guidance for inclusion of emerging …...infectious diseases while minimizing exposure to food-,...
TRANSCRIPT
GUIDANCE FOR INCLUSION OF EMERGING INFECTIOUS DISEASES IN HEALTH AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENTS
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TableofContents
SectionExecutiveSummary
IndustrialDevelopmentProjectsandEmergingInfectiousDiseases
EmergingInfectiousDiseasesandImpactAssessments
Screening
Checklist
Scope
AdditionalBaselineDatatobeCollected
AssessingPotentialVulnerabilitiestoEmergingInfectiousDiseases
ActionPlan
MonitoringandEvaluation
FiguresFigure1:HotspotRiskMapofWildlifeEIDsFigure2:PlanningToolApplicationsinProjectCycleFigure3:CascadingEffectsofOn-ShoreOilDevelopmentFigure4:TransmissionRoutes Figure5:PreventativeMeasures
AppendicesA:ZoonoticandVector-BorneVirusesofConcernB:ExamplePreventativeMitigationMeasures
SelectedReferences 25
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ExecutiveSummaryRecentoutbreaksofemerginginfectiousdiseases(EIDs)—includingthe2014-2016EbolaviruscrisisinWestAfrica—havehadmajoreconomicimpactsonindustriesoperatingintheaffectedareasintheformoftrade,travel,andsupplychaindisruptions.Insomecases,theyhavecompletelyshutdownoperations.EIDshavecosttheglobaleconomybillionsofdollarsoverrecentdecades,andtherateofdiseaseemergenceappearstobeincreasing,withthemajorityofrecentEIDsoriginatingfromanimals(“zoonoses”),primarilywildlife.Thehighestriskisin“hotspots”thathaverichbiodiversity,poorpublichealthinfrastructure,andecologicaldisruptionstolandscapes.WhileEIDsseemtoappearwithoutwarning,andpublichealthmeasurestoaddressEIDshaveprimarilybeenreactive,itispossibletoanticipaterisksandtakepreventativestepsagainstvulnerabilitiesandpotentialimpactstobusinessoperations.
ThisPlanningToolanditsassociatedAuditGuidelinesareintendedasresourcestoaidindustriesandfundersinidentifyingpotentialprojectvulnerabilitiestoEIDsandproactivelytakingstepstobemoreresilienttotheriskofmanydifferenttypesofcommunicablediseaseevents.Thesedocumentsareintendedtosupplement(notreplace)existingguidelines(e.g.IFC,WorldBank,andinternal),asexposuretozoonoticpathogensrequiresamoreholisticanalysisthannormallytakeninenvironmentandsocialimpactassessmentsorhealthimpactassessments.Importantly,manyofthemeasuresthatcanbeusedtopreventemergenceandspreadofzoonoticdiseasesmayalsoreducetheburdenofvector-borne,water-borne,andfood-borneillness,andotherendemicdiseases(e.g.TB,Malaria,Dengue,HIV&otherSTIs,etc.),inadditiontopromotingenvironmentalsafeguards.
ThePlanningToolprovidesbackgroundinformationonEIDs,includingriskfactorsfortheiremergenceandtheirtransmissionroutes.AscreeningchecklistisprovidedtodeterminewhetherEIDriskshouldbeconsideredinanimpactassessment(health,environment,orsocial).Thetoolhighlightsadditionalbaselineinformationnotroutinelycollectedduringenvironmental,social,andhealthimpactassessments.Inaddition,itdetailshowsuchinformationcanenhancetheexistingplanningprocess,andprovidesexamplesandtemplatesforknownzoonoticdiseaseriskforspecificlocations(mostbasedonpublicallyavailableinformation).Mosttangibly,specifictransmissionmitigationopportunitiesarehighlightedwiththeirindicators,surveillancemethods,andsectoralresponsibilitiesnoted.
Whileindividualpathogensandtransmissionfactorsmaybecomplex,thePlanningToolandAuditChecklistfocusonexposureandtransmissionpathways,andbroadmeasuresthatcanhelpidentifyandreducetransmissionrisk.Manyoftheassessmenttopicswillbefamiliartoplanningmanagers,butthetoolsprovideadditionalconsiderationsthatcanhelpassessEIDvulnerabilities.
Whiletheguidelinesemphasizeminimizingcontactoravoidingopportunitieswithanimalsandvectors(mosquitos,ticks,etc.),itisimportanttonotethatanimalextermination/cullingmeasuresaroundafacilityarerarelyappropriateastheassociatedlossofbiodiversitymayhavenegativehealthoutcomes(selectexceptionsmaybewarranted,e.g.exterminationofcommensalratsinlivingareas,butemphasisshouldbeplacedonrodent-proofingstructuresandfoodsourcesthatmayattractpests).Thus,thePlanningandAuditToolspromotemeasuresbasedonthebestavailablescience,andaredesignedtobalancehealthandenvironmentalconsiderations,encouraginginvolvementofwildlifeauthorities/environmentalmanagersinadditiontohealthexpertsondecision-makingforpestcontrol.
ThePlanningToolandAuditGuidelinesprovidescience-basedguidance(withkeytechnicalsourcesprovided)compiledbyateamofinfectiousdisease,biodiversityandinternationaldevelopmentexpertsundertheUSAIDEmergingPandemicThreatsprogram.Pleasenotethatthisisalivingdocumentandissubjecttorevisionasnewinformationbecomesavailable.
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IndustrialDevelopmentProjectsandEmergingInfectiousDiseasesThe2014-2016EbolaoutbreakinWestAfricabroughttolightthedevastatingeffectsofemerginginfectiousdiseasesonthelocalpopulationaswellastheseveredisruptiontoeconomiesandinmanycases,large-scaleindustrialactivities.AlthoughEbolahadneverbeendocumentedinthatpartofWestAfrica,theconditionswerepresentandnotfullyappreciatednotonlyforthepresenceofEbola,butalsoforitswidespreadtransmission.Ebolaisnottheonlyemerginginfectiousdiseasedisruptingworkflows.OutbreaksofMarburghemorrhagicfever,causedbyavirusrelatedtoEbolaandharboredbyselectbatspecies,resultedintheshutdownofgoldandleadminingsitesaswellascavespopularwithecotourists.Themajorityofhumaninfectiouspathogenshaveoriginatedfromanimaltransmissiontohumans(“zoonoticdiseases”),andofthese,themajorityofemergingandre-emerginginfectiousdiseasesoriginateinwildlife.Threewildanimalgroups,whichcompriseapproximately70percentofmammalspecies,areconsideredmostlikelytospreadnewinfectionstopeople:bats(CoronavirusresponsibleforSARSandMarburg,Nipah,andRabiesviruses),rodents(Lassa,hanta,andmonkeypoxviruses)andnon-humanprimates(transmissionofEbolaandoriginsofHIV).Peoplecontractthesediseasesbyinhalationofaerosolizedcontaminatedfecesandurine;throughdirectcontactviascratches,bites,andbodilyfluids—suchasbloodandsaliva—thatcanoccurduringhunting,butchering,andfoodpreparation;andbyingestingcontaminatedfood,water,orundercookedmeat.
Figure 1: Hotspot Risk Map of Wildlife Emerging Infectious Diseases
AstudyconductedbyJoneset.al.(2008)analyzedthedriversfordiseaseemergenceandidentifiedwhereemerginginfectiousdiseasesarelikelytooriginate.Theseplacesareinformallyknownasdisease“hotspots”(seeFigure1).Theemergenceofinfectiousdiseasesofzoonoticoriginwasassociatedwithhighwildlifebiodiversityandhumanpopulationdensity.Whilethe“hotspot”map
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identifieslocationsinbothdevelopedanddevelopingcountries,theweakerhealthcare,water,food,andwastemanagementinfrastructuresofdevelopingcountriesmaynotbeabletoidentifyoraddressexistinghealthneedsoronesthatcouldbeassociatedwithemergingorre-emergingdiseasesofzoonoticorigin.Industrialdevelopmentinthesetypesofareascancauseapopulationinfluxofjobseekersandtheirfamiliesthatfurtherstressesthealreadytaxedinfrastructures.Stressedsystemsaremorelikelytobreakdown,creatingidealconditionsforincreasedcommunicableorinfectiousdiseasetransmission.
Populationgrowthincombinationwithindustrialdevelopmentcanleadtochangesinthedistributionandabundanceofwildlifeanditsassociatedpathogens.Especiallyinremoteareas,peoplemayinteractwithwildlifewithwhichhumancontactwaspreviouslylimitedornon-existent,exposingthemtonovelpathogensforwhichtheyhavenopriorimmunity.Increasingcontactamongpeople,domesticanimals(e.g.livestock),andwildlifepopulationsincreasesthelikelihoodofdiseasetransmissionamong/betweenspecies.Forexample,wildlifemaybecomeanuisancebytakingadvantageofnewfoodsourcesandhabitatscreatedatconstructioncamps,canteens,andvillages.Wildlifemayraidcropsinfieldsthatbordertheirhabitat,invadelaborcampsandhomes,becomeviolent,oreatinfectedanimals.Huntingpressureforbushmeatmayincrease.
Althoughwecannotpredictexactlywhenemerginginfectiousdiseaseoutbreaksaregoingtooccur,therearepublichealthprevention,environmental,andsocialstrategiesthatindustrycanemploytominimizerisksassociatedwithbothknownandemerginginfectiousdiseases.Thistoolisdesignedforindustriestoproactivelyexaminetheirproposedprojectsin“hotspot”areasinordertoidentifyvulnerabilitiestozoonoticpathogensandtodevelopstrategiestominimizerisksofemerginginfectiousdiseaseswhileminimizingexposuretofood-,water-,andcertainvector-borneinfectiousdiseases.
EmergingInfectiousDiseasesandImpactAssessments
Addressingemerginginfectiousdiseasesisanenvironmental,health,andsocialissue,requiringacollaborativeapproachthatbridgesthesefields.Thisdocumentprovidesthestepstoincorporateemerginginfectiousdiseasesofzoonoticoriginintoahealth,social,orenvironmentalimpactassessment,andintoacompany’sinternalhazardorriskassessmentprocess.Examiningtheissuesthatcanleadtozoonoticpathogenexposurerequiresamoreholisticanalysisthannormallytakenbecausethoseissuesareassociatedwitharangeofindustrialactivitiesincludingbiodiversity/conservationmanagement,facilitiesmanagement(camp,canteen,water,andwaste),workerhealth,andcommunityhealth/corporatesocialresponsibility.Otheranalyseswouldnotnormallybeconductedineitheranenvironmental,health,orsocialimpactassessment,sothisdocumentprovidesguidanceonthetopicstoconsider,howanalysescouldbeconducted,andwhatmitigationmeasurescouldbeadopted.
Whilethisdocumentisnotintendedtoprovidedefinitiveguidanceonhowtoincorporatezoonoticdiseasesintoimpactassessments,itdoesaimtoprovidesufficientinformationandguidanceforapractitionertoknowwhatinformationneedstobegatheredandanalyzedtodeterminethepossibilityofexposureandguideriskmitigation.Thisdocumentispartofasetofguidancedocumentsandothertoolsthatcanbeusedbyindustrytoassessandaddresstheirvulnerabilitiestozoonoticdiseases.Figure2illustrateswherethisplanningtoolfallsintheindustrialprojectcycleandtheenvironmental,social,andhealthimpactassessmentcycle.
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Figure2:PlanningToolApplicationsinProjectCycle
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Thisdocumentassumesthatapractitionerhasabasicknowledgeofimpactassessmentprocesses.
AddingthistypeofanalysissupplementsthedepthofanimpactassessmentandaddressesportionsofthefollowingIFCPerformanceStandards:
• PerformanceStandard1:AssessmentandManagementofEnvironmentalandSocialRisksandImpacts
• PerformanceStandard2:LaborandWorkingConditions
• PerformanceStandard4:CommunityHealth,Safety,andSecurity
• PerformanceStandard6:BiodiversityConservationandSustainableManagementofLivingNaturalResources
Screening
Todeterminewhetheremerginginfectiousdiseasesofzoonoticoriginshouldbeconsideredinanimpactassessment,abasicunderstandingofthezoonoticdiseaseexposurepotentialisessential.Thefollowingscreeningchecklistseekstoidentifywhetheraproposed/existingprojectisinanareawithapotentialforzoonoticdiseaseexposureandtoidentifyiftherewillbe/areactivitiesthatmightexacerbatetheriskoftransmission.
Table1
ScreeningQuestions Yes/No Notes1. Willtheprojectbelocatedinanarea
wheretherearewildlifespeciesthatcouldhostzoonoticdiseases?(SeeAppendixA.)Isthesiteecologicallysimilartoareaswherezoonoticdiseaseshaveemerged?
Hotspotswithahigherriskofemerginginfectiousdiseasesarelocatedthroughouttheworld,butespeciallyinthoseplaceswithincreasedland-usechange,humanpopulationgrowth,andhighbiodiversity.(SeeFigure1.)
2. Willtheprojectbelocatedinapreviouslyundevelopedareaornaturalarea?Willexistinglandusecoverchangesignificantlysothatwildlifehabitatwillbelostorsignificantlymodifiedinorneartheprojectsite?
Thelikelihoodofcontactwithwildlife,theirfluids,orexcretaincreasesinareasbeingconvertedfromnaturalhabitatstodevelopedareas.
3. Willtheprojectrequireconstructingnewroadsorrailortransmissionline/pipelinecorridorsthroughrelativelyintactforestorotherwisenaturalhabitats?
Roadsandcorridorsincreasetheinteractionofhumanandwildlifebyopeningupnewareasforhunting,logging,andagriculturalcolonization.Habitatsareoftenmodified,andcertainspeciesarefavoredattheroadinterface.Roadsareusedtotransportbushmeat,livestock,andanimalsdestinedforthewildlifetrade.
4. Willanonsitetemporaryorpermanentcampbeestablished?
Camps,canteens,andfood/waste/watermanagementfacilitiescanattractpests/wildlife,increasingpotentialcontactbetweenpeopleandwildlifeandtheirexcreta,andincreasingtransmissionrisk.
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ScreeningQuestions Yes/No Notes5. Willtherebeafly-in/fly-outpopulation?
Willworkerstravelinandoutoftheprojectarea,withthepotentialtocarryinfectiousdiseasesacquiredintheprojectlocationtotheirhomelocationsandintroducediseasesfromoutsideintotheprojectarea?Withinthecountry?Internationally?
Exposedpeoplecouldleavethefacilitywithoutknowingthattheyaresickandexposeothersalongtransportationroutes.
6. Willtheinfrastructureinsurroundingcommunitiesbeinsufficienttoaccommodateanyanticipatedpopulationexpansion?Isthisalreadyaproblem?
Insufficientpotablewater,sanitation,healthcare,andvectorcontrolcanamplifyanyinfectiousdiseasethatoccurslocally.
7. Dothelocalcommunitieshaveinadequatehealthcarefacilitiestoaddresslocalhealthcarerequirements?Areexistingmedicaltreatmentanddiagnosticservicesinsufficienttomanageanoutbreakofinfectiousdiseasesknowntobeintheprojectlocation?
Inadequateorinsufficientlocalhealthcarefacilitiescanmeanthatdiseasesinthelocalcommunitiescanbebroughttothefacility.
8. Willaninternationalmedicalevacuationplanberequiredoravailabletotransportandtreatworkerswithpotentiallycontagiousinfectiousdiseases?
Internationalmovementmayfacilitateinternationalspread.
9. Willarelativelylargelaborinfluxoccurcomparedtotheexistingpopulation?
Newimmigrantstoanareamaynothaveimmunitytoendemicdiseasesormaybringnewdiseasestoanarea.Project-inducedlaborandotherin-migrationcanstrainlocalhealthandotherinfrastructuresystems.Poorlyfunctioningwaterandwastemanagementaswellashealthcaresystemscanresultintheamplificationofinfectiousdiseasetransmission.
10. Willtheemployeeshavetosourcetheirownfood(i.e.,thecompanywillnotprovideafoodsource)?
Theincreaseonfooddemandfromthenewfacilityonthelocalareacouldexacerbatepressureonexistingfoodsources,availabilityandpricing,andnaturalresources,thereforeincreasinghuntingpressureandtheuseofnon-foresttimberproducts,includingexpandingagricultureintonewareasthatmayhavebeenpreviouslyundisturbed.Ifareliableproteinsourceisnotprovided,employeesmayhavetorelyonfoodfromhunting.
11. Willlivestockbeon-siteornearthesite?Willstaffbeallowedtohavepetson-site?
Pathogenscanbetransmittedbetweenwildlifeanddomesticanimals.Peoplecanthenacquirepathogensfromdomesticanimals.Likewise,livestockintroducedtonewareasmaybringdiseasesforwildlifeandpeople.
12. Willtherebeon-siteagriculturalproduction?Willadditionalin-migrationleadtoagricultureexpansioninadjacentareas?
Grainandfruitproductionattractswildlifeandpests.Foodproductscanbecontaminatedfromanimalbyproductsand/ordirectcontactwithwildlife.
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Whilenoindividualitem(s)fromthechecklistnecessarilyimpliesthataprojectwouldbevulnerabletozoonoticdiseases,acombinationoffactorscouldincreasethepotentialforexposuretozoonoticorothercommunicablediseases.Therefore,iftheanswertoquestion1andanyotherquestion(s)is“yes,”itisworthwhiletofurtherexaminethepotentialofemerginginfectiousdiseasesforyourprojectarea.
Pleasekeepinmindwhengoingthroughthescreeningchecklistthatemergenceeventsarerare,butwhentheyoccurtherecanbedevastatingconsequences.Theriskofpotentialexposureneedstobebalancedwiththeotherrisksinherentintheproposedproject.However,manyofthestepshighlightedcanalsoreducetheriskofendemic,food-,water-,andvector-bornediseases,aswellasmanageenvironmentalandsocialrisks.
Scope
Sincethisassessmentisintendedtobeincorporatedintoanexistingorongoingassessment,itispresumedthatthegeographicandtemporalboundariesofanyanalysishavealreadybeenestablishedashavethepotentiallyvulnerablepopulations.Unlikemanystandardenvironmental,social,orhealthimpactassessments,bothworkerandlocalpopulationsmustbeconsidered.Workerpopulationsareconsideredincompanyriskorhazardassessments,butinthisassessmenttheyareconsideredonacontinuumwiththelocalpopulationastheymayresideinthecommunity(ifon-sitehousingisnotprovided),orcomeintofrequentcontactwiththecommunity.
AdditionalBaselineDatatobeCollected
Baselineenvironmental,social,andhealthdataarecollectedtosupporttheimpactassessmentprocess.Toassessthepotentialforexposuretozoonoticpathogens,itisnecessarytonotonlyunderstandthecharacteristicsandbehaviorsofwildlifespeciesendemictoaprojectarea,buttoalsotakeintoaccountalocalcommunity’srelationshiptothem.Thesedatawouldsupplementvariouscomponentsofthebaselinedata.Table2providessuggestedtopicareaswherethesedatawouldsupplementthebaselinedatacollectionandindicateswhetherthatdataisnormallycollectedaspartofanESIAorHIA.
Table2
DataToBeCollected ESIA HIAUsuallyIncluded?
Obtainorgenerateaspecieslistofwildlifeendemictothearea,includingrodents.
Yes No
Determinewhetherthemostcommonwildlifespeciesareknowncarriersofzoonoticpathogens,whattheirecologicalbehaviorsare(e.g.roostingincaves),andwhattheytypicallyeat.
No Maybe
Havetherebeenoutbreaksofthosediseases?Amongpeople?Wildlife?Livestock?When?Arethereanyundiagnosedillnessesreportedbyhealthauthoritiesorlocalclinics?
No Maybe
Determinehowtheprojectwillfeeditspersonnel.Willtheprojectprovidefoodforallstafforonlyexpatriatestaff?
No Maybe
Determinesourcesofproteinforexistingandincreasedpopulation;ifbushmeatisusedasasourceofprotein,whatspeciesarehunted?
No No
Determinewhatmethodsareusedinharvesting,butchering,transporting,andpreparingbushmeat.
No No
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DataToBeCollected ESIA HIAUsuallyIncluded?
Determinehowlocalcommunitiesinteractwithrodents,bats,andnon-humanprimates,andwhatpotentialexposurepathwaysexistbetweentheseanimalsandhumansinthearea.
No No
Whatwildlifespeciesareconsideredpests?Whatarethelocalmethodstocontrolthesepests?
No No
Determinethecapacityofthelocalcommunity’sinfrastructurewithrespecttopotablewatersupply,sanitation,andvectorcontrol.
No Yes
Determinethecapacityofthelocalcommunity’sinfrastructurewithrespecttohealthcareandveterinaryservices.
No Maybe
Assesspotentialsourcesoffoodforrapidlyincreasingpopulation,includingtheextentandlocationofpotentiallyarableland.
No Yes
Currentpopulationoftheprojectarea. Yes YesIfpossible,collectdatafromlocalgovernmentalandnon-governmentalorganizationsregardingexistinglocalwildlifediseases.
No Maybe
Assesstypesofnearbywildlifehabitat,itsintegrity,andtheextenttowhichitisatriskofconversion,fragmentation,and/ordegradationduetoproject-inducedpopulationinflux.
Yes No
Pleasenotethatageneralsocial/livelihoodsbaselineisimportanttoenableholisticunderstandingoflocalcommunityandtheirpotentialtoadapttochangesandsocialmanagementplans(includingmanagementofhealthrisks).
AssessingPotentialVulnerabilitiestoEmergingInfectiousDiseasesAproject’spotentialvulnerabilitytoemerginginfectiousdiseaseswereidentifiedinthescreeningchecklistandillustratedbelow.
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Toassessareasofvulnerability,thisguidance’sapproachistoexaminethecomponentsofprojectsthatcouldincreaseordecreasevulnerabilitytoEIDexposureasameansofidentifyingwherepreventionmeasurescouldbeused.Unlikeotherimpactanalysesthatfocusonthechangesthatoccurtotheenvironmentandlocalpopulations,thisanalysisalsoevaluateshowtheprojectwillprotectitsemployeesfromexposuretofood-andwater-bornediseasesandcommunicablediseases.Therefore,oneofthefirststepsistoexaminehowthecampandfacilitieswillbemanaged.Theotherareasthathavetobeexaminedarewildlifemanagement,communityhealth,andinfrastructure.Thefollowingprovidesquestionsthatshouldbeevaluatedduringimpactsforeachtopicareas.
Table3
WORKERHEALTH1. LivingQuarters:Iftemporaryorpermanentlivingquarterswillbeconstructedatthefacility,itis
necessarytodeterminewhetherthequartersaredesignedtominimizethepotentialfortransmissionofcommunicabledisease.
a. Willtheon-sitehousingcomplywithinternationalstandardswithrespecttoventilation,space,andsanitation?Willitbedesignedtopreventcommunicablediseasetransmission?
b. Willtherebemeasurestoprotectfacilitiesagainstnon-humanprimate,rodent,andbatinfestations–Arepestanimalsconsideredinthedesign?Aretheremeasurestopreventpestwildlifeandvectorsfromenteringoffices,residences,andfacilities?
2. Canteen:Ifthecampwillhaveacanteen,measurestoensurethequalityofthefoodaswellashowwastefoodwouldbehandledshouldbeconsidered.
a. Foodhandling–Willfoodhandlingproceduresbeinplacetominimizetransmissionofany
Figure 3: Cascading Effects of On-Shore Oil Development on Increasing Contact Among People, Domestic Animals, Vectors and Wildlife
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WORKERHEALTHcommunicablediseaseinthefoodpreparationorservingprocess?
b. Foodsupplychainandstorage–Willfoodstoragebesuchthatfoodcannotbecontaminatedbypestanimalsorinsects?Willthefoodsupplychainbeinspectedtoensurenocontamination?
c. Foodwaste–Willfoodbedisposedofinamannerthatitwillnotattractpestanimalsorinsects?
3. Clinic:Ifanon-sitehealthcarefacilitywillbeavailable,measurestoaddresscommunicablediseaseandpotentialoutbreaksshouldbeconsidered.
a. Capacity(fortreatment;forpreventiveservices)–Willthefacilitybeabletodiagnosecommunicablediseases?Willthefacilityhavesufficientcapacitytotreatanoutbreak?
b. Diseaseoutbreakpreparednessplan–Willthefacilityhaveanoutbreakplan?Willitcovertheendemiccommunicablediseases?Willitaddresshowtodealwithunknowndiseases?Dohealthtechniciansqueryaboutcontactwithanimalsortheirexcreta?
c. Laboratory–Willtheon-siteclinichaveanon-sitelaboratory?Willtheclinichaveaccesstoalaboratoryforadvanceddiagnosticsiftheon-sitelaboratoryisunabletoconfirmdiagnoses?
d. Willthecliniccommunicateandshareinformationwiththelocalhealthfacilityaboutinfectiousdiseaseincidencesandunusualillnesses?Willitprovideweeklysurveillancedatatothelocalhealthauthority?
e. Willtherebealaboratoryand/ordedicatedhealthcarewastemanagementsystem?4. WasteManagement/PestControl:Allcampsandfacilitieshavetomanagewaste.Improperwaste
managementcanattractpestornuisanceanimals.Aspectsofwastemanagementtoconsiderarelistedbelow.
a. Landfillmanagement–Willinternationalorlocalstandardsbeusedfortheconstructionandoperationofthelandfill?Willthelandfillbemanagedsothatitdoesnotattractpestanimals?
b. Trashmanagement–Willgarbagebemanagedsothatitwillnotattractpestanimals?(coveredcontainers,pickedupregularly)
c. Pestcontrolmeasures–Willthefacilityhaveapestmanagementcontrolprogramtoaddresspest/nuisanceanimalsandothervectors?
d. Ifagriculturalproductionisallowedwithinaconcession:i. Willtherebemeasurestoprotectlivestockfromwildlife?ii. Willtherebemeasurestoexcludewildlifefromcropsorfruittrees?iii. Willtherebemeasurestoexcludewildlifeorpestsfromcropstorageareas?iv. Willtherebemeasurestosafelymanagelivestockbiowaste(e.g.fromdiseased
animals,animalwasteiftreatedwithpharmaceuticals,etc.)?5. WaterManagement:Watercanbeahabitatforinsectvectorsandcanalsobecontaminatedifnot
properlystored.a. Vectorcontrolmeasures–Willmeasuresbeinplacetominimizetheamountofstandingwater
thatcouldprovidevectorhabitat?b. Waterpurification–Willdrinkingwaterbetreated?c. Waterstorage–Willwaterstoragebesecurefrompotentialcontamination?d. Otherwastes–Arewastewater,sewage,food,andanyotherwastematerialsdisposedof
accordingtolocalorIFC/WorldBankstandards?1
BIODIVERSITY/WILDLIFEMANAGEMENT6. WildlifeSpeciesandPathogens:Allwildlifespeciesmayhostpathogens;however,notallwilladversely
affectpeople.a. Arethewildlifespeciespresentknowntohostpathogensofconcernforpeople?
1 Waterandsanitation,includingwastewaterandsewage:http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/e22c050048855ae0875cd76a6515bb18/Final%2B-%2BWater%2Band%2BSanitation.pdf?MOD=AJPERESWastemanagement,includingfoodwaste,trash,andlandfills:http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/1cd72a00488557cfbdf4ff6a6515bb18/Final%2B-%2BWaste%2BManagement%2BFacilities.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&id=1323162538174
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7. Biodiversitymonitoringandmanagementstrategy:Habitatchanges,suchascreatingcorridorsorfragmentinghabitatcanalterbiodiversity,favoringanimalspeciesthataremoretolerantofpeopleorthatseekouthuman-maderesources,suchasrodents.Someofthesetypesofanimalsareknowntohostzoonoticdiseases.
a. Willthebiodiversitymanagementprogramconsideranimalsthatcarryzoonoticdiseases,suchasrodents?
b. Willhuntingbeallowedontheconcession?Withintheprojectfootprint?c. Willtherebeaninternalsystemforreportingwildlifemorbidityormortality?Willtherebean
externalsysteminplaceforreportingwildlifemorbidityormortalitytowildlifeauthorities?
COMMUNITYHEALTH8. CommunityClinic:Manyon-siteworkersarefromthelocalcommunities,soinfectiousdiseasesinthe
communitycanspreadtotheworkplace.Communityhealthcanalsobeaffectedbytheinfluxofworkersandothermigrants.
a. Dothelocalcommunitieshaveahealthcarefacility?b. Doesthecommunityhealthcarefacilityhavethecapacityandequipmenttoaddressthehealth
needsofthecommunitiesitserves?c. Doesthehealthcarefacilitytracklocaldiseaseoutbreaks?Doesithavealaboratory?Doesit
haveaccesstoalaboratoryforadvanceddiagnosticsforunknowndiseases?d. Doesthefacilityhaveahealthcarewastemanagementstrategy?
9. CommunityInfrastructure:Isthecommunityvulnerabletoinfectiousdiseasetransmissionduetodeficienciesinitsinfrastructure?Istheinfrastructureadequatetoaddresstheneedsoftheexistingpopulationandtheanticipatedgrowthinpopulation?
a. Dothecommunitieshavefeaturestopreventpest/nuisanceanimalsfromaccessingagricultureandfoodstorage?Communitywastedisposal?Drinkingwatersources?
b. Doesthecommunityhaveasanitationsystem?c. Doesthecommunitymaintainalandfill?d. Dothecommunitieshaveadequatedrainagetopreventcreationofvectorhabitat?
10. CommunityPractices:Isthecommunityvulnerabletoinfectiousdiseasetransmissionduetoculturalpractices?
a. Doesthecommunityhaveabushmeatmarketorinvolvementinotherwildlifetrade?b. Doesthecommunityengageinsubsistencehunting?c. Doesthecommunitypracticetraditionalactivitiesthatcouldfacilitatethespreadof
communicablediseases(e.g.burialpractices)?11. CommunityFoodSupply:Willtheprojectbefeedingitsworkers?
Thepresenceofalarge-scaleprojectduringbothconstructionandoperationscouldputincreaseddemandsonlocalfoodsuppliers.Asaresult,pricescouldriseandmakelocalslooktobushmeatandforestproductstosupplementtheirfoodsupplies.
• Whatarethelocalsourcesofagriculturalgoods?• Whatarethelocalsourcesofprotein?• Aretheresufficientsourcesofbothtoaccommodatetheincreaseddemandoftheproject?• Whatwillbethesourcesoftheproject’sfood?
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Table4providesacross-walkofwhereinformationfromthisanalysiscouldbeaddedtoanESIAoranHIA.
Table4
AnalysisArea ESIASection HIASection NewAnalysisRequiredWorkerHealthLivingQuarters ProjectDescription Respiratoryand
HousingCompliancewithInternationalBestPractices2orlocalrequirementsforhousing
Canteen–Foodsafety/security
- Food&Nutrition CompliancewithInternationalBestPracticesorlocalrequirementsforfood.
FoodManagement(storageanddisposal)
WasteManagementorTerrestrialBiologicalResources
Food&Nutrition/Vector-RelatedImpacts/Soil,Water,&Sanitation
Adequacyoffoodprotectiontopreventcontaminationandnotattractpests(animalsandinsects)
On-siteClinic - - Evaluatetheadequacyoftheclinicandcommunityinfrastructuretoidentifyandaddressoutbreaks
WasteManagement HazardsandPublicSafetyorWasteManagement
Vector-RelatedImpacts/Soil,Water,&Sanitation
Adequacyofwastemanagementtopreventattractingpests(animalsandinsects)
WaterManagement WaterResources/WasteManagement
Soil,Water,&Sanitation
CompliancewithInternationalBestPracticesorlocalrequirementsforwaterandwastemanagement
Adequacyofprotectionofwaterresourcestopreventcontaminationfromanimals,notprovidevectorhabitat,andnotattractanimals
Biodiversity/WildlifeManagementWildlifeEndemicZoonoticDiseases
TerrestrialBiologicalResources
CommunityProfile– CommunicableDiseases/VeterinaryMedicine
Arelocalwildlifespeciespresentthatareknowntoharborzoonoticpathogensofconcern?
BiodiversityManagement:WildlifePopulationasaResultofHabitatChanges
TerrestrialBiologicalResources
VeterinaryMedicine
Howchangesinhabitatandbiodiversitycanchangewildlifedynamicsandincrease/decreasewildlifecommunitiesand/orpopulationsthatmayharborzoonoticpathogensofconcerntohumans
BiodiversityManagement:BushmeatPolicy
TerrestrialBiologicalResources–ManagementandMitigations
- Bushmeathuntingcanincreaseexposuretozoonoticpathogens
CommunityHealthCommunityClinic Socioeconomics,
UtilitiesandInfrastructure,
HealthServices,Infrastructure,&Capacity
Evaluatetheadequacyoftheclinicandcommunityinfrastructurestoidentifyandaddressoutbreaks
2e.g.,guidancefromtheIFC:http://www.ebrd.com/downloads/about/sustainability/Workers_accomodation.pdf
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AnalysisArea ESIASection HIASection NewAnalysisRequiredCommunityInfrastructure
and/orProject-InducedMigrationRiskAnalysis
Evaluatetheadequacyoftheinfrastructurewithrespecttopreventingorfacilitatingthespreadofcommunicableorotherdiseases
CommunityPractices
CulturalHeritage CulturalHealthPractices
Howculturalpracticescanincreasethepotentialexposuretozoonoticpathogens
CommunityFoodSupply
Socioeconomics Food&Nutrition Willtheincreasedfooddemandoftheprojectresultinincreasesinfoodprices?Willthisresultinlocalsseekingforest/wildlife-basedproteinsources?
Cumulativeimpactsarethosethatcouldresultfromtheadditiveeffectsfrompast,existing,andreasonablyforeseeableprojects.Thesetypesofimpactsareoftendifficulttoevaluatebecausetheyrequirelookingbeyondtheboundariesoftheprojectandexaminingbothhistoricalcontextandpotentialfutureprojectsintheregion.Cumulativeimpactscouldoccurthatwouldbeassociatedwithincreasingthepotentialexposuretozoonoticpathogens:
1. Ifthecombinationofexistingandnewprojectssufficientlychangethehabitatsuchthatitfavorsspeciesthathostpathogensofconcern.Ifwildlifehabitatisremovedcompletely,thenmanyspecieswouldnotsurvive;however,otherspeciesmaybecomeestablishedand/orbecomemoreabundant(e.g.manyrodentspeciesthriveinhumanhabitats).
2. Iftheexistingcommunityinfrastructureisalreadystressedorinadequate,theadditionofonenewprojectmayormaynotaddfurtherstress,butifmultipleprojectsareplannedforthesamegeneralarea,thecommunityinfrastructurecouldbestressedtothepointthatsystemsbegintobreakdown.
ActionPlan
Preventingorminimizingexposuretoemergingorexistinginfectiouspathogensofzoonoticoriginshouldbeaddressedatmultiplelevels.AppendixBincludesrepresentativemitigationmeasuresthatcouldbeincludedinanactionplan.
Atacompany/community/regionallevel,mitigationmeasuresshouldfocuson:• Maintainingintacthabitatsandpreservingbiodiversity• Educatingandinstitutionalizinggeneralpublichealthmeasurestopreventinfectiousdisease
transmissionandoutbreaks• Preparingfordiseaseoutbreaks
Preparingfordiseaseoutbreaksnotonlyinvolveshavinganoutbreakplan,butalsoestablishingandmaintainingcommunicationnetworkswithhealthcareproviders,localgovernments,NGOs,andothercompaniesandindustrygroups.Thismaytaketheformofjointsimulations,meetings,phonenetworks,designatedpointsofcontactandtriggerpoints,andstandingtaskforces,amongotherapproaches.
Forindividuals,mitigationmeasuresshouldfocusonpreventingdirectorindirectcontactwithwildlifeortheirexcretaby:
• Notcreatinghabitatorfoodsourcesforwildlifeorpestswherepeopleliveandwork• Limitingorpreventingcontactwithwildlifeortheirexcreta• Institutionalizingbasicpublichealthcontrolmeasurestominimizethetransmissionof
pathogens
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• Educatingindividualstosafeguardagainstpathogentransmission
Figures4and5provideframeworkstouseinformulatingprevention/mitigationstrategies.
Whilepreventingexposureispreferable,allactionplansshouldhaveapreparednessplanfordiseaseoutbreaks.TheEbolaoutbreakprovidedexamplesofactionsthatfacilitiescantaketolimittransmissionduringanoutbreaksuchas:
• Installinghand-washingfacilitieswithpotablewaterandsoapattheentrypointtoallcamps,offices,canteens,andresidentialareas,andeducatingtheworkforcetousethem
• Installingtemperaturescreeningdevicesattheentranceofcamps• Ensuringsafehandlingofhealthcarewasteanddeadbodiesforinfectioncontrol• Providingaccurateevidence-basedinformationaboutdiseasestodispelrumors
Generaluseofhand-washingfacilitiescanreducetransmissionofmultiplecommunicablediseases.TemperaturemonitoringduringtheEbolaepidemicidentifiedotherfebrilediseases.
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Figure4:PracticesIndividualsCanTaketoReducethePotentialforZoonoticDiseaseTransmissionRisk
Transmission Routes
Fomite/skin Food Water AirBites, scratches and cuts while
butchering
Bitten fruits, contaminated
stored grains and undercooked
meats
AerosolsShared water
and open water sources
Avoid eating bitten fruit
Avoid contact with sick or dead animals
Practice good hygiene
Transmission Prevention
Wash cuts and scratches with soap
Cook all meat at 56°C
Wash fruit before eating
Transmission Prevention
Drink treated water
Cover mouth and nose (using a mask or respirator) in risk
areas (e.g. caves, mines, storage areas)
INFECTED ANIMAL
Blood Saliva Urine/Feces
HUMAN DISEASE
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Figure5:PracticesCompaniesCanTaketoMitigatethePotentialforZoonoticDiseaseTransmission
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MonitoringandEvaluationMonitoringandevaluation(M&E)ofanymitigationstrategiesshouldbeimplemented.Keyperformanceindicatorsusedcouldbestructural,process,andoutcomebased.
Structural• Staffhousingcharacteristics(adequateandappropriatespaceperindividual,sanitation,
foodstorage)• Landfillcharacteristics(adequatesize;appropriatecovertodiscouragepests;appropriate
andadequaterunoffcontrol;appropriatedistancefromhousing,village,andotherhuman-usedfacilities)
• Wastebins(coveredandsecuretopreventraidingbywildlife,andemptiedregularly)• Reductionoreliminationofopenwater(gutters,ditches,watercontainers,etc.)• Facilitystructurecharacteristics(measurestodiscouragebatroostingandrodentinvasion)
Process• ImplementationofBiodiversityMonitoringPlanandestablishmentandenforcementof
policiesonbushmeatandotherwildlifetrade• Implementationofintegratedpestmanagementtoreduceanimalpestandinsect
abundance,includingimplementationofappropriatewastemanagementprocedurestopreventattractinginsectsandvermin
• Implementationoffood–procurement,safety/security,handling,anddisposal–procedurestoeliminatepotentialcontaminationbypests
• Operationaldiseasemonitoring,surveillance,andreportingplan• Operationaldiseaseoutbreakplanthatisevaluatedannually• Compliancewithlocalandnationalhealthreportingrequirements,consistentwiththe
WorldHealthOrganizationInternationalHealthRegulations
Outcome• Maintenanceofintacthabitatsandbiodiversityaroundthefacility• Numberofinfectiousdiseaseeventsoroutbreaks• Numberofpeststrappedorfrequencyofpestsobserved• Numberofadversewildlifeencounters(e.g.bites,scratches)• Amountofon-sitehunting• Numberofoccurrencesofbushmeatprocurement• Amountofbushmeatandanimalproductsdestinedforwildlifetradefoundincompany
vehiclesoratexitgates
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APPENDIXA:ZoonoticandVector-BorneVirusesofConcern
TableA-1providesanexampleofthetypesofinformationthatshouldbeassessedtoidentifywildlifepathogensthathavebeenidentifiedinandaroundtheprojectarea,potentialpathogensassociatedwithwildlifeendemictotheprojectarea,andthecorrespondingtransmissionpathwaysofinfectionassociatedwiththesepathogens.
Thesetypesofcountry-leveltablescanbegeneratedwithdiseasedatafromWHOGlobalHealthObservatory(http://www.who.int/gho/en/)andPandemicandEpidemicDiseaseReports(http://www.who.int/csr/disease/en/),FAOEmergencyPreventionSystemforTransboundaryAnimalandPlantPestsandDiseases(http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/programmes/en/empres/home.asp),OIEWorldAnimalHealthInformationDatabaseforOIE-ListedDiseases(http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahid.php/Wahidhome/Home),andselectnon-listeddiseasesreportedinwildlife(http://www.oie.int/wahis_2/public/wahidwild.php),andmaybesupplementedbyatoolonHealthMap(http://www.healthmap.org/en/).SpeciesrangeinformationmayalsobeavailableviatheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies(http://www.iucnredlist.org/)andtheMapofLife(https://www.mol.org/).Otherwise,aliteraturesearchwillhavetobeconductedbycountry,pathogen,andresearchdatabases(e.g.Olivaletal.inreview,EcoHealthAlliance).
Thepresenceofthesetypesofpathogenscouldbeincorporatedintoacompany’sriskassessmentprogram.
TableA-1.ExamplesofKnownZoonoticandVector-BorneVirusesofConcernThistableisdesignedasafirstlevel“HazardIdentification”element.
Virus TransmissionPathway
ExamplesofKnownSpeciesAffected
MarburgVirus
Directcontactwithinfectedanimal
Franquet’sepaulettedfruitbat(Epomopsfranqueti),Hammer-headedbat(Hypsignathusmonstrosus),Egyptianfruitbat(Rousettusaegyptiacus),Greatlong-fingeredbat(Miniopterusinflatus)
WestNileVirus Vector-borne Straw-colouredfruitbat(Eidolonhelvum),humansEbolaVirus Direct
contactwithinfectedanimals
Bats:Straw-colouredfruitbat(Eidolonhelvum),Franquet’sepaulettedfruitbat(Epomopsfranqueti),Hammer-headedfruitbat(Hypsignathusmonstrosus),Peter'sdwarfepaulettedfruitbat(Micropteropuspusillus),Littlecollaredfruitbat(Myonycteristorquata),Egyptianfruitbat(Rousettusaegyptiacus)
Non-humanprimates:Gorilla(Gorillagorilla),Chimpanzee(Pantroglodytes)
HumansChikungunyaVirus Vector-borne Bats:Egyptianfruitbat(Rousettusaegyptiacus),CapeLeaf-nosed
batorSundevall’sroundleafbatorCommonAfricanLeaf-nosedBat(Hipposideroscaffer)
Rodents:Natalmultimammatemouse(Mastomysnatalensis)
Humans
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Virus TransmissionPathway
ExamplesofKnownSpeciesAffected
Simianimmunodeficiencyvirus(SIV)
Directcontactwithinfectedanimals
Non-humanprimates:Cercopithecusspp.,Lophocebusalbigena,Drill(Mandrillusleucophaeus),Mandrill(Mandrillussphinx),Guerza(Colobusguereza),Chimpanzee(Pantroglodytes)
MonkeypoxVirus Directcontactwithinfectedanimals
Non-humanprimates:Cercopithecusspp.,
Rodents:Northerngiantpouchedrat(Cricetomysspp.),
Tableincludesexamplesofknownzoonoticpathogensinmammalsandbirdsasdocumentedinthescientificliterature(2000-2011).
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APPENDIXB:ExamplePreventativeMitigationMeasures
TableA-2presentsexamplesofpreventativemitigationmeasuresthatcanbeimplementedforalargeprojectwithinacommunityinaruralsetting.Itisnotmeanttoserveasatemplate,butrathertoillustratesomeoftheactionsthatcanbetaken.
C&C=CompanyandContractorHealthPlanPACs=PotentiallyAffectedCommunities
Timing:
Timing ActionPlan Responsibility3 CollaboratingAgencyorOrganization
Indicators SurveillanceMethodC&C PACs
EmergingZoonoticDiseaseTransmissionRisk:Directcontactwithinfectedanimals(Directcontactwithinfectedanimalscanoccurwhileworkingoutdoors,inaditsorcaves,inagriculturalsettings,inlocationswherefoodorwasteisstored)Instituteano-bushmeat-huntingpolicywithintheconcessionifpossible.Otherwisediscouragebushmeathuntingandenforcelocalbushmeatregulationsinareasofcompanycontrol.
C→DC X Company Localenviron-mentdepartment
Presence/absenceofon-sitepoaching,#ofconfiscations
CompanysecurityorCommunityRelationsDepartment
Trainworkersaboutissuesassociatedwithbushmeathunting–inparticularspeciesandtheirassociateddiseases–anddiscouragethepurchasingofbushmeat
C→DC X Companyeducationdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepartment
Presence/absenceofon-sitepoaching,#ofconfiscations
CompanysecurityorCommunityRelationsDepartment
3Theremaybeinstanceswheretheresponsibilityisthecompany’s,butpartneringwithagencieswithingovernmentorwithNGOscanmaketrainingandcapacitybuildingmoreeffective.
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Timing ActionPlan Responsibility3 CollaboratingAgencyorOrganization
Indicators SurveillanceMethodC&C PACs
Ifworkershavetoenterareaswithknownconcentrationsofbatsorrodents(e.g.adits,caves,etc),conductanassessmentofthepotentialforexposuretowildlifeandselectappropriatepersonalprotectiveequipmenttopreventcontactwithfecesandurineandbodilyfluids(e.g.inacavesetting).
C→DC X Companyhealthandenvironmentdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepartment
NumberofworkersthatusePPEwhenoperatinginareaswithknownconcentrationsofrodentsorbats
Educateprojectworkersaboutzoonoticdiseaserisks,howtoavoidencounterswithwildlife,andwhattodoifbitten,scratched,etc.
C→DC X Companyeducationdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Numberofworkerstrained;numberofadverseencounters
Incidencerecordedatcompanyclinic
Minimizehabitatfragmentation/creationofedgethroughlimitingroaddevelopment
D→O X Company Localenviron-mentaldepart-ment
Lengthoflinearcorridor
Annualmapping
Maintainbiodiversitythroughimplementationofabiodiversityplan
D→DC X Company Localenviron-mentaldepart-ment
Speciescounts Semi-annualinventories
Monitoron-siteagricultureforpestinvasion. C→O X Company Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Presence/absenceofpests;cropdestruc-tion
Companyenviron-mentalaudit
Conducttrainingwithlocalcommunitiesaboutissuesassociatedwithbushmeathuntingandpropermethodstobutcher
C→DC x Companyeducationdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepartment
Numberofpeopletrained
Conducteducationalcampaignswithlocalcommunitiesaboutzoonoticdiseaserisks,howtoavoidencounterswithwildlife,andwhattodoifbitten,scratched,etc.
C→DC x Companyeducationdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Numberoflocalstrained;numberofadverseencountersatlocalclinic
Incidentsrecordedatlocalclinic
Establishinternalandexternaldatacollectionandreportingmechanismforwildlifemorbidityandmortality
C→DC X x Companyenvironmentdepartment
Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Numberofreports Worker/communityreporting
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Timing ActionPlan Responsibility3 CollaboratingAgencyorOrganization
Indicators SurveillanceMethodC&C PACs
Conducteducationalcampaignaboutwildlifeconflictmitigation&domesticanimalbiosecurity
C→DC x Companyeducationdepartment
Localnaturalresourcedepartment
Numberofpeopletrained
Risk:Indirectcontactwithinfectedanimals(Indirectcontactcanoccurthroughconsumptionoffoodorliquidsthathavebeencontaminatedwithanimalexcretaorfrominsectvectors)Reviewfoodsafetyandsecurityprocedures D→O X Company Localhealth
departmentFoodsafetyprocedureimple-mented
Foodsafetyaudit
Reviewfoodstoragemethodsandprotections D→O X Company Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Presence/absencesofpestpreventionmeasures
Foodsafetyaudit
Reviewwastedisposalandmanagement D→O X Company Localenviron-mentdepart-ment/healthdepartment
Dailycover,pestcontrol
Environmentalmanagementreview/audit
Reviewhousingdesigntoensureadequatemeasuresexistnottopromoteorfacilitateinfectiousdiseasetransmission
D->DC X Company,engineeringdesign
Localhealthdepartment
Occupantsperroom,foodstorage,sanitation
Housingaudit
Conducthealtheducationprogramsforprojectworkersregardinginfectiousdiseasestransmission
C→DC X Companyhealthoreducationdepartment
Districthealthofficer
Numberofworkerstrained
Workertesting;auditpractices,incidenceofinfectiousdiseases
Conducthealtheducationprogramsforprojectworkersregardingfoodsafety
C→DC X Companyhealthoreducationdepartment
Districtenviron-mentalhealthofficer
Numberofworkerstrained
Workertesting;auditpractices,incidenceoffood-borneillnesses
Assistwithprovidingfoodsanitationawarenessmaterialstolocaldistrictenvironmentalsanitationofficersforeducationalsessionswithfoodhandlersandslaughterhouses,particularlyvendorswhosellfoodtoprojectworkers
C→O x Companyhealthoreducationdepartment
Localenviron-mentalhealthdepartment
Foodhandlerpractices
Auditoffoodhandlerpractices
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Timing ActionPlan Responsibility3 CollaboratingAgencyorOrganization
Indicators SurveillanceMethodC&C PACs
ImplementanentomologicalsurveyprogramforinsectvectorsatthefacilityandinthePACs
C→DC X x Company Countryhealthservices:vector-controldivision
Entomologicalinfectionrate/parasiteprevalenceratesinchildren
Reviewsurveyreports
Risk:Changestothesurroundingcommunitiesduetothepresenceofafacilitythatcouldincreasecontactwithwildlife(directcontact)and/orresultinincreasedtransmissionofinfectiousdiseasesthatoccurlocally(amplification)Assistlocalcommunitywithspatialplanning(locationofagricultural,wastedisposal,potablewater)
D→DC X x Companyengineer/planner
Localenviron-mentalhealthandplanningdepartments
Localspatialplaninplace
Periodicreviewsofthespatiallayout
Assistthelocalcommunitytoplaninfrastructureandutilities(wastedisposal,potablewater,healthcarefacilities)
D→DC X x Companyengineer/planner
Localenviron-mentalhealth,infrastructure,andutilitiesdepartments
Numberofplansdevelopedandimple-mented
Workwithcommunityrepresentativestoimprovevectormanagement(e.g.controlofmosquitobreedinggroundsinstagnantwaterandmaintainingdrainageduringrainyseasons)
D→DC X x Companyengineer/planner
Localenviron-mentalhealthdepartment
Numberofmeetings/workshops
Siteaudit
Providesupporttodistricthealthvectorcontrolprograms
D→DC X x Companyenvironmentalhealthofficer
Localenviron-mentalhealthdepartment
Numberofmeetingsandlevelofsupport
Provideassistancewithretrofittingordesigningboreholessothattheycomplywithlocalregulations,areprotectedagainstpotentialcontamination,anddonotcreatevectorbreedinghabitat
D→DC x Companyenvironmentalhealthofficer
Localenviron-mentalhealthdepartment
Numberofboreholesthatarecompliant
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Timing ActionPlan Responsibility3 CollaboratingAgencyorOrganization
Indicators SurveillanceMethodC&C PACs
Collaboratewithlocalwastemanagementservicestodevelopnon-hazardouswastemanagementplansforlocalcommunitiesthatcaninclude:
• Sufficientgarbagecansanddumpsters
• Garbagestoredinrodent-proofcontainers
• Sanitaryandsolidwastecollecteddailyandcovereddailywithasolidlayerofsoil(15to30cm)
• Appropriatecontainerprogramtoavoidwaterborneinsectbreeding
• Prohibitmovinglargequantitiesoffoodstuffstoanimalfarmerstoavoidgeneratingrodentorreptilehabitat
D→DC x Companyenvironmentalhealthofficer
Localenviron-mentalhealthdepartment
Numberofplansinplaceandimple-mented
Siteassessment
Supportthetrainingoflocalcommunityhealthpersonnelininfectiousdiseasesurveillanceandoutbreakresponse
D→DC x Companyhealthofficer
Localhealthdepartment
Numberofpeopletrained;Presence/absenceofplan
Presenceofafunctioningdiseasesurveillanceprogram
Supportimprovementoflocalmarketbiosecuritymeasures
D→DC x Companyhealthofficer
Localhealthdepartment
Improvedbiosecuritymeasures
Supportlocalland-useplanningandmanageproject-inducedpopulationinfluxtopreserveareasofintacthabitat
PD->O X X Companycorporatesocialresponsibilityofficer
Localplanningdepartment
Presence/absenceofintacthabitatsandtheirsize
Identifyintacthabitatandthentracktheirintegrity
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SelectedReferenceListforTaxonomicGroupsandtheirPathogens
Bats
BreedA.C.,FieldH.E.,EpsteinJ.H.,andDaszakP.(2006).“Emerginghenipavirusesandflyingfoxes–Conservationandmanagementperspectives,”BiologicalConservation,Volume131,Issue2,August2006,Pages211-220,ISSN0006-3207,10.1016/j.biocon.2006.04.007.http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S000632070600156X.
CalisherC.H.,ChildsJ.E.,FieldH.E.,HolmesK.V.,andSchountzT.(2006)“Bats:Importantreservoirhostsofemergingviruses.”ClinicalMicrobiologyReviews19,531-+.
DrexlerJ.F.etal.(2012).“Batshostmajormammalianparamyxoviruses.”Naturecommunications3,796.
LiW.etal.(2005).“BatsarenaturalreservoirsofSARS-likecoronaviruses.”Science310,676-679.
KuzminI.V.,BozickB.,GuagliardoS.A.,KunkelR.,ShakJ.R.,TongS.,andRupprechtC.E.(2011).“Bats,emerginginfectiousdisease,andtherabiesparadigmrevisited.”EmergingHealthThreatsJournal.2011,4:7159-DOI:10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7159
MackenzieJ.S.,ChildsJ.E.,FieldH.E.,WangL.F.,andBreedA.C.(2008).“Theroleofbatsasreservoirhostsofemergingneurologicalviruses.”Chapter21inNeurotropicviralinfections2008pp.382-406Editor:ShoshkesReiss,C.ISBN978-0-521-86964-5.
MackenzieJ.S.,FieldH.E.,andGuyattK.J.(2003).“Managingemergingdiseasesbornebyfruitbats(flyingfoxes)withparticularreferencetoHenipavirusesandAustralianbatlyssavirus.”JApplMicroBiolSuppl94:59S–69S.
MemishZ.A.etal.(2013).“MiddleEastRespiratorySyndromeCoronavirusinBats,SaudiArabia.”EmergingInfectiousDiseases19,http://dx.doi.org/10.3201/eid1911.131172.
OlivalK.J.andHaymanD.T.S.(2014).“FilovirusesinBats:CurrentKnowledgeandFutureDirections.”Viruses-Basel6,1759-1788,doi:10.3390/v6041759
QuanP.-L.etal.(2013).“Batsareamajornaturalreservoirforhepacivirusesandpegiviruses.”ProceedingsoftheNationalAcademyofSciences,doi:10.1073/pnas.1303037110
WongS.,LauS.,WooP.,andYuenK.-Y.(2007).“Batsasacontinuingsourceofemerginginfectionsinhumans.”ReviewofMedicalVirology.17:67–91.
Rodents
CenterforDiseaseControl(CDC).(2012).“ArenavirusesFactSheet.”Accessed:April12,2012.http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/arena.htm.
CDC. (2011).“Measurestopreventbitesfrommosquitoes,ticks,fleasandotherinsectsandarthropods.”AccessedMay3,2013.http://wwwnc.cdc.gov/travel/page/mosquito-tick.htm
CDC. (2013).FactsAboutHantaviruses.Accessed:April12,2013.http://www.cdc.gov/hantavirus/.
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DavisS.,CalvetE.,andLeirsH.(2005).“FluctuatingRodentPopulationsandRisktoHumansfromRodent-BorneZoonoses.”Vector-BorneandZoonoticDiseases.Volume5,Number4:305-314.
DearingD.M.andDizneyL.(2010).“Ecologyofhantavirusinachangingworld.”AnnalsoftheNewYorkAcademyofSciences.1195:99-112.
HealthProtectionAgency(HPA).(2013a).“HantavirusBackgroundInformation.”Accessed:April10,2013.http://www.hpa.org.uk/Topics/InfectiousDiseases/InfectionsAZ/Hantaviruses/BackgroundInformation/
HPA.(2013b).“Lassafever:Nigeria.”Accessed:April2,2013.http://www.hpa.org.uk/web/HPAweb&HPAwebStandard/HPAweb_C/1195733763561
IUCNRedlist.Accessed2011.http://www.iucnredlist.org
MeerburgB.G.,SingletonG.R.,andKijlstraA.(2009).“Rodent-bornediseasesandtheirrisksforpublichealth.”CriticalReviewsinMicrobiology.35(3):221-270.
MillsJ.N.(1999).“Theroleofrodentsinemerginghumandisease:ExamplesfromtheHantavirusesandArenaviruses.”Pp.134-160,inEcologically-BasedRodentManagement.(G.Singleton,L.Hinds,H. LeirsandZ.Zhang,eds)AustralianCentreforInternationalAgriculturalResearch.
MillsJ.N.(2006).“Biodiversitylossandemerginginfectiousdisease:Anexamplefromtherodent-bornehemorrhagicfevers.”Biodiversity.7(1):9-17.
MosesL.(2013).“Lassafever:whytherearemorepublichealthquestionsthananswers.”TheGuardian.AccessedonMay1,2013.http://www.guardian.co.uk/global-development-professionals-network/2013/feb/21/lassa-fever-sierra-leone
MuraR.andRodriguezJ.(1989).“AnintegratedcontrolsystemforrodentsinpineplantationsincentralChile.”JournalofAppliedEcology.26(1);81-88.
OgbuO.,AjuluchukwuE.,andUnekeC.J.(2007).“LassafeverinWestAfricansub-region:Anoverview.”Vector-borneDiseases.44:1-11.
PatzJ.,GithekoA.K.,McCartyJ.P.,HusseinS.,ConfalonieriU.,deWet,N.(2003).“ClimateChangeandInfectiousDiseases.”ClimateChangeandHumanHealth:RisksandResponses.WorldHealthOrganization.Pages103-132.
WilcoxB.A.andEllisB.(2006).“Forestsandemerginginfectiousdiseasesofhumans.”Unasylva224.57:11-17.
WorldHealthOrganization.(2013).“Zoonoses.”AccessedApril12,2013.http://www.who.int/zoonoses/diseases/en/.
Non-HumanPrimates
ChapmanC.A.,PeresC.A.(2001).“Primateconservationinthenewmillennium:theroleofscientists.”EvolAnthropol.10:16–33.
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ChapmanC.A.,GillespieT.R.,GoldbergT.L.(2005).“Primatesandtheecologyoftheirinfectiousdiseases:howwillanthropogenicchangeaffecthost-parasiteinteractions?”EvolAnthropol.14:134–44.HockingsK.andHumleT.(2009).“BestPracticeGuidelinesforthePreventionandMitigationofConflictsBetweenHumansandGreatApes.”Gland,Switzerland:IUCN/SSCPrimateSpecialistGroup(PSG).40pp.MorganD.andSanzC.(2007).“BestPracticeGuidelinesforReducingtheImpactofCommercialLoggingonGreatApesinWesternEquatorialAfrica.“Gland,Switzerland:IUCNSSCPrimateSpecialistGroup(PSG).32pp.NellemannC.,RedmondI.,RefischJ.(eds).(2010).“TheLastStandoftheGorilla-EnvironmentalCrimeandConflictintheCongoBasin.ARapidResponseAssessment.”UnitedNationsEnvironmentProgramme,GRID-Arendal.www.grida.no.AdditionalGuidanceResources
USAID.(2007).“EnvironmentalGuidelinesforSmall-ScaleActivitiesinAfrica:EnvironmentallySoundDesignforPlanningandImplementingDevelopmentActivities.”http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/Pnadk154.pdf
WorldHealthOrganizationHealthCareWasteManagementwebsite:http://www.healthcare-waste.org/basics/waste-steps/
WorldOrganisationforAnimalHealth(OIE)&InternationalUnionforConservationofNature(IUCN)(2014).“GuidelinesforWildlifeDiseaseRiskAnalysis.”OIE,Paris,24pp.PublishedinassociationwiththeIUCNandtheSpeciesSurvivalCommission.https://portals.iucn.org/library/sites/library/files/documents/2014-006.pdf