis of the results. Next,the results of your study can be compared with other findings in the field andwith the initial hypotheses of your project. In addition, if you feel that some ofyour results are inconclusive, e.g. because you have not had enough materi-al, say so here. It is also advisable to indicate what aspects or areas dis-cussed by you require or merit further study. Finally, remember to link whatyou say in the Conclusion with what you said in the Introduction.

2.3 Supporting Material2.3.1 Appendices

According to the MHRA Style Book(1996: 67), appendices should contain thekind of supporting information which would constitute too great an interruptionof the main text and which is too extensive to be included in the notes. There-fore, writers of theses are advised to introduce appendices for the materialwhich is not directly relevant to the argumentation in the paper/thesis, suchas: lists

statistical data questionnaire forms

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copies of documents samples of texts under discussion transcribed material, etc.If there are more than one, Appendices are numbered and given a title.

2.3.2 Documenting Sources

There are different kinds of source lists indicating the literary sources referredto in your paper, such as References, Works Cited, Literature Cited, Bibli-ography, and so on.

2.3.2.1 References

References, Works Cited and Literature Cited mean the same and contain allthe works that are referred to in your paper. Gibaldi (1995: 106) points outthat such a list simplifies documentation by allowing writers to make only brief

references to these works in the running text. Traditionally, the Department ofEnglish Philology gives preference to the heading List of References orsimply References, and every type of research paper must contain it. List ofReferences appears at the end of the paper, and the entries are listed in al-phabetical order by the surname of the author. A detailed description of the in-formation that should be included into References is given in Section 4.7.2.

An important note is in order here. Compiling the List of Referencesshould not be a last-minute task before submission of your thesis. Preparingthe list is a time-consuming job which requires much careful work and atten-tion to detail.

2.3.2.2 Other Source Lists

The information presented in this sub-section draws on Gibaldi (1995: 106-7). Bibliography (description of books) includes both works referred to and

those that were consulted but not mentioned in the text. Annotated Bibliography (or Annotated List of Works Cited) contains

descriptive or evaluative comments on the sources, as in the example be-low. (Note that this is a regular way to document a source in literature butNOT linguistic papers.)Thompson, Stith. The Folktale. New York: Dryden, 1946. A comprehensivesurvey of the most popular folktales, including their histories and their uses

in literary works. The heading Selected Bibliography (orSelected List of Works Consul-

ted) is appropriate for lists suggesting readings in the field. The title Works Consulted indicates that the list of entries is not confined

to works cited in the paper.2.3.2.3 Notes: Endnotes and Footnotes

Notes serve to present different types of information, for example, commentsor longer references; they are also used for documenting sources. In a thesis,it is a standard practice to make all notes endnotes. As the name implies,

endnotes are notes which appear after the text, i.e. they are placed at the end

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of chapters. While presenting them, follow the procedure proposed by Gibaldi(1995: 242-3) and the MHRA Style Book(1996: 2): Number notes consecutively, starting from 1, throughout a research paper. Format note numbers as superscript, arabic numerals, (like this1), following

any punctuation or at the ends of sentences whenever possible.

Start the Notes section on a new page numbered in sequence with thepreceding page. Present the notes in a consecutive order. The notes will normally be set by the printer in type smaller than that used

for the text. Check that the reference numbers in the text agree with the numbers of

the corresponding notes.Footnotes appear at the bottom of pages. They are less common now

and we suggest avoiding them in your writing. Footnotes, however, can beused in a shorter paper, for example, a term paper. If you have decided touse footnotes, follow these requirements:

Begin footnotes four lines (two double spaces) below the text. Single-space footnotes, but double-space between them.An illustrative example ofNotes is given in Appendix B.

2.3.3 List of Tables and Figures

If your study is based on the analysis of linguistic data, it is often best topresent your data in tables or in some other schematic form, such as graphs,charts, or diagrams. They should be listed as separate items with page refer-ences under the heading ofList of Tables as the final item on the Contentspage (see Appendix C for an example of a Contents page).

2.4 A First Try: Writing a Term Paper

Thepurpose of writing a term paper is to produce an analysis of a selectedtopic presented, shaped and documented according to the established formalrequirements. Therefore, writing a term paper is a good opportunity to learn agame with new rules (Watson 1991: vi). The general requirements for a termpaper are as follows: The length of a term paperis 2000-2400 words (10-12 pages). It should be printed on A4 format paper and double-spaced. A 12 point type size for the main body of the text in Times New Roman

or equivalent font should be used.The argument that you are presenting in a term paper is in responseto a question/topic that you state in a brief title. Your writing should not be alist or collection of quotes, but rather an argument supported by analysis ofthe evidence that you have collected. While writing, employ neutral style anda formal way of presenting your ideas. Avoid, if possible, personal referencesuch as I, we, etc.

After discussing the selected topic with your supervisor, study thebackground literature on your subject. This will give you some useful ideasabout how you should approach your topic. Try to create your own system ofmaking notes while reading the source material; make it a habit to write down

the name of the source and the page number immediately.

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As is the case with a BA or MA thesis, a term paper has to be struc-tured according to the formal requirements. Even much shorter, it should in-clude the following elements: Title page. The title page should include the title of the paper, your name

and affiliation. Pages should be numbered, starting with page 1 of the In-

troduction. Table of contents. Here you list sections and sub-sections of your paper

with page references. The introductory section. The purpose of the introduction is to give an

outline of your response to the topic. Tell what aspect(s) you intend to in-vestigate. Give a brief survey of your paper.

The body of the term paper. Here you should develop your ideas into acomprehensive and logical argument. Paraphrasing of ideas and quota-tions should be always indicated by references.

The concluding section. This should sum up your argument, not repeat-ing exactly what you have said before. Never end with a quotation.

Quotations. Quotations must be used as a method of presenting evid-ence. For all formal matters as to quoting and textual references see Sec-tions 4.6 and 4.7 below.

The list of references. Your paper must have a list of references. Even ifit consists of one item, you need to document it. Start on a new page. Ifthere are several sources, arrange the entries alphabetically by the sur-name of the author (for details see Sections 2.3.2.1 and 4.7.2).

2.4.1 Criteria for Term Paper Assessment

Presented below are the main criteria taken into account while evaluating your

term paper. Keep them in mind when preparing the final copy of your paperfor submission.Failing mark heavy plagiarism(any of these) less than 2000 words

poor language and/grammarexceptionally poor treatment of topicmostly off-topic

5-6 some plagiarism(any of these) poor language and/grammar

topic very poorly developed7-8 some problems with English

parts of topic well developed, parts not9-10 good Englishwell supported analysissource materials used creativelyoriginal ideasexcellent technical form

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3 WRITING WITH STYLE

It is easy to write, hard only to write wellWatson (1991: 38) warns freshwriters, and his claim is amply supported by our own experience.

It is no secret that a lot of students suffer from what Watson (ibid.)

refers to as white-paper phobia brought about by the belief that if they are towrite at all, they must write well. However, this is not exactly the case.

3.1 Writing as a Conscious Effort

Literature in the field argues with good faith that writing is a process and not asingle act; therefore, there is nothing degrading about a bad first draft. Watson(1991: 39), for example, strongly believes that writing is a matter of pushingwords on the pagealtering, reordering, adding, deleting, refining.And if you still feel that you are not ready to write, trust the credibility of theadvice below (adapted from Watson 1991 and Mecham 1992).

The first step towards defeating the fear of writing is to lower standards.Nothing need come out perfect the first time. Every sentence, everyphrase is subject to later revision.

Sketch a draft Table of Contents and start writing at once. Writing a thesisstarts with writing, not with preparing to write.

Feeling unready to write is no excuse at all. In scholarship one is neverready, since there is always something more that one could read. Sinceyou are never ready to write, start writing before you are ready.

Once a sentence is lying on the page, it becomes clear what is right andwhat is wrong with it. Go on with writing; everything can be mended later.

Do not forget that your work will need polishingboth revising and editing.

3.2 Writing Effectively3.2.1 Organising Your Argumentation

The prevailing pattern of a thesis is an argument. Mechams (1992: 74)checklist for argumentative papers below will give you some guidance for thismode of writing. A good research paper presents a work that is of interest to both the writer

and the audience, is debatable, and can be defended. Good scholarly prose is efficiently specific. Each statement offered in

support of argument is backed up with enough evidence. All quotations

and direct references to primary and secondary sources are fullydocumented. Supporting statements and data are organised in a way that builds the

argument, emphasises the authors main ideas, and justifies the papersconclusions.

The paper is written in a style and tone appropriate to the topic andintended audience. The authors prose is clear and readable.

3.2.2 Cohesion and Coherence

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Your research paper will be clear and readable and will make sense only ifyou succeed in turning it into a coherent textual whole. A good piece of writingis said to stick together, both linguistically and conceptually.

The quality of hanging together is known in linguistic literature as thecoherence and cohesion of a text. A coherent text has continuity of sense,

whereas cohesion has to do with connectivity between its surface elements.Baker (1992: 218) sums up the difference between cohesion and coherenceas follows:

Like cohesion, coherence is a network of relations which organize andcreate a text: cohesion is the network of surface relations which linkwords and expressions to other words and expressions in a text, andcoherence is the network of conceptual relations which underlie thesurface text. [] We could say that cohesion is the surface expressionof coherence relations, that it is a device for making conceptualrelations explicit.

Cohesion, as a feature of text organization, requires that texts coheregrammatically and lexically. It involves formal linguistic means, such asreference, substitution, ellipsis, conjunction, and lexical cohesion (for more onthis point, see Halliday & Hasan 1976).

Coherent stretches of language are connected by conceptual ormeaning dependencies (Baker 1992: 218). As regards your thesis, coherencepresupposes the following: the individual paragraphs within a chapter areproperly developed; they show a logical progression from section to section;the parts of the argumentation cohere as a total argument.

One of the ways to achieve coherence and ensure a smooth forwardmovement from one bit of supporting information to the next is the use of

transitions (conjunctions and linkers). They help to hold the parts of yourargument together and to move the paragraph forward.

3.2.3 Transitions

Transitions are often defined as signals that help readers to follow thedirection of the writers thought; they are said to perform the role of signpostson the road that guide travellers (Langan 1989: 11). However, in spite of theirindisputable significance, transitions must be used very carefully. Considerwhat Baker (1992: 218) writes on the issue:

For instance, a conjunction such as therefore may express a

conceptual notion of reason or consequence. However, if the readercannot perceive an underlying semantic relation of reason orconsequence between the propositions connected by therefore, s/hewill not be able to make sense of the text in question []. Generallyspeaking, the mere presence of cohesive markers cannot create acoherent text; cohesive markers have to reflect conceptual relationswhich make sense.

Given below are the most commonly used transitional words and expressionsgrouped according to the kind of signal they give to readers (the list is basedon Langan 1989 and Mecham 1992).

Purpose Transitional words and expressions To add an idea and, also, too, in addition, moreover,

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furthermore, besides, in fact To supply an exampleto for example, for instance,support generalisation specifically, as an illustration, such as To indicate the order in first, at first, initially, next, then, last,which events occur or finally, before, after, earlier, later,

ideas are presented subsequently, while, until, as To indicate the cause or because, since, for, the reason isreason for something To indicate the effect or therefore, so, thus, as a result,result of something consequently, accordingly To indicate that one thing but, however, nevertheless, on theIs different from or contrasts contrary, although, whereas, while, inwithanother thing contrast, despite, in spite of, yet, on the

other hand To indicate that one thing similarly, likewise, in the same manner, inIs similar to another thing that the same way, along the same lines, as,

has already been mentioned like To indicate a condition unless, if, even if, or, provided that, as long

as To indicate that something in other words, that is, that is to saywill be restated for clarity To indicate the end of a finally, at last, after all, in conclusion,thought or list to conclude, to sum up

Note that certain words provide more than one kind of signal;moreover, the words in each conceptual category are not always equivalent.To practice the use of transitions, turn to workbooks on the subject.

3.3 Questions of Style

In his book Writing a Thesis (1991), George Watson passes on his personalexperience and invaluable advice to those who first engage in scholarlywriting. Some of his ideas on questions of style are presented here in anadapted form (for a more thorough discussion, see Watson 1991: Chapter11).

Watsons basic claim about good writing is that it begins in freedomand ends in discipline: the self-discipline of a style (Watson 1991: 67). Heargues strongly that Style is something which can wait for revision. Since it is unattainable at

first drafting, the first draft may reasonably ignore it. A good style in scholarly prose is defined by the following properties: it isclear; it is rigorous without needless technicality; it can be read andunderstood, at a single reading, by someone outside the subject.

The above properties are the ideal, not the requirement. A good thesis cando with something lessbut remember that a good style cannot be muchless.

3.3.1 Revising and Editing

Scholarly texts belong to the formal written register and, as such, they have to

meet the requirements of an academic style of writing. However, Watson

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(1991: 67) draws our attention to the fact that For all but a few rare spirits,style is hard-wonan ultimate effect of revision and editing.

Editing is an essential condition of writing in good style; it implies aclose attention to detail and is concerned with words, phrases, sentencestructure, and even punctuation. When revising and editing your research

paper, try to apply (creatively) some of the suggestions below. Points 1 - 4come from Mecham (1992: 6), while the rest draws on the ideas found inStrunk (1979).1) Be aware that academic prose is characterised by the use of complex

structures, passive constructions, and word-order variation.2) Therefore, add variety to the structure of your sentences. Vary the

beginnings of sentences, e.g., begin with: an adverb or an adverbial clause:Suddenly,Even though English rules remain the same, a prepositional or a verbal phrase:

For the writer,To be really successful, a connective (a conjunction, conjunction adverb, or transitionalexpression), an appositive or an absolute phrase.

3) Vary the length of your sentences.4) Give emphasis to important ideas by:

placing important words at the end of the sentence, arranging ideas in the order of climax, using active voice and forceful verbs, occasionally inverting the word order,

abruptly changing sentence length.5) Use definite, specific, concrete language.6) Omit needless words. Vigorous writing is concise. A sentence should

contain no unnecessary words, a paragraphno unnecessary sentences.Wrong: the question as to whether Correct: whether

this is a subject that this subject, etc .7) Express coordinate ideas in similar form (the principle of parallel

construction), as in:To be French is to be like no one else; to be American is to be likeeveryone else.

8) By this principle, an article or a preposition applying to all the members of

a series must either be used only before the first term or else be repeatedbefore each term:in spring, summer, or winter

9) Correlative expressions (both, and; not, but; not only, but also; either, or;first, second, third; and the like) should be followed by the samegrammatical construction. Many violations of this rule can be corrected byrearranging the sentence. Compare:Wrong: It was both a long ceremony and very tedious.Correct: The ceremony was both long and tedious.Wrong: My objections are, first, the injustice of the measure; second,

that it is unconstitutional.

Correct: My objections are, first, that the measure is unjust; second, thatit is unconstitutional.

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4 PREPARING THE FINAL TYPESCRIPT4.1 Length of a Thesis

The length of a thesis depends on the local regulations which must be consul-

ted and observed. At the Department of English Philology the requirementsare as follows: BA thesis is 20-35 pages (plus appendices, if there are any); MA thesis is 55-70 pages (plus appendices, if there are any).

4.2 Format

A very important requirement with respect to the formal conventions of any re-search paper is be consistent. If you choose one way of doing things, followthe pattern throughout the paper.

Format guidelines are as follows:

use one side of the paper only, double line spacing, justification full OR left, preferably, 12 point Times New Roman or an equivalent font, the right margin should be 2-3 cm, the left margin should be wider, 3-4 cm, so that the paper might be bound, start numbering pages afterContents, with page 1 of the Introduction, page numbers should be centred or typed in the bottom right hand corner, use the tabulator key for indenting the first line of a new paragraph (except

the first paragraph under a heading and the first line of a paragraph dir-ectly related to an immediately preceding table or figure).

4.3 Capitalisation

If you choose to capitalise the headings and sub-headings of your paper, ortitles of books you refer to in the running text and document in References,follow the general rule for capitalisation (MHRA Style Book1996: 25): capitalise the initial letters of the first word and of all nouns, pronouns (ex-

cept that), adjectives, verbs, adverbs, and subordinating conjunctions, do not capitalise the initial letters of articles, possessive determiners

(my, etc.), prepositions, and the co-ordinating conjunctions and, but,or, and nor. Note the examples:

Put Out More FlagsHow Far Can You Go?A Voyage towards the South Pole

4.4 Headings and Sub-headings

CHAPTER HEADINGS should be numbered and written in capital lettersand in bold.

Section and sub-section headings should be numbered and written inlower-case letters OR capitalised. The former (section heading) should bein bold, and the latter (sub-section) should be italicised. Both types should

be separated from the following text by double spacing. The first para-

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graph under a heading should start flush left. The following paragraphs areindented. Consider the relevant example:

3 CORPUS-BASED DESCRIPTIONS OF ENGLISH

3.5 Lexical description

3.1.1 Pre-electronic lexical description for pedagogical purposes

Whereas lexicographical studies have, until recently, typically described thelexicon without statistics, for much of the 20th century there has been a tradi-tion of corpus-based lexical studies with statistical information for pedagogicalpurposes.

Vocabulary research was undertaken with major support from theCarnegie Corporation in the 1930s. Conferences in the USA and the UKbrought together leading linguists and English language teaching specialists

including West from India, Palmer from Japan, Sapir and Thorndike from theUSA and Faucett from China.

(Taken from: Kennedy, Graeme. 1998. An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics.London & New York: Longman.)

4.5 Presentation of Linguistic Data4.5.1 Examples

If your research paper is based on the analysis and discussion of linguisticdata, you will have to introduce actual examples and refer to them as you go

along. For easier reference, examples should be numbered consecutivelythroughout the entire text, the number being put in parentheses. Place yourexamples flush left. In a thesis, which consists of several chapters andmakes use of hundreds of examples, the numbering of examples should indic-ate chapter reference as well. Conventionally, the unacceptability of the utter-ance is marked with an asterisk (*).

(1) There never was a Dracula.

(1.4) *There is the wolf at the door.

(4.16) Yra vardelis ir pavardl, nra manois name:NOMsgDIM and surname:NOMsgDIM not-is mybrolelio.brother:GENsgDIM'There is a name and a family name, but my dear brother is no longeralive'

When a particular example is used twice (i.e. you introduce it for a secondtime), it should be renumbered. Introduce such an example in the followingway: In example (37), previously discussed/presented as example (9),

If the number of examples in your paper is rather limited, they can be

given in the running text in an italicised form; they can also be numbered con-secutively without chapter reference.

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4.5.2 Tables and Figures

Tables and figures are a concise way of organising and presenting your lin-guistic data. If you have decided to use them in your thesis, follow the general

requirements (adapted from Halverson & Stenstrm 2001: 4): Plan your tables and figures so that they will fit onto one page without

splitting them apart. Tables should not contain too much information; onthe other hand, a table having only a few numbers is not justified.

In the running text tables and figures should be placed as close to the rel-evant part of the text as possible.

Tables and figures should be numbered consecutively and include chapterreference, e.g. Table 1.1, Table 3.2, Figure 2.1, Figure 4.2, etc. The num-ber should be followed by a caption in headline style.

Add an extra line space between the legend and the table / figure. You can use smaller typeface, e.g. 11-size script, to present your tables.

Remember that you cannot just present your data in tablesthey have tobe properly described and analysed. It is customary to locate the number and legend above the table and un-

derthe figure. Reference to tables and figures in the running text is made

either directly as part of a sentence, as in: Table 5.5 belowlists various groups of exceptions which have been widely discussed inthe literature, or indirectly, i.e. referring to them in brackets, as in: (see alsoTable 3.4 above).

Tables and figures should be put flush left and have an extra line space

before and after them.An example of a possible arrangement of a table is presented below.

Table 5.1 Existential be/bti: dominant values and the corresponding se-mantic types of ES in English and Lithuanian

Semantictypeof ES

Existential verb BE/BTI Semantic typeof ES

English English Dominant value of be/ bti Lithuanian Lithuanian

I. Absolute use of be / bti:Ontological + (1) to exist in life, to live + Type 1:

VitalOntological + (2) to have place in the world of

fact, to exist+ Type 2:

OntologicalOntological + (3) existential formula there +be + Type 4:

Pure existenceOntological + (4) to come into existence, come

about, happen, occur, take place+ Type 6:

Occurrence ofevents (emer-gence)

II. Locative model of existence:Locative-existential

+ (5) to have or occupy a place + Type 3:Locative

(Existential- -- (6) to have + Type 5:

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have device) PossessiveLocative oc-currence

+ (7) occur, take place + Type 6:Punctual emer-gence

Presentative + (8) appearance on the scene + Type 7:Presentative

As concerns figures, Rudestam & Newton (1992: 84) define them in thefollowing way: A figure may be a chart, graph, photograph, line drawing, orjust about anything else that is not a table. Depending on the material presen-ted, figures can take different shapes. The illustrative example is taken fromKennedy (1998: 84):CB8 2667 172 32 Blue cheese lovers will welcome new French blue cheese fromthe Pays de Bresse in eastern France.

Figure 2. 7 A fragment from the BNC showing SGML markup

4.6 Quotations

Other peoples ideas can be incorporated into your research paper as sum-mary, paraphrase, ordirect quotation.

It is often stressed that originality in any research paper requires yourpersonal presentation of the assimilated material. Remember that it is youwho should be the speaker in the major portion of your thesis, and letthe numbers below guide you through the process (from Mecham 1992: 45): Direct quotation should make up not more than 20% of the paper; About 20% to 30% may consist of paraphrased material; About 50% should be your own thinking.

Mecham (ibid.) adds that there is nothing wrong with citing more thanone source in a paragraph. Good research writing combines personal com-ments, direct quotation, and paraphrase or summary within the same para-graph.

4.6.1 Direct Quotations

Students are often in doubt what kind of material suits best to be presented ina direct quote. On this Gibaldi (1995) writes:

Quotations are effective in research papers when used selectively.Quote only words, phrases, lines, and passages that are particularly in-teresting, vivid, unusual, or apt, and keep all quotations as brief aspossible. (72)

Your decision to use a direct quote may also be influenced by the followingreasons (from Mecham 1992: 48): I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so impress-

iveor so clever that to put them in my own words would lessen the im-pact.

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I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so precisethat to put them in my own words would change their meaning.

I am quoting this passage because the authors words are so concisethat I would need twice as many words to paraphrase the passage.All direct quotations (integrated, separated, or block) should correspond

exactly with the original. If you omit anything, indicate thisby using three periods:In his discussion of pragmatic presupposition, Stalnaker (1973) makes the fol-lowing important observation concerning certain apparent violations of prag-matic rules and principles:

If, in a normal context, a speaker uses a sentence which requires a pre-supposition then by that very act, he does make the required presup-position. (1973: 451)

(Taken from Lambrecht, Knud. 1998. Information structure and sentence

form. Cambridge University Press.) If you insert comments or explanations of your own, e.g. alteration of

grammatical forms, you may do so within square brackets, for example:In this connection we may note the following statement by Milsark:

This larger set would be the 'list' which seems to be lurking in the back-ground of the interpretation of sentences such as (97)-(99) [here (3.117)and (3.118), V.K.] (Milsark 1979: 209)

You can use two ways of presenting quotes in the running text:1) Use single quotation marks for the quotation and double quotation

marks for quotes within quotes, e.g.:

With respect to English, '...abstractions such as absence, probability, andgeneric activities are not "vividly on stage" and therefore require existentialthere' (Lakoff 1987: 542).

2) Another choice is to use double quotation marks for quotation in the run-ning text and single quotation marks for quotes within quotes.

Long quotations (50 words or more) should be given in one block, i.e. sep-arated from the running text, introduced by a colon (if needed), not en-closed by quotation marks, single-spaced, and indented left, as in the onebelow:This second principle is based on the idea thatstatements, in respect of their informativeness, are not generally self-suffi-

cient units, free of any reliance upon what the audience is assumed toknow or to assume already, but commonly depend for their effect uponknowledge assumed to be already in the audiences possession.(Strawson 1964: 97)

(From Lambrecht, Knud. 1998. Information structure and sentence form.Cambridge University Press).

Note also that this is the only type of quote where the period comes be-fore the parenthetical source page (see the block quote from Gibaldi at thebeginning of this section).

If you think a shorter quotation is very significant for your purposes, you

can also separate it from the running text, i.e. present it as a block quote.

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4.6.2 Citing Indirect Sources

Though rare, there might be times when the original source which you want toquote is not available. In that case both the original and the secondarysources should be acknowledged, as in: Von der Gabelentz illustrated his

point by listing several ways in which German expressed the idea of generality(1891: 97-8, as cited in Mustajoki 1993: 21)

4.7 Documenting Sources4.7.1 Textual References

References in the running text consist of a page reference to a specific workof an author. In the running text they should be enclosed in brackets, e.g. (Chesterman

1991: 26); (Babby 1980: 12-4); (Chafe 1976: 7ff), where ff means the fol-lowing pages.

References to an entire work are given like this: (Jespersen 1949). Initials are used only when it is necessary to distinguish two writers with

the same surname, e.g. J. Lyons (1981) and C. Lyons (1999). If the authors name is part of the text, only the year and a page reference

is taken into brackets, as in According to Chomsky (1986: 57), the sameview is implicit

If a work is by more than one author, the reference needs plural verb:Quirk et al. (1985: 1045) point out that

When referring to two or more authors with respect to a particular problemor topic, mention them in chronological order.

Use italics for titles of books and journals (both in References and in the

running text).4.7.2 References: a List of Works Cited

Under the heading ofReferences (located at the end of your research paper)you list your sources in alphabetical order. Start on a new page, continuing the page numbers of the text. Arrange the entries alphabetically by the surname of the author. If there are several works by one author, list them chronologically (the

earliest first). If one author has several works published in the same year,write 1998a, 1998b, etc.

Cite a book published in a language other than English like any otherbook. Each entry in References should contain the following information:

author's name, given in full OR the first letter of the name; in eithercase, be consistent throughout; year of publication (not printing); title of the work;name of periodical (only in the case of articles), with word-initial letterscapitalised;place of publication (except in the case of journals);page numbers in the case of articles in books and journals as a final

item. Italicise titles of books and journals (but not articles).

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You can present titles of articles either (a) within quotation marks OR (b)not; in either case, be consistent throughout.

4.7.3 Forms of Reference Exemplified

Where relevant, we also give an alternative way of presenting bibliographicalinformation in your References. A monographBaker, Carl Lee. 1989. English syntax. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.OR: Baker, C. L. 1989. English Syntax. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. A monograph in a new editionBreivik, Leiv Egil. 1990. Existential there. A synchronic and diachronic study.

2nd ed. Oslo: Novus. A reviewCoopmans, Peter. 1983. Review ofLanguage universals and linguistic typology:

syntax and morphology by Bernard Comrie. Journal of Linguistics 19:

455-73. A work in more than one volumeGivn, Talmy. 1990. Syntax: a functional-typological introduction. Vol 2.

Amsterdam: John Benjamins. Several works by the same author published the same yearDane, Frantiek. 1974a. Functional sentence perspective and the organiza-

tion of the text. In Dane 1974b (ed), 106-128.Dane, Frantiek (ed). 1974b. Papers on functional sentence perspective.

Prague: Academia. A work by more than one authorQuirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & J. Svartvik. 1985. A comprehensive

grammar of the English language. London: Longman. A book in a language other than EnglishDahlhaus, Carl. 1967. Musiksthetik. Kln: Gerig. A collection of papers/articlesReuland, Eric & Alice ter Meulen (eds). 1987. The representation of

(in)definiteness. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. A dictionaryLongman dictionary of contemporary English. 1987. London: Longman. An encyclopediaMalmkjr, Kirsten (ed). 1991. The Linguistics encyclopedia. Routledge. An article in a journal

Allan, Keith. 1971. A note on the source of there in existential sentences.Foundations of Language 7: 1-18. OR:Allan, K. 1971. A note on the source of there in existential sentences.

Foundations of Language 7: 1-18. An article in a collection of papersChafe, W.L. 1976. Givenness, contrastiveness, definiteness, subjects, topics,

and point of view. In Charles Li (ed) Subject and topic. New York &London, 25-55.

An unpublished thesis / dissertationHasund, Kristine. 1996. Girls' conflict talk. Unpublished MA thesis. Department

of English, University of Bergen.

Gundel, Jeanette K. 1974. The role of topic and comment in linguistic theory.Ph.D. dissertation, University of Texas at Austin.

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An unpublished conference paperMustajoki, Arto. 1995. Is a meaning-based syntax model possible? Paper

presented at the conference 'Linguistics by the end of the twentiethcentury: achievements and perspectives'. Moscow, February 1-4, 1995.

Szabolsci, Anna. 1984. (In)definiteness effects in Hungarian. Paper presented at

the Fifth Groningen Round Table, Groningen, June 1984. The Internet address/Web siteHertfordshire County Council Internet Homepage. http://www. Hertscc.gov.uk

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Appendix A: TITLE PAGE (in English and Lithuanian)

SEMANTIC ANALYSIS OF CONNOTATIONS AND THEIRROLE IN INTERPRETING MEANING OF WORDS

By Egl Gineikait

Department of English PhilologyVytautas Magnus UniversityBachelor of Arts ThesisSupervisor: Assoc.prof. Dalia Masaitien30 May 2001

Appendix B: NOTES SECTION

NOTES

1 The term derived intransitivity is used in Cranmer (1976:9) and applies toRussian -sja verbs, which are derived from transitive verbs syntactically,ie, no change in lexical meaning is involved. In Lithuanian scholarship, thistype of reflexive verb is referred to as decausative reflexive verbs; suchverbs as these are claimed to denote states, processes and actions (cfLG: 231).

2 This section primarily draws on Kaldait 1996. It has undergone somerevision in order to incorporate the overall methodology of ContrastiveFunctional Analysis laid out in Chesterman 1998.

3 Krzeszowski (1990:35) differs in this respect positing three stages of CA:(i) description, (ii) juxtaposition, and (iii) comparison.

4 For an exhaustive survey of the nature of controversies and problemsconnected with the methodology of traditional Contrastive Analysis seeKrzeszowski 1990, especially Introduction and Chapters 1 through 6,and also Chesterman 1998, Chapters 1 and 2.

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(Taken from Kaldait Violeta. 2000. Existential sentences. A contrastive studyof English and Lithuanian. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Bergen.)

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Appendix C: CONTENTS PAGEThe title of the authentic MA thesis is A study of word order patterns in OldEnglish with special reference to the verb-second constraintsubmitted to theUniversity of Bergen, Department of English.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 INTRODUCTION 11.1Background 11.2Hypothesis, aim and scope 21.3Material and method 3

1.3.1 Paulus Orosius and King Alfred 4

1.3.2 lfric 51.3.3 The translations 61.3.4 Problems 7

1.4The clitic hypothesis 81.4.1 Van Kemenade 91.4.2 Discussion 121.4.3 Conclusion 13

2 PREVIOUS RESEARCH 162.1Theories supporting the V2 hypothesis 16

2.1.1 Vennemann 162.1.2 Haiman 20

2.1.3 Stockwell 232.1.4 Others 262.2Other views of OE word order 29

2.2.1 Bean 292.2.2 Others 30

2.3Discussion 322.3.1 Vennemann, Stockwell and Haiman 322.3.2 Bean and Vennemann 34

3 PRESENTATION OF DATA 373.1 Word order patterns in Orosius and lfric

38

3.1.1 The notion of clitics disregarded 383.1.2 Clitics 563.2 Conclusion 60

4 THEMATIC STRUCTURE AND TRANSFORMATIONS 654.1Definitions 66

4.1.1 Given and new information 664.1.2 Theme and rheme 714.1.3 Topicalization and commentization 72

4.2Thematic structure and transformations 744.2.1 Subjects 744.2.2 Objects 78

4.2.3 Adverbials 824.2.4 Verbs 86

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4.3Conclusion 905 CONCLUSION 93REFERENCES 97APPENDIX Key to abbreviations 101

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The second (hypothetical) thesis has a different structuring:

CONTENTS

List of tables iAbbreviations iii

1 INTRODUCTION 11.1Aim of the study 11.2Theoretical framework and method 2

1.2.1 Corpus of data 41.3Previous research 41.4Outline of the thesis 7NOTES 9

2 RELEVANT ASPECTS OF THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 10

2.1Introduction 112.2Word order typology 122.3Information structuring 132.4Translation as a basis for contrastive analysis 14NOTES 15

3 THE ENGLISH FULL PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTION 163.1Introduction 173.2Verbs in the EFPC 17

3.2.1 Be 193.2.2 Intransitive verbs 213.2.3 Transitive verbs 23

3.3The postverbal NP 253.3.1 The definiteness restriction: overview 273.4Patterns of the EFPC 293.5Conclusion 32NOTES 33

4 THE LITHUANIAN PRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTION 344.1Introduction 34

4.1.1 Be-sentences: the problem 354.2Presentative constructions in Lithuanian 37

4.2.1 Semantic organization 384.2.2 Verbs in the LPC 41

4.2.2.1 Intransitive verbs 424.2.2.2 Transitive verbs 434.2.2.3 The postverbal NP 45

4.3Conclusion 46NOTES 47

5 COMPARING THE ENGLISH AND LITHUANIANPRESENTATIVE CONSTRUCTIONS 485.1Introduction 485.2The verbs in English and Lithuanian PCs 485.3Definite postverbal NPs in English and Lithuanian PCs 505.4Conclusion 52NOTES 53

6 CONCLUSION 546.1The functions performed by the presentative construction 56

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6.2Areas for future research 58APPENDIX A. Forms of the verb btibe 59REFERENCES 61List of tablesTable 3.1 Frequency and position of the locative element 24

Table 3.2 Verbs in the EFPC 31Table 4.1 Subject case marking in Lithuanian PCs 45Table 4.2 Types of postverbal NPs in Lithuanian PCs 46Table 6.1 Basic structural constituents of PCs in English and

Lithuanian 53

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Appendix D: COMMON ABBREVIATIONS ANDEXPRESSIONS IN LATIN

ad hoc (to this) for this specific purpose; for a special case only,

without general applicationceteris paribus (other things being equal) all else remaining the samecf. (confer) comparedictum (something said) a formal statement of fact, opinion,

principle, etc.e.g. (exempli gratia) for exampleet al. (et alii) and othersetc. (et cetera) and othersff. following (pages, lines, etc.)Ibid. (ibidem: in the same place) used in referring again to the book, article,

chapter, or page cited just before

i.e. (id est) that is (to say)ipso facto (by the fact or act itself) by that very factloc.cit. (loco citato) in the place cited (in textual annotation)mutatis mutandis the necessary changes having been madeop.cit. (opere citato) in the work citedpace (prep.) with all due respect to; used in expressing polite disagreementpar excellence (by way of excellence) being the most excellent or the(French) most typical example of its typepassim here and there; (of allusions, phrases, etc.) in various

parts (of a book, etc.)prima facie at first sight; on first view, before further examination

q.v. (quod vide) which see (denoting a cross reference), e.g.q.v. Chapter 3

sic thus; so: used within brackets, (sic), to show that a quoted passage,esp. one containing some error or somethingquestionable, is precisely reproduced

sine qua non (without which not) an essential condition, qualification,etc.; indispensable thing; absolute prerequisite

sui generis (of its own kind); uniquevice versa the order or relation being reversed; converselyviz. (contr. forvidelicet) that is, namely

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Appendix E: VOCABULARY AID

INTRODUCING A TOPICAs a convenient starting pointFor the purposes of this paper a distinction should be made between

As a last point in this section, considerThe point / suggestion / etc. is considered in more detail below.A question that is hotly debated todayA question which will be one of our concerns...To illustrate the possibilities of this approach...One problemcan be stated as followsThe last topic to be dwelled on in this section is...Let us take the much-argued case ofConsider, for instance, how Halliday (1976) analyses...The present analysis will be confined toGetting back to our distinction,

Before we proceed to analyse..., let us come back toLet us now reconsider..., which I repeat here for convenience.

POSTPONING SOMETHING TO A LATER DISCUSSIONThis idea will bepicked up again in Chapter 3.taken up in due course.discussed in 2.2 below.discussed at length in subsequent sections.This matter will be taken up in detail in later chapters.We will look into this more closely on page 62.

This argument will be dealt with later.The consideration of...will be postponed until Chapter 6.will be considered at length in later sections.This question will occupy my interest later.This issue will be the subject of discussion in Chapter 3.(to be discussed at length in Chapters 3 to 6)

(this kind of phenomenon will be dealt with at length later, in Sections...)(see Section 5.2 for a more explicit definition)

PARAPHRASING; INTRODUCING QUOTATIONS AND SOURCES

According toChvany claims thatTo use Stalnaker's expression, ...To quote Di Petro, Thus Quirk et al. observe the following: Birner supports this contention with the following words:'...On this he writes: ...as Corder puts it: This point is made in Prince (1994): My view ofis based primarily on...The idea ofwas already expressed by Babby (1980) in the following terms:

We might say, following Abbot (1993), thatAs noted by Gil (1992),

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There is a variety of approaches to these topics available in the literature.see Benveniste (1963) for original source references in connection withAs has often been observed in the pragmatic literature,Following a research tradition inaugurated by...,Habermas (1970) offers a good exposition of...

(see Kim 1988 for discussion of a similar issue)(see Kahn 1966 for extensive discussion)(on this point, see also Hawkins 1978)(for useful summaries of work on...see)(for terminology, cf. Lyons 1975)(for a recent English-language description of Lithuanian, see...)(for details / further problems see)

SUMMARIZING; MAKING CONCLUSIONS; FINAL REMARKSThe argument can be summarised in three points.In order to conclude this section, let us sum up the main points that

The main objections to... may be summed up as follows:The relevant points can be briefly summarised as followsTo summarise,...By way of summing up,Recapitulating this section,...There are two final remarks to be made about... The first has to do with therelationship betweenBefore closing this brief overview of common topics in...To round off the discussionIn view of the above,Given the facts presented above,

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REFERENCES

Baker, M. 1992. In other words. London and New York: Routledge.Bjrk, L. and C. Risnen. 1997. Academic writing: a university writing

course. Chatwell-Bratt.

Gibaldi, J. 1995. MLA handbook for writers of research papers. 4th edition.New York: The Modern Language Association of America.Halliday, M.A.K. and R.Hasan. 1976. Cohesion in English. London and New

York: Longman.Halverson, S. and A-B. Stenstrm. 2001. How to write a term paper/thesis.

University of Bergen, Department of English.Katkuvien, L.E. and I. ekauskien. 1999. Writing a research paper. The

students guide. University of Vilnius, Department of English Philology.Langan, J. 1989. English skills. 4th edition. McGraw-Hill Publishing Company.Lindey, A. 1952. Plagiarism and originality. New York: Harper.Lunsford, A. and R. Connors. 1989. St. Martins handbook.

Mecham, D. 1992. Argumentation and research writing essentials simplified.Weber State University.MHRA Style Book. 1996. 5th edition. London: Modern Humanities Research

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