guidelines for the management of naturally occurring radioactive material (norm) in the oil & gas...

8/11/2019 Guidelines for the management of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) in the Oil & Gas industry

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Guidelines for the management of Naturally OccurringRadioactive Material (NORM) in the oil & gas industry

Report No. 412September 2008

I n t e r n a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n o f O i l & G a s P r o d u c e r s


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P ublications

Global experience

Te International Association o Oil & Gas Producers has access to a wealth o technicalknowledge and experience with its members operating around the world in many differentterrains. We collate and distil this valuable knowledge or the industry to use as guidelinesor good practice by individual members.

Consistent high quality database and guidelines

Our overall aim is to ensure a consistent approach to training, management and best prac-tice throughout the world.

Te oil and gas exploration and production industry recognises the need to develop consist-ent databases and records in certain elds. Te OGPs members are encouraged to use theguidelines as a starting point or their operations or to supplement their own policies andregulations which may apply locally.

Internationally recognised source of industry information

Many o our guidelines have been recognised and used by international authorities andsa ety and environmental bodies. Requests come rom governments and non-governmentorganisations around the world as well as rom non-member companies.

Disclaimer

Whilst every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy o the in ormation contained in this publication,neither the OGP nor any o its members past present or uture warrants its accuracy or will, regardlesso its or their negligence, assume liability or any oreseeable or un oreseeable use made thereo , whichliability is hereby excluded. Consequently, such use is at the recipients own risk on the basis that any useby the recipient constitutes agreement to the terms o this disclaimer. Te recipient is obliged to in orm any subsequent recipient o such terms.

Tis document may provide guidance supplemental to the requirements o local legislation. Nothingherein, however, is intended to replace, amend, supersede or otherwise depart fom such requirements. Inthe event o any conict or contradiction between the provisions o this document and local legislation, applicable laws shall prevail.

Copyright notice

Te contents o these pages are Te International Association o Oil and Gas Producers. Permissionis given to reproduce this report in whole or in part provided (i) that the copyright o OGP and (ii)the source are acknowledged. All other rights are reserved. Any other use requires the prior written permission o the OGP.

Tese erms and Conditions shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the laws o Eng-land and Wales. Disputes arising here fom shall be exclusively subject to the jurisdiction o the courts o England and Wales.


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Guidelines or the management o Naturally OccurrinRadioactive Material (NORM) in the oil & gas indust

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able o contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Te Origins o Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.2 NORM in Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.3 NORM in Sludge and Scrapings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.4 NORM in Gas Processing Facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1.5 NORM in Seawater Injection Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Health Hazards o NORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Environmental Problems Associated with NORM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2 NORM Management Process Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 NORM Monitoring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

3.1 Baseline surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Pre-shutdown surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.3 Operational assessments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Legacy contamination surveys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 NORM Action Limits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165 Training and Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 Contamination Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 Control of NORM Contaminated Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

7.1 NORM disposal options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 Control of NORM Contaminated Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Decontamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

9.1 Operating criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Required operating areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Control o equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Inspection o equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9.5 Monitoring o equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10 Workers Protection Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2911 Conned Space Entry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3012 Transport of NORM Contaminated Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3113 Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Radiation units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35 References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36


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Naturally occurring radionuclides are present at varying concentrations in the Earths crust andcan be concentrated and enhanced by processes associated with the recovery o oil and gas. Tisenhanced NORM, ofen known as ENORM ( echnologically-Enhanced Naturally Occur-ring Radioactive Materials) can be created when industrial activity increases the concentrations oradioactive materials or when the material is redistributed as a result o human intervention or someindustrial processes, ENORM also can be the by-product or waste product o oil, gas and geo-thermal energy production. Sludge, drilling mud, and pipe scales are examples o materials that cancontain elevated levels o NORM, and the radioactive materials may be moved rom site to site asequipment and materials are reused.

Uncontrolled activities associated with enhanced levels o NORM can contaminate the environ-ment and pose a risk to human health. Tese risks can be alleviated by the adoption o controls toidenti y where NORM is present; and by the control o NORM-contaminated equipment and waste while protecting workers. Te general principles o radiation protection are primarily implementedby means o good protective measures at the workplaces. Hence, exposure control and adequate

dosimetry are the most critical components o a health and sa ety programme.Tere are various national and international regulations and guidelines on radiation protection ingeneral and NORM in particular. Tese are not specic to the oil & gas industry and there are vari-ations in the methods o control adopted. Tis document has been developed afer research, reviewand thorough consideration o readily available NORM regulations and guidelines, to determinebest practice or managing NORM in oil and gas producing acilities. Similarly, there is no universalmedical surveillance programme or low-level radiation exposures. Medical surveillance is typicallytriggered by an exceedance o a dened action level. An action level is a scientically derived valueused or the purpose o limiting exposure. Action levels ofen vary rom country to country so thatthe reader must understand the applicable regulations in a given locale.

Tis document acts as a road map and establishes uni orm approaches on NORM management

that makes the implementation o tasks easy to manage. Te guidance does not seek to obstruct orimpede normal operations but to describe controls that are adapted to working practices. Te guide-lines are exible and accommodate regulatory variations under which individual OGP membercompanies may be required to operate.

Te guidance acts as a single point o re erence, is user- riendly and utilises owcharts to guide thereader through different NORM management activities. It guides the user through the various components o an effective NORM management process.

It must be stressed, however, that these guidelines provide a ramework. Users should realise thatmanagement o NORM requires the consultation and engagement o a number o stakeholders,notably the approval o the regulatory authorities.

1.1 The origins of Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM)

Radioactive materials such as Uranium and Torium were incorporated in the Earths crust whenit was ormed; these normally exist at trace (parts per million ppm) concentrations in rock orma-tions. Decay o these unstable radioactive elements produces other radionuclides that, under certainconditions (dependent upon pressure, temperature, acidityetc ) in the subsur ace environment aremobile and can be transported rom the reservoir to the sur ace with the oil & gas products beingrecovered.

During the production process, NORM ows with the oil, gas and water mixture and accumulatesin scale, sludge and scrapings. It can also orm a thin lm on the interior sur aces o gas processing

equipment and vessels. Te level o NORM accumulation can vary substantially rom one acility toanother depending on geological ormation, operational and other actors. o determine whetheror not a acility has NORM contamination, NORM survey, sampling and analysis needs to be con-ducted. Figure 1.1 indicates where NORM may accumulate,eg at wellheads in the orm o scale; at

1 Introduction


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Gas/Oil Separation Plants (GOSP) in the orm o sludge; and at gas plants the orm o thin lms asthe result o radon gas decay.

Table 1.1 Mean and range of Thorium and Uranium concentration in sedimentary rock (Reference 1)

Sedimentary Rock Class

Thorium (Th) Uranium (U)

(ppm) Bq[232Th]/g (ppm) Bq[232Th]/g

mean range mean mean range mean

Detrital 12.4 0 362 0.05 4.8 0.1 80 0.06

Sandstone &Conglomerate

9.7 0.7 227 0.04 4.1 0.1 62 0.05

orthoquartzites 1.5 0.006 0.5 0.5 3 0.005

arkoses 5 0.02 1.5 0.02

Shale 16.3 5.3 39 0.07 5.9 0.9 80 0.07

grey/green 13 0.05 3 3 4 0.04

black 8 20

Clay 8.6 1.9 55 0.03 4.0 1.1 16 0.05

Chemical 14.9 0.03 132 0.06 3.6 0.03 27 0.04

Carbonates 1.8 0 11 0.007 2.0 0.03 18 0.02

Limestones 3 0.01 13 0.16

Evaporites < 0.1 < 0.001

Tere are three types o radiation emitted by NORM, namely; Alpha () Beta () Gamma ()

Alpha particles are helium nuclei that are heavy and doubly (positively) charged which causes themto lose their energy very quickly in matter. Tey can be stopped by a sheet o paper or the sur acelayer o your skin. Alpha particles are considered hazardous to a persons health only i a radioactivesource o alpha emitting particles is inhaled or ingested.

Beta particles are much smaller and only have one (negative) charge, which causes them to interactmore slowly with material. Tey are effectively stopped by thin layers o metal or plastic and areagain considered hazardous only i a beta emitter source is ingested or inhaled.

Gamma emitters are associated with alpha, beta decay and are a orm o high energy electromagneticradiation that interacts lightly with matter. Gamma rays are best shielded by thick layers o lead or

other dense materials and are considered as an external hazard to living tissues (ie the human body).Figure 1.2 details the penetrating power o ionising radiation emitted rom NORM radionuclides.


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Figure 1.1 The origins of NORM, indicating where NORM may accumulate in the recovery process.

Gas

Oil

Water

???Ra,228Ra,210Pb,222Rn

Particulate scaleand ???Rn,

Condensate222Rn

and particulate scale

226 Ra, 228 Ra, 224 Ra, 222 Rn

238 U, 232 Th

Ra isotopes precipitate as mineral scale

Mobilise with hydrocarbons and produced water

222Rn migrates with gas

222Rn,210Pb,210Po plates tubular

GOSP

Table 1.2 Activity concentration of238U,226Ra,210Pb and232 Th,228Ra,224Ra in production water (Reference 1)Radionuclide Reported Range (Bq/l)

238U 0.0003 0.1226Ra 0.002 1,200210Pb 0.05 190232Th 0.0003 0.001228Ra 0.3 180224Ra 0.5 40

Table 1.3 Activity concentration of238U,226Ra,210Po and232 Th in crude oil (Reference 1)

Radionuclide Repor ted Range (Bq/g)238U 0.0000001 0.01226Ra 0.0001 0.04210Po 0 0.01232Th 0.00003 0.002


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Figure 1.2 Penetration power of ionizing radiation (Reference 2)

Paper Plastic Steel Lead

Tissue

NORM Decay Series Te NORM nuclides o primary concern in oil production are Radium-226 and Radium-228. Tesedecay into various radioactive progeny, be ore becoming stable lead. Radium-226 belongs to theUranium-238 decay series and Radium-228 to the Torium-232 decay series.

Te two principal radioactive decay series (Uranium-238 and Torium-228) associated with NORMin the oil & gas industry are detailed in Figures 1.3 & 1.4. Tese gures show the radionuclides oconcern, their radioactive hal -lives, decay mechanism, and the manner in which they are mobi-lised.


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Figure 1.3 Uranium-238 decay series (Reference 3)

a) Naturally occurringradionuclides

Transport withreservoir

b) LeachingTransport with water

c) Emanation/dissolutionTransport with gas/(oil/water)

d) MechanismTransport via water

(gas/oil) carrier leadcompounds

e) MechanismTransport via NGL/

condensate

238U 109 y

234Th

234mPa

234U

230Th

226Ra 1600y

222Rn 4d

218Po

214Pb

214Bi

214Po

210

Pb 22y

210Bi

210Po 138d

206Pb stable

226Ra

222Rn

218Po

214Pb

214Bi

214Po

210

Pb

210Bi

210Po

206Pb

222Rn

218Po

214Pb

214Bi

214Po

210

Pb

210Bi

210Po

206Pb210Po

206Pb

210Pb

210Bi

210Po

206Pb


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1.4 NORM in gas processing facilities

Radon is a radioactive gas, which is present in varying degrees in natural gas in oil & gas ormations.

In the absence o natural gas, radon dissolves in the (light) hydrocarbon and aqueous phase. When produced with the oil and gas, radon will usually ollow the gas stream. I the natural gas is raction-ated, a disproportionately high percentage o radon can concentrate in the propane streams and to alesser degree in the ethane streams.

Radon-222 produces, through natural decay, several radioactive nuclides (also known as radon prog-eny). Most radon progeny are short-lived, with the exception o Lead-210 and Polonium-210, whichhave relatively long hal -lives o 22.6 years and 138 days respectively. Most o the radon decay prod-ucts (90-99%) are attached to ambient aerosols, airborne particulates or sur aces. Tis can result inorming thin radioactive lms on the inner sur aces o gas processing equipment such as scrubbers,compressors, reux pumps, control valves and product lines.

Table 1.8 Activity concentration of222Rn,210Pb and210Po in natural gas (Reference 1)Radionuclide Reported Range (Bq/m3)

222Rn 5 200,000210Pb 0.005 0.02210Po 0.002 0.08

Table 1.9 Activity concentration of210Pb and210Po in NGL/hydrocarbon condensate (Reference 1)Radionuclide Reported Range (Bq/l)222Rn (NGL) 0.01 1,500

222Rn (C3 -liq) 0.01 4,200210Pb 0.3 230210Po 0.3 100

1.5 NORM in seawater injection systems

Uranium exists in seawater in part per billion (g/l) concentrations. Te use o seawater or recoveryo oil rom a reservoir can potentially introduce an additional enhanced NORM scenario. In ananaerobic environment (such as in a geological ormation), sulphate-reducing bacteria have beenshown to enhance the uptake o uranium which is deposited in bio- ouling deposits4, 5. In manyseawater injection systems this may not pose a signicant hazard, however, systems which utiliselarge quantities o seawater may encounter levels o uranium in bio- ouling which present a risk to workers and a problem or waste disposal. Concentrations o uranium up to ~2% by weight havebeen identied in seawater injection systems4, 5.

1.6 Health hazards of NORM

Tere are two ways in which personnel can be exposed to NORM, namely: Irradiation external exposure where the source remains outside the body Contamination internal exposure where radioactive material is taken into the body via inha-

lation, ingestion or absorptionTere is a large body o scientic research and literature on the health effects o ionizing radiationexposure. Te health effects associated with exposure to ionising irradiation vary depending on thetotal amount o energy absorbed, the time period, the dose rate and the particular organ exposed. Akey consideration related to NORM is that exposures are generally quite low and below established


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regulatory action levels. In some situations, exposure to low-level ionising radiation may not result inany adverse health effects; hence the basis or developing regulatory health-based action levels.

Exposure to NORM will not result in acute and severe effects similar to those effects associated withexposure to high radiation levels rom man-made sources. Chronic exposure to NORM above expo-sure limits or the general public or ollowing inadequate sa ety precautions are typically delayedeffects such as the development o certain orms o cancer. A variety o cancers has been associ-ated with exposure to ionising radiation including leukaemia, and cancers o the lung, stomach,oesophagus, bone, thyroid, and the brain and nervous system. It is important to understand that the potential health effects are strongly dose-related. In addition, based on extensive scientic study overmany decades, radiation exposure is not associated with all orms o cancer.

Medical surveillance or low-level radiation exposures is typically triggered by exceedance o anestablished regulatory action level. However, medical surveillance is an imper ect and non-specictool. It is difficult to nd medical tests that detect meaning ul abnormal changes in a timely ashion.Most medical tests do not have high sensitivity or specicity,ie the ability to correctly identi y whohas a problem (sensitivity-true positive) and who does not have a problem (specicity- true nega-tive). All medical tests have various levels o sensitivity ( alse positive) and specicity ( alse negative).Tere is no per ect set o tests or every potential health concern. Tere ore, while medical surveil-lance is a standard strategy that is ofen used, it must be emphasised that source control, exposuremonitoring, worker education and sa e operating practices are the most important strategies or preventing signicant worker exposures.

Potential NORM exposure scenarios are detailed in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6 NORM exposure scenarios (Reference 6)

Irradiation Contamination

Alpha

Beta

GammaGamma

Gamma

NORM materials may become an inhalation risk when the material is dislodged by mechanicalorces, such as wire brushing, pipe rattlingetc .


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o ensure that all aspects o NORM management are highlighted, structured and managed, the ol-lowing process cycle has been developed. Te process cycle indicates where action and controls maybe required to ensure adequate protection o workers, public and the environment in a practical andcost effective manner. Te process cycle is detailed in Figure 2.1.It is important that NORM management is planned and carried out ollowing consultation andengagement o stakeholders. Specically, the approval o the regulatory authorities will be required.NORM management is not an activity that companies can undertake independently, given the con-tentious nature o radioactivity and radioactive material.

A strategy or NORM management in the process cycle is essential, i management is to be success-ul. Key areas to be considered are:

NORM monitoring Control o NORM contaminated waste Control o NORM contaminated equipment Worker protection and training Development o NORM management guidelines Compliance monitoring.

Te owcharts provided in this document are generic, high-level charts and require many tasks,documents and systems to enable them to unction effectively; they indicate where main controlsand documentation are required. A general plan or NORM management which would t with theabove process cycle is shown in Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.1 NORM management process cycle

NORMmonitoring

Normal operation

Identify NORMcontaminated

equipment/wasteNORM

detected? Additional

radiological risks

NORM freeequipment

DecontaminateNORM equipment

Interim storage ofNORM contaminated

equipment

Workers protection &contamination control

measures

NORM waste interimstorage

Release forgeneral use

NORM wastepermanentdisposal

Yes

No

NORMwaste

NORMwaste

NORMcontaminated

equipment

NORMcontaminated

equipment

Normal operation

Hazard exists Controlled hazard

Safe disposal options

2 NORM management process cycle


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Monitoring is required to ascertain whether NORM is present in a medium. It can utilise directmeasurement instruments which can be taken to the onshore or offshore elds to measure the levelso radiation emitted. Alternatively, samples can be collected and sent to a laboratory or radiomet-ric analysis. In practice, a monitoring programme will usually make use o all available monitoringmethods and techniques based on specic requirements o individual organisation. Various compo-nents o a monitoring programme may include:

Baseline surveys Pre-shut-down surveys Operational assessments Legacy contamination surveys.

3.1 Baseline surveys

Te objective is to establish a baseline o the spread and level o NORM accumulation in acilities.Tis in ormation is essential in determining which category o workers needs protection and type ocontamination control procedure. Baseline surveys also yield important in ormation about NORM waste streams that is essential input toward developing NORM waste disposal solutions.

Te ollowing are examples o where baseline surveys could be considered: Vessels in oil/gas separation acilities Wellheads.

3.2 Pre-shutdown surveys

Te objective is to determine the locations o NORM accumulation in acilities where NORM con-tamination is suspected. One example would be gas/oil separation acilities; where a survey shouldbe undertaken prior to a shutdown. I a positive indication is shown by gamma radiation detectors,then the presence o NORM inside vessels/tanks is clearly indicated. Tis conrms the need orestablishing worker protection and contamination control measures. It also indicates that there maybe NORM waste which requires to be handled in a controlled manner.

3.3 Operational assessments

Te objective is to enable eld organisations to identi y NORM contamination promptly during

routine operational scenarios. In operating acilities, situations arise where workers might need toconduct intrusive work, such as clean up or maintenance, on potentially NORM contaminatedequipment or entry into potentially contaminated vessels. In such situations, eld personnel shouldbe capable o conducting NORM assessments using portable and easy-to-use instruments to deter-mine the presence o NORM contamination.

Te ollowing are examples o operational components where NORM may be detected: Down-hole tubing, sa ety valves,etc Long piping runs Well heads Production mani olds Flow-lines (to gas/oil separators) Separators (high, intermediate, and low pressure) Dehydrators Desalinators

3 NORM monitoring


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Valves Gas/oil separator baffle plates

Oil storage tanks.

3.4 Legacy contamination surveys

Legacy contamination is contamination which results rom operations be ore the implementationo a NORM management strategy. Areas with potential legacy NORM contamination include, butare not limited to, land disposal sites, evaporation ponds, disposal pits and areas used or equipmentstorage, cleaning, and maintenance where NORM contamination was potentially accumulated overtime.

Te requirements or an effective NORM survey as stated below are detailed in Figure 3.1.

Personnel who are required to monitor levels o radiation and contamination associated withNORM should be trained in the use o the instrumentation and the interpretation o the readings/measurements ( see raining & Awareness). Tere are many actors which affect the efficiency o aradiation detector and personnel who are required to monitoring NORM levels should be aware othese. For example, sur ace coatings o water or oil/grease would attenuate any NORM contami-nation present on the sur ace and give a lower than anticipated indication on the detector. Manysur aces may be difficult to directly monitor due to their sur ace condition or geometry and there-ore both direct (probe measurement) and indirect (smear/swab) means o survey are required. Te

probe must also be held very close to the sur ace to ensure optimum detection efficiency or theemitted radiation as both alpha and beta particles have relatively short range in air and gamma rayintensity will decrease in line with the inverse square law away rom the source o activity. rainingrequirements or those required to use radiation detectors to monitor levels o NORM are detailed

in section 6 o this document.In practice, it is unlikely that alpha and/or beta particles will be unsupported and not have associ-ated gamma rays. However or the purposes o hand held instruments, surveyors need to have detec-tors which will respond to alpha/beta particles and gamma rays. Un ortunately, there is no detectorthat measures all three types o radiation, there ore a minimum o two different detectors is berequired to characterise the NORM present in acilities adequately.

Suitable handheld radiation detectors or use in the assessment o NORM contamination are: Alpha/beta, an uncompensated Geiger-Muller tube (pancake type detector): this will respondto alpha, beta and gamma however when used in the eld its measurements should be used as anindicator rather than a quantiable measurement, due to many actors which will affect the detec-tors ability to respond.Gamma, a sodium-iodide (NaI) scintillation detector: this provides a very quick response and issensitive at low energy ?-emissions, such as those associated with NORM decay.

Other types o instruments can be used, but it is important to be aware o the limitations o eachdetection system.

Te majority o radiation detectors are not intrinsically sa e and their use in operational acilities will require the use o a hot work permit or its equivalent. Tere are now some intrinsically sa edetectors.


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Figure 3.1: Schematic of NORM survey requirements

NORMmonitoringrequired

Trainedpersonnelavailable?

Training records

Train personnel orcontact trained

personnel

Select appropriatedetectors

Instruments incalibration and

functioning?Obtain work permits

Send for repair/calibration

Carry out backgroundcheck

Carry out survey

Inform proponent ofsurvey ndings

Return instruments tostorage for re-use

Instruments incalibration and

functioning?

Instrument calibrationrecords

Instrument/surveyprocedure Record survey results Report survey results

No

Yes

No

Yes

No

Yes

Normal operation Controlled hazard Safe disposal options Documentation/data

Table 3.1 Suitable radiation detector types for Alpha, Beta and Gamma emissions from NORMRadiation type Instrument type Remarks

Alpha UncompensatedGM tube

Probe must be as close to the surface as possible without touchingit, alpha only has a short range in air and will be attenuated on

wet surfaces. In NORM radionuclides alpha usually always has anassociated gamma emission.

Beta UncompensatedGM tube

As above, although beta has a slightly greater range in air.

Gamma(screening)

Sodium iodide Very sensitive gamma detector which will give a very quick indicationif enhanced gamma levels are present. It can potentially over-estimategamma dose-rates so should not be used to quantify only detect.

Gamma(measurement)

CompensatedGM tube

Slower responding instrument, which will however give a moreaccurate indication of gamma dose-rate.


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Te action limits or the disposal/control o NORM waste material may be stipulated in Nationalregulations. However, in the absence o National Regulations, the ollowing limits can be utilisedand these will provide or compliance with current international practice:

Materials and waste media such as sludge/scale containing NORM at levels below those listedin able 4.1 shall be exempted rom the requirements o this procedure.

Soil shall not have a Radium-226 contamination above 0.185 Bq per gram (5 pCi per gram)above background averaged over any 10 square metres or unless risk assessment demonstratesan acceptable level o risk.

Equipment, vessels, and clothing shall be considered NORM contaminated i internal orexternal sur ace contamination measures double the radiation background level.

Table 4.1 NORM exemption levelsRadionuclide Exemption level (Bq/g) Exemption level (pCi/g)

226Ra 1.1 30228Ra 1.1 30210Pb 0.2 5210Po 0.2 5238U 5.5 150

Uranium (nat) 3.0 80

4 NORM action limits


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Te ollowing are basic control procedures that should be practised when handling NORM con-taminated equipment, tubulars, vessels, pipes or machinery:

Establish a boundary around the work area. Te boundary should be as small as possible, butlarge enough to allow or personnel and equipment access rom the work area and to allow orall work to be accomplished in a sa e manner. Containers or plastic bags should be provided ordiscarded protective clothing and contaminated trash at the exit o the work area.

Only essential personnel should be allowed in the work areas where potential NORM contami-nation exists.

Prior to maintenance o contaminated equipment or opening inspection hatches, sludge trapsor pig receivers, sufficient ground cover shall be placed below the item in the work area. Teground cover should be made o a plastic, waterproo type material capable o withstanding the work activities involved without tearing or ripping. Alternatively, a suitable drip-tray or catch- pan may be used. Te ground cover should be sized to provide or the containment o leakageand waste and to allow ample room or related peripheral work.

Post the boundary with radiation warning signs Caution: NORM Material: (with radiationtre oil)

Hold a sa ety meeting or all personnel per orming work. Radiological items which should beaddressed during the meeting are, but are not limited to, protective clothing and respiratory protection requirements, radiation and contamination levels, maintenance activities which maycause radioactive material to become airborne, requirements or waste generated, heat stress,action to be taken in the case o emergencies.

Commence maintenance activity; any dry material that is NORM-contaminated should be wetted down to prevent the generation o airborne radioactive materials. Dry material shouldbe wetted periodically throughout the maintenance work.

Openings o equipment or pipes that have internal NORM contamination should be sealed or wrapped by plastic or other suitable materials.

Obsolete NORM-contaminated pipes or equipment should be clearly labelled as NORMContaminated Materials and removed to a designated area. Te area should be labelled asContaining Radioactive Materials and restricted or the general public.

All contaminated waste generated during maintenance should be drummed or or put into con-tainers and marked or labelled. Representative samples should be collected rom the waste andanalysed or radioactivity.

Upon completion o maintenance, personnel should remove their protective clothing be oreleaving the work area.

All material, equipment and tools not placed in containers or drummed should be surveyedor both loose contamination and exposure rate levels upon exit rom the work area. A readinggreater than background levels is positive indication o contamination, and should be handledas such.

Upon job completion, the accessible areas o the work area should be surveyed or loose contami-nation. Any loose sur ace contamination ound should be promptly cleaned up and drummed.

Once the work area has been veried ree o loose sur ace contamination, the boundary and postings may be taken down.

A schematic diagram o a potential contamination control system or the removal o a valve is shownin Figure 6.1. Te diagram indicates what controls are required,eg a physical barrier (red line) to prevent unauthorised access, plastic sheeting/ground cover to catch any NORM contamination and prevent contamination o work area, separate entrance and exit to prevent spread o contaminationetc.

6 NORM contamination control procedures


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Be ore NORM can be managed effectively, it is necessary to know where it is being produced. Tisrequires an assessment o all process that identi y potential NORM contamination.

NORM waste disposal must adhere to applicable regulations pertaining to the disposal o radioac-tive waste.

In many cases short-term or interim storage may be required be ore nal disposal o NORM waste. Where NORM waste is required to be stored, it should be kept in suitable container which shouldcomply with the ollowing requirements. Te container;

Should be in good condition with no visible indications o internal or external corrosion, andbe made o a durable material such that it provides adequate containment o the NORM wasteduring the storage period.

Should be made o or lined with materials that will not react with or be incompatible with theNORM waste so that the ability o the container is not impaired or compromised.

Should be resistant to degradation by Ultra Violet radiation. Should be closed and sealed during storage, and practical to open and re-seal when it is neces-

sary to add or remove waste. Should not be opened, handled, or stored in a manner that may rupture the container or cause

it to leak. Should bear the radiation symbol and a label clearly indicating that it contains NORM con-

taminated waste. Should pay due regard to any other materials which may be present in the NORM waste matrix

(ie oils, grease or chemicals etc ) Should be resistant to normally expected range o temperature in storage environment. Should be resistant to water ingress. Should be stored in a dry environment to prevent corrosion. Should be physically robust to prevent damage during transport. Te storage location should be hard sur aced and bunded to prevent contamination o ground/

sur ace waters and the creation o contaminated land rom any potential leaks/spills as a resulto incidents during storage period.

Areas where containers o NORM waste are stored should be inspected on a regular basis. Contain-ers should be inspected or signs o leakage, overall deterioration and proper labelling. Records othese inspections should be documented and properly maintained.

Where NORM waste is disposed o , records shall be maintained o the disposal activities. Teseshould include but not limited to:

Waste material description (scale, sludge, scrapings,etc ) Volume o waste material Mass NORM level (activity per unit weight) o waste material. Method o disposal Disposal location Organisation/ acility where the NORM waste was generated Any other relevant in ormation.

7 Control o NORM contaminated waste


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7.1 NORM disposal options

Te objective is to establish sa e, practical and cost effective permanent disposal protocols or

NORM waste that provide adequate protection to both human health and the environment.A permanent disposal protocol should be designed to prevent contamination o natural resourcessuch as underground water, or contamination o soil that could in uture become residential or agri-cultural areas even although the area is currently remote or uninhabited.

Methods o NORM disposal currently used in the oil & gas industry are: Land based management Salt cavern disposal Offshore discharge Land ll Underground injection

Te preliminary selection criteria may include: Risk echnical easibility Cost General acceptance (regulatory and public)

Table 7.2 Description of disposal methods (Reference 6)Disposal Method Description

Land spreading Land spreading involves disposal by spreading sludge and scale on thesurface/open lands in an area where NORM was not originally present above

background levels.Land spreading withdilution (land farming)

Land Spreading with dilution involves mixing of the applied NORM thoroughlywithin the top 8 inch (20.3 cm) layer of soil using agricultural equipment in anarea where NORM was not originally present above background levels.

Non-retrieved line(surface) pipe

Buried line pipe used at a facility could be abandoned in place after beingflushed to remove any oil or gas present.

Burial with unrestrictedsite use

Burial with unrestricted site use involves burial of NORM with at least 15 feet(4.6m) of cover that is level with the surrounding terrain, minimising erosionpotential.

Commercial oil industrywaste facility

Disposal in a commercial oil industry waste facility assumes burial with otheroilfield wastes where NORM represents less than 7% of the total waste volume.

Commercial NORMwaste facility

A NORM waste disposal site is designed to contain NORM for long periodsand its control may revert to a national authority for permanent monitoring and

restricted future use after closure.Commercial low levelradioactive waste facility

A low-level radioactive waste disposal is defined and licensed under nationalregulations with numerous protective features and restrictions.

Plugged and abandonedwell

Well abandonment operations provide an opportunity to dispose of NORM.

Well injection andhydraulic fracturing

Sludge and scale wastes could be injected or fractured into formations that areisolated geologically and mechanically.

Equipment release tosmelter

Smelting may be a viable option for NORM contaminated tubulars and otherequipment.

Once potential disposal options are identied as a result o preliminary selection then a ull assess-ment in terms o risk and cost can be undertaken. Risk assessment has shown that the lowest residual

risk methods or NORM disposal may be underground injection and class one landll.A typical process or the control o NORM waste during shutdown operations is detailed in Figure7.1.


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NORM contaminated equipment must be handled, transported, stored, maintained or disposedin controlled manner. Protocols are required to ensure that equipment is not released or handled without controls to protect the worker and prevent contamination o the environment. Tere ore,it is critical to understand and control how and where NORM materials can be transported. Forexample, drilling pipe that contains low-level NORM scale can be unrecognised and transported toa variety o secondary pipe reprocessing acilities with subsequent, inadvertent exposure and spreado NORM.

Te ollowing should be considered the minimum requirements or the control o NORM-contam-inated equipment. Equipment should:

Be decontaminated prior to release or unrestricted use Be stored only in designated storage areas Be tagged or clearly marked as NORM contaminated. Be handled only by employees trained in NORM hazards and is using PPE Not be sent or maintenance/repair to workshops without in orming the workshop that the

component is contaminated with NORM. Be disposed o only in an approved NORM disposal acility. Be decontaminated only in an approved NORM decontamination acility or according to an

approved decontamination protocol. Once veried as ree rom NORM contamination, theequipment may be :

Re-used Sent or repair to a workshop prior to being re-used Sold or disposed o as scrap

Be stored in areas which are exclusively used or the storage o NORM-contaminated equip-

ment.In addition:

All open sections o equipment,ie ange or pipe ends,etc should be adequately covered byheavy-gauge UV-stabilised plastic or other suitable materials to ensure that NORM materialdoes not leak rom the item.

Routine checks on al l stored NORM-contaminated equipment should be undertaken to ensurethat the integrity o the protective measures is adequate. Routine checks should be carried outat least on a quarterly basis.

Detailed and veriable records should be maintained o al l stored NORM contaminated equip-ment.

A typical process or the control o NORM contaminated equipment is detailed in Figure 8.1.

8 Control o NORM contaminated equipment


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Figure 8.1: Control of NORM contaminated equipment

Routine facilityoperations

Can equipmentbe screened in-

situ?

Potentially NORMcontaminated

equipment

TransportationScreen equipment forNORM

Screen equipment forNORM

Assume NORMcontaminated

Contain to preventspread of NORM

contamination

NORMcontaminated?

NORMcontaminated?Transportation

Dedicated NORMstorage facility

Contain to preventspread of NORM

contamination

Decontaminationfacility

Normal operation

Equipment veriedfree of NORMcontamination

Yes

Yes

Yes

No

No

No

Normal operation

Hazard exists

Controlled hazard



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Decontamination o equipment which is NORM-contaminated should be undertaken in a con-trolled manner to ensure worker protection, prevent the spread o NORM contamination, and tominimise the waste arising rom the decontamination process. Simple mechanical/abrasiveie high pressure water jetting (HPWJ) in conjunction with other mechanical/abrasive methods has been proven to be the most cost effective and success ul. When such methods are used, considerationneeds to be given to the ollowing:

Changing acilities or workers Operating areas to carry out work Handling/receiving areas Strip down areas Water jetting areas Liquid re-circulation system Ventilation system Control o equipment (administration system) Inspection o equipment Monitoring o equipment Sa ety related systems.

Where possible, decontamination systems should be automated, as there are signicant industrialsa ety hazards associated with hand-jetting activities. Injuries associated with hand-jetting oper-ations can be difficult to treat success ully. A well-dened sa e system o work is required which will consider the associated industrial hazards and as a minimum include Kevlar type PPE (boots,aprons, glovesetc ).

Mobile decontamination units have been used success ully. Tese utilise modied ISO-containersto provide containment or HPWJ operations, and are tted with drainage systems which direct water used in the HPWJ operation through a series o lters and back to the water jetting system,so the waster is continually re-circulated. Te basic design criteria or a NORM decontaminationacility may include the ollowing:

9.1 Operating criteria

Te unction o a NORM decontamination acility should be to decontaminate NORM contami-nated components. Te acceptance criteria or success ul decontamination should be:

1. All equipment must be visually clear o scale.

2. All equipment must be ree o detectable radioactive contamination, as per Section 4 (ie lessthan double background).

9.2 Required operating areas

Main change roomTis will allow access to the radiologically-controlled areas where NORM decontamination willtake place.

9 Decontamination


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Handling areaTis will be or:

1. checking the inventory/material being sent or decontamination2. carrying out radiation surveys o decontaminated equipment3. providing a segregation system to keep incoming dirty items separate or outgoing clean

items4. a quarantine area or items that require urther decontamination.

Strip down areao allow the strip down o components such as valves, wellheads and other components.

Burning bay to allow for oxy-propane cutting, grinding etc of equipment Tis is an area where airborne NORM contamination is may occur and there ore requires total

containment with a HEPA ltered extract ventilation system.Local extract ventilation (ie elephanttrunks) will also be available in the area to control/remove dust/contamination at source. Workers will be required to wear respiratory protective equipment (RPE) in this area; there ore the supply obreathing air or RPE is required. Te oor and sur aces shall be o an impermeable non-ammablesur ace capable o withstanding heavy loads.

Water jetting areaTis is an area where airborne NORM contamination may occur and there ore requires total con-tainment with a HEPA-ltered extract ventilation system. In this area, workers will be requiredto wear respiratory protective equipment (RPE) in this area; there ore the supply o breathing airor RPE is required.Te oor and sur aces should be o an impermeable non-ammable sur acecapable o withstanding heavy loads, and the impact o HPWJ.

Liquid recirculation systemAll process liquid used in decontamination operations should be ltered and re-used. Tere shouldbe no connection to any external drainage system. Te ollowing elements will be required in thesystem:

1. Primary supply tank 2. Filter bank 3. Settling tank.

Te system needs to separate NORM-contaminated sediment and oily waste material rom the process water.

Water rom the HPWJ area will be circulated back to the system by an enclosed and doubly con-tained drainage system.

A leak detection system should be included in the water circulation system.

Te settling tank should be able to be readily accessible and able to have any sediment removed/decanted into waste containers. Te system shall have capacity to allow the trans er o water romthe settling tank to another holding tank to allow sediment removal.

9.3 Control of equipment

An administrative system is required to control and track the progress o all equipment and compo-nents entering the decontamination acility.


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9.4 Inspection of equipment

Inspection o all equipment and components should be carried out on receipt. Te status o the

equipment should be logged and any damage not logged on the documentation should immediatelybe brought to the proponents attention and the component shall be quarantined pending urtherinstruction rom the proponent.

9.5 Monitoring of equipment

Monitoring o equipment or clearance should only be carried out by trained operators.

All monitoring equipment should be ully operational and within its calibration period. A check onthe operational status o all radiological monitoring equipment should be maintained.

An administrative system should be implemented to identi y items which are NORM-contami-nated rom those that have been cleaned.Figure 9.1: NORM decontamination operations

Personal decontamination should be carried out in a manner which restricts radiation exposure byminimising potential or the inhalation, ingestion and absorption o radioactive materials.

Areas o land which become NORM contaminated should be remediated such that NORM levelsare at or below the criterion described in Section 4.

Land which is NORM-contaminated as a result o oil and gasrelated operations, such as an evapo-ration pond or land arm, should be remediated prior to release or unrestricted use. Remediationis the systematic removal o NORM contamination rom the area in a controlled manner, with thecontaminated soil/material becoming part o the NORM waste stream Land remediation requiresclear release criteria to be established. A general schematic or land remediation is detailed in Figure9.2. Prior to any remediation operations care ul analysis o the overall risks shall be completed toensure that there is benet to be gained by carrying out the operation.


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Figure 9.2 Remediation of NORM contaminated land.Establish radiological

surveillanceprogramme

Establish releasecriteria

Perform radiologicalsurveys

EnhancedNORM

detected?Collect representative

samples

Assess radiologicalrisks

EnhancedNORM

detected?No

Yes

Above releasecriteria?

No actionrequired

Yes

NoYes

Immediateremediation?

EnhancedNORM

detected?

Establish controls tominimise exposure

until land remediatedEnd of operational life

Develop landremediation &

mapping programe

No

Yes

Release of landfrom control

Packaging,containment andtransportation of

wasteRemediate land Verication montoring

Interim storage of waste

Final disposal ofNORM waste

Yes

No

No

Normal operation

Hazard exists

Controlled hazard



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11 Conned space entry

Personnel should adhere to applicable regulations and guidelines or conned space entry. In addi-tion, be ore entering vessels/tanks or other conned spaces known or suspected to be NORM-contaminated, the workers protection measures mentioned in the previous section should beimplemented.Furthermore, be ore entering tanks or vessels in gas plants, especially in propane and methanestreams, vessels/tanks should be emptied and ventilated, through orced ventilation, or at least ourhours prior to entry or cleaning or maintenance. Ventilation will orce any trapped radon gas outo the vessel, while the delayed entry will allow adequate time or the decay o short-lived radondaughters (progeny). It should be noted that radon is not the most signicant hazard associated with conned space entry and all other loss prevention checks must also be completed. Radon doesnot present an acute hazard to health, and the requirement to vent the tank or 4 hours is a means ominimising potential dose uptake, and as such should be included as part o the ull sa ety job riskassessment.

All personnel and equipment exiting a vessel should be subjected to a NORM contamination survey.Personnel or equipment ound to be contaminated should be segregated and decontaminated.


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12 ransport o NORM contaminated equipment

NORM materials and/or NORM-contaminated components should be transported in exclusive-use vehicles. No other cargo should be carried in the transportation vehicle.

Boats operating offshore and used to transport NORM contaminated material or equipment,should utilise standard transport containers appropriately segregated and marked to house the con-taminated items. NORM-contaminated items that cannot be stored in standard transport contain-ers should be protected in such a manner as to ensure no leak/spillage o NORM material duringtransport.

Be ore dispatch o any NORM materials/components, the receiving organisation should be noti-ed.

Te operator o the vehicle (or boat) should be provided with a written contingency plan detailingthe actions to be taken in the event o a reasonably oreseeable emergency.

Te NORM transportation vehicle (or boat) operator should be aware and capable o implementingthe contingency arrangements to be taken in the event o an accident.

Te vehicle carrying NORM material or NORM-contaminated equipment should bear appropriatetransports placard and signage as required by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).

Organisations should maintain records o all NORM transportation. Tese records should includethe ollowing:

NORM material description (contaminated equipment, scale, sludge, scrapings,etc ) Volume/quantity o NORM material transported Method o transportation Destination Organisation/ acility where the NORM waste was generated Any other relevant in ormation.

Te regulations involving the transportation o radioactive material are complex and there oreadvice should be sought rom a corporate expert on transportation particularly should cross-bordertransportation be required.


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Figure 12.1: Handling, storage and transportation of potentially NORM-contaminated equipment/waste

Routineoperation

Screen/sampleNORM

Potentiallycontaminatedequipment/ waste

Worker's protection &contamination control

procedure

Adhere to NORMmaterial

transportationprocedure

Adhere toNORM storage

procedure

Yes

No

Enhanced levelsof NORM?No

Workers protection &contamination control

procedure

Equipmentrequires

transportation?

Yes

NORM transportprocedure

NORM storageprocedure

Equipmentrequiresstorage?

No

Yes

Yes

No

Controlled hazard


Documentation/data


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13 Documentation

As a minimum, the support documentation or a NORM management system should include: Organisational responsibilities

NORM monitoring requirements Workers protection and training requirements Requirements to control NORM-contaminated equipment Requirements to prevent or minimise workplace contamination.


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Glossary o terms

Alpha radiationRadioactive decay by the emission o a high energy charged particle consisting o 2 protons and 2neutrons (nucleus o helium atom)

Beta radiationRadioactive decay by emission o a negatively charged particle rom the nucleus o an unstableatom (a beta particle has the same mass and charge as an electron)

Carbonate A compound containing the acid radical o the carbonic acid (CO3 group). Bases react with car-bonic acid to orm carbonates,eg CaCO3 calcium carbonate.

Decay series A succession o radionuclides each o which is trans ormed by radioactive decay into the next

member until a stable nuclide is reached. Te rst member is known as the parent and the subse-quent nuclides are the progeny or daughters.

Gamma radiationHigh energy, penetrating electromagnetic radiation (photons) emitted by unstable nuclei.

NOR Naturally Occurring Radionuclide, relating to those radionuclides which are present at trace con-centrations in the Earth.

NORM Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material, relating to the material which is enhanced by techno-logical intervention to concentrations above those usually ound in nature. It is sometimes re erredto as ENORM ( echnologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material).

Silicates Te largest group o minerals, o widely different and in some cases, extremely complex composi-tion, but all composed o silicon, oxygen, and one or more metals, with or without hydrogen.

Sulphates Salts o sulphuric acid produced when the acid acts on certain metals, metallic oxides, hydroxidesand carbonates. Te acid is dibasic orming two salts; sulphates and bisulphates.


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Re erences

Further reading

IAEA, Regulatory and management approach or the control o environmental residues containing naturally occurringradioactive material (NORM), IAEA- ECDOC-1484 (2004).IAEA, Regulations or the Sa e ransport o Radioactive Material , 1996 Edition (As Amended 2003) No S-R-1.King Abdulaziz City or Science and echnology (KACS ), Basic Regulations or Protection Against Ionizing Radia-tion, 1997.Underhill, Philip , Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material, Principles and Practice, St Lucie Press (1996), ISBN1-57444-009-8.Saudi Aramco Engineering Procedure (SAEP-0358) Management o echnologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) (2005).Saudi Aramco Radiation Protection Manual (2004).SNIFFER, Identication and Assessment o Alternative Disposal Options or Radioactive Oileld Wastes, echnicalReports (Project UKRSR07) (2004/2005).Canadian Guidelines or the Management o Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM), Prepared by the

Canadian NORM Working Group o the, Federal Provincial erritorial, Radiation Protection Committee, First Edi-tion, October 2000.Louisiana Regulations, itle 33: ENVIRONMEN AL UALI Y, Part XV. Radiation Protection, Chapter 14. Reg-ulation and Licensing o Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM).Georgia State REGULA ION AND LICENSING OF NA URALLY-OCCURRING RADIOAC IVE MA E- RIALS (NORM), October 1994.EXAS REGULA IONS FOR CON ROL OF RADIA ION, Part 46 - Licensing o Naturally Occurring Radio-active Material (NORM).Te Council o the European Union, Council Directive 96/29/EURA OMlaying down basic sa ety standards or the protection o the health o workers and the general public against the dangers arising fom ionizing radiation, 13th May1996.

Te Oil Industry International Exploration & Production Forum, Low Specic Activity Scale: Origin, reatment and Disposal , Report No6.6/127 January 1988.Burgess PH,Guidance on the Choice, Use and Maintenance o Hand-held Radiation Monitoring Equipment , NRPB-R326, National Radiological Protection Board, May 2001, ISBN 0 85951 4617.

1. Jonkers G, Hartog FA, Knaepen WAI, Lance PFJ,Characterization o NORM in Oil & Gas Production (E&P) Indus-try, International Symposium on Radiological Problems with Natural Radioactivity in the Non-Nuclear Industry,Amsterdam, Te Netherlands, September 1997.

2. NRPB, NORM in the Oil and Gas Industries, Radiation at Work Series (1999).3. IAEA, Radiation Protection and the Management o Radioactive Waste in the Oil and Gas Industry, Sa ety Series No

34 (2003) ISBN 92-0-114003-7.4. IAEA, Extent o Environmental Contamination by Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) and echno-

logical Options or Mitigation, echnical Reports Series No 419 (2003) ISBN 92-0-112503-8.5. Bird AF, Rosser HR, Worrall ME, Mously KA, Fageeha OI,echnologically Enhanced Naturally Occurring Radioactive

Material Associated with Sul ate Reducing Bacteria Biolms in Large Seawater Injection System, Society o PetroleumEngineers, Con erence on Health, Sa ety & Environment in Oil and Gas Exploration and Production, Kuala Lumpur,Malaysia, March 2003, SPE 73959.

6. American Petroleum Institute, Bulletin on Management o Naturally Occurring Radioactive Materials (NORM) in Oil and Gas Production, API Bulletin E2, Second Edition, April 2006.


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What is OGP?

Te International Association o Oil & Gas Producers encompasses the worlds leading privateand state-owned oil & gas companies, their national and regional associations, and majorupstream contractors and suppliers.

Vision

o work on behal o the worlds oil and gas producing companies to promote responsibleand protable operations

Mission

o represent the interests o oil and gas producing companies to international regulators andlegislative bodies

o liaise with other industry associations globally and provide a orum or sharing experiences,debating emerging issues and establishing common ground to promote cooperation,consistency and effectiveness

o acilitate continuous improvement in HSE, CSR, engineering and operations

Objectives

o improve understanding o our industry by being visible, accessible and a reliable sourceo in ormation

o represent and advocate industry views by developing effective proposals o improve the collection, analysis and dissemination o data on HSE per ormance o develop and disseminate best practice in HSE, engineering and operations o promote CSR awareness and best practice


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