GS TS BS LÊ HOÀNG NINH

NGHIÊN CỨU LÀ GÌ ? Research is the systematic

collection, analysis and interpretation of data to answer a certain question or solve a problem

It is crucial to follow cascading scientific steps when conducting one’s research

WHAT IS RESEARCH?

Any honest attempt to study a problem systematically or to add to man’s knowledge of a problem may be regarded as

research. (Theodorson and Theodorson 1969 cited in Reber 1995, p.663)

The aim, as far as I can see, is the same in all sciences. Put simply and cursorily, the aim is to make known

something previously unknown to human beings. It is to advance human knowledge, to make it more certain or

better fitting. . . the aim is, as I have said, discovery. (Elias 1986, p.20)

WHY UNDERTAKE RESEARCH?

• To investigate some existing situation or problem.• To provide solutions to a problem.• To explore and analyse more general issues.• To construct or create a new procedure or system.• To explain a new phenomenon.• To generate new knowledge.• A combination of two or more of any of the above.

(Hussey and Hussey 1997)

Quality research is the lifeblood of any scientific discipline. Without it, disciplines would stagnate,

failing to advance past their current limits and understanding.

(Wann 1997 p.17)

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Exploratory research

Takes place where there is little or no prior knowledge of a phenomenon.

This type of research attempts to gain some familiarity with the appropriate concepts and looks for patterns or ideas without any preconceived ideas or explanation.

Descriptive research

Describes a particular phenomenon, focusing upon theissue of what is happening, or how much of it has happened, rather than why it is happening.

Explanatory research

This type of research is involved in explaining why something happens, and assessing causal relationships between variables.

Predictive research

Forecasts future phenomena, based on the interpretations suggested by explanatory research.

PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

Pure research takes place to explore a particular concept, or issue, without regard for a specific problem, and may be carried out to simply gain a better understanding of the overall concepts.

Applied research is undertaken to solve a specific problem or provide a solution to a practical question.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY RESEARCH

Primary research Refers to research that has involved the collection of original data specific to that particular research project, for example through using research methods such as questionnaires or interviews.

Secondary research Refers to research where no such original data is collected, but the research project uses existing (or secondary) sources of data, for example census or archive data.

THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCH

Theoretical research generally uses the findings from existing works to develop new ideas through analysing existing theory and explanations. These new ideas are not tested through collecting evidence in the form of primary data.

Empirical research supports the development of new ideas through the collection of data (empirical = observation or measurement rather than theoretical reasoning).

HOW TO READ RESEARCH

1. Locate and read a few articles from within a field you are comfortable with.

2. Read studies that are of interest to you.

3. Read the abstract first.

4. Identify the research question and objectives.

5. Why did the researcher(s) choose a particular setting or sample?

6. What were the methods chosen to collect data?

7. What were the most important findings?

8. Do not be over-concerned with statistical analysis.

9. Be critical but objective.

WHAT IS RESEARCH - SUMMARY

1. There are a number of definitions of research. Defining research is less important than understanding its nature.

2. Research is important for the advancement of any academic field or discipline.

3. Research can be classified as exploratory, descriptive, explanatory or predictive depending upon its purpose. It can also be classified as either theoretical or applied depending upon the level of application of the findings to ‘real life’ situations.

SUMMARY II

4. Research may involve the collection of new data (primary research) or the use of existing data (secondary research).

5. The best way to begin to develop your understanding of research, its role, and the types of research is to undertake some reading. Choose some appropriate articles, and begin to read!

Qui trình cơ bản của một nghiên cứu khoa họcSelection of area

Selection of topic

Crude research question no

answer

Refined research question

Research hypothesis, goals and objectives

Study design

Population & sampling

Variables confounding bias

Research tools

Pilot study

Work plan

Collection of data

Data management

Interpretation

Reporting

no need for study

answers found

Literature review

Ethical issues

Chọn lựa lãnh vực nghiên cứuSelection of this broad entity of research is

based on the following:researcher’s:

Specialty Interest Scientific background Experience

Actual need for research in this areaAvailable resources (interest of funding body)

Chọn lựa lãnh vực nghiên cứu (tt)The priority of a topic for research

depends on:The characteristics of the problem (topic):

Impact on health: Magnitude Seriousness Preventability Curability

Available interventions Proposed solutions

The characteristics of the proposed study: Feasibility Cost-effectiveness Applicability of the results

1) Flash of Brilliance ModelYou wake up one day with a new insight/idea

New approach to solve an important open problem

Warnings: This rarely happens Even if it does, you may not be able to find an

advisor who agrees

2) The Apprentice ModelYour advisor has a list of topicsSuggests one (or more!) that you can work

onCan save you a lot of time/anxiety

Warnings: Don’t work on something you find boring,

fruitless, badly-motivated,… Several students may be working on the

same/related problem

3) The Phoenix ModelYou work on some projects and think very hard about what you’ve done looking for insightsRe-implement in a common frameworkIdentify an algorithm/proof problem inside

The topic emerges from your workEspecially common in systems

Warnings: You may be working without “a topic” for a long

time

4) The Stapler ModelYou work on a number of small topics that turn into a series of conference papersE.g., you figure out how to apply a

technique (e.g., ILP) to a number of key problems in an area

You figure out somehow how to tie it all together, create a chapter from each paper, and put a big staple through it

Warnings: May be hard/impossible to find the tie

5) The Synthesis ModelYou read some papers from other subfields in computer science/engineering or a related field (e.g., biology)

And look for places to apply insight from another (sub)field to your ownE.g., databases to compilers

Warnings: You can spend a career reading papers! You may not find any useful connections

6) The Expanded Term Project ModelYou take a project course that gives you a

new perspectiveE.g., theory for systems and vice versa

The project/paper combines your research project with the course projectOne (and ½) project does double duty

Warnings: This can distract from your research if you can’t

find a related project/paper

Câu hỏi nghiên cứu The investigator must make sure

that:

He has a research questionThe question is clear and specificIt reflects the objectives of the studyIt has no answer by common senseIt has no answer in the

LITERATUREFinding an answer to the question

will solve or at least help in solving the problem to be studied.

Characteristics of a good research question FINER

Feasible Adequate numbers of subjects? Adequate technical expertise? Affordable in time and money? Is it possible to measure or manipulate the variables?

Interesting To the investigator?

Novel To the field?

Ethical Potential harm to subjects? Potential breech of subject confidentiality?

Relevant To scientific knowledge/theory? To organizational, health or social management and policy? To individual welfare?

Criteria for developing a good research questionFeasible

Interesting

Novel

Ethical

Relevant

Cummings et al. 2001

28

Good research question?Feasible

SubjectsResourcesManageableData available?

InterestingNovel

In relation to previous findings Confirm or refute?

New setting, new population

EthicalSocial or scientific valueSafe

RelevantAdvance scientific

knowledge?Influence clinical

practice?Impact health policy?Guide future research?

29

A Research Question Must Identify

1. The variables under study

2. The population being studied

3. The testability of the question

30

Variables in researchHave 2 or more properties or qualities

Age, sex, weight, height

Is one variable related to another?“ Is X related to Y? What is the effect of X on

Y?” etc.

31

Variables in researchIndependent

variable:has a presumed

effect on the dependent variable (outcome)

May or may not be manipulated

Dependent variable:Something that

varies with a change in the independent variable

Outcome variable

32

HypothesisStatement about the relationship between 2

or more variablesConverts the question into a statement that

predicts an expected outcomeA unit or subset of the research problem

33

Characteristics of hypothesesDeclarative statement that identifies the

predicted relationship between 2 or more variables

TestabilityBased on sound scientific theory/rationale

34

Hồi cứu y văn

Hồi cứu y văn là gì ?“…a literature review surveys scientific

articles, books, medical journals, dissertations and other sources […] relevant to a particular issue, area of research, or theory, providing a description, summary, and critical evaluation of each work.”

Mục đích hồi cứu y văn

A literature review may constitute an essential chapter of a thesis or dissertation, or may be a self-contained review of writings on a subject. In either case, its purpose is to:

Place each work in the context of its contribution to the understanding of the subject under review

Describe the relationship of each work to the others under consideration

Identify new ways to interpret, and shed light on any gaps in, previous research

Resolve conflicts amongst seemingly contradictory previous studies

Identify areas of prior research to prevent duplication of effort

Place one's original work (in the case of theses or dissertations) in the context of existing literature

Literature Review as a Process

Các thành phần của hồi cứu y văn Hồi cứu y văn đòi hỏi xem xét 4

bước:

Problem formulation—which topic or field is being examined and what are its component issues?

Literature search—finding materials

relevant to the subject being explored Data evaluation—determining which

literature makes a significant contribution to the understanding of the topic

Analysis and interpretation—discussing the findings and conclusions of pertinent literature

Các việc phải làm trong hồi cứu y văne Working with Working with

LiteratureLiteratureWorking with Working with

LiteratureLiterature

Find it!Find it!Find it!Find it! Manage it!Manage it!Manage it!Manage it! Use it!Use it!Use it!Use it! Review it!Review it!Review it!Review it!

Knowing the literature typesKnowing the

literature types

ReadingefficientlyReadingefficiently

Choosing your research topic Choosing your research topicUnderstanding the lit review’s purpose

Understanding the lit review’s purpose

Using available resourcesUsing available resourcesKeeping track of references

Keeping track of references

Developing your questionDeveloping your questionEnsuring adequate

coverageEnsuring adequate

coverage

Honing your search skills

Honing your search skills

Writing relevant annotationsWriting relevant annotations Arguing your

rationale Arguing your

rationale

Informing your work with theory

Informing your work with theory

Designingmethod

Designingmethod

Writingpurposefully

Writingpurposefully

Working on style and toneWorking on

style and tone

Nguồn để tìm y vănJournal articles: these are good sources, especially for up-to-date

information. They are frequently used in literature reviews because they offer a relatively concise, up-to-date format for research.

Depending on the publication, these materials may be refereed materials.

Những tạp chí không được liêt kê trong tham khảo (about Non-refereed Journals? )Non-refereed materials such as Trade Journals,

or magazines use less rigorous standards of screening prior to publication.

Non-refereed materials may not be checked as intensely as refereed materials, but many can still be considered useful, although not for scientific literature and research.

Nguồn tìm y văn ( t.t)Books:  remember that books tend to be less up-to-

date, as it takes longer for a book to be published than for a journal article.

They are still likely to be useful for including in your literature review as they offer a good starting point from which to find more detailed and up-to-date sources of information. 

Sources of Literature (cont.)Conference proceedings: these can be useful in

providing the latest research, or research that has not been published.

They are also helpful in providing information about people in different research areas, and so can be helpful in tracking down other work by the same researchers.

Sources of Literature (cont.) Government/corporate

reports:

Many government departments and corporations commission carry out research.

Their published findings can provide a useful source of information, depending on your field of study.

Nguồn tìm y văn ( t.t)Theses and dissertations: these can be useful sources of

information. However there are disadvantages: they can be difficult to obtain since they are not published,

but are generally only available from the library or interlibrary systems

the student who carried out the research may not be an experienced researcher and therefore you might have to treat their findings with more caution than published research. 

Sources of Literature (cont.)Internet: the fastest-growing source of information is on the

Internet.

bear in mind that anyone can post information on the Internet so the quality may not be reliable

the information you find may be intended for a general audience and so not be suitable for inclusion in your literature review (information for a general audience is usually less detailed)

 

In assessing each piece, consideration should be given to:

Provenance—What are the author's credentials? Are the author's arguments supported by evidence (e.g. primary historical material, case studies, narratives, statistics, recent scientific findings)?

Objectivity—Is the author's perspective even-handed or prejudicial? Is contrary data considered or is certain pertinent information ignored to prove the author's point?

Persuasiveness— is the author's thesis convincing?

Value—Does the work ultimately contribute in any significant way to an understanding of the subject of my research?

Writing LiteratureThree components:

The introductionThe bodyThe conclusion

Writing the IntroductionIn the introduction, you should:

Define or identify the general topic, issue, or area of concern, thus providing an appropriate context for reviewing the literature.

Point out overall trends in what has been published about the topic; or conflicts in theory, methodology, evidence, and conclusions; or gaps in research

Establish the writer's reason (point of view) for reviewing the literature; explain the criteria to be used in analyzing and comparing literature

Writing the BodyIn the body, you should:

Group research studies and other types of literature (reviews, theoretical articles, case studies, etc.) according to common denominators such as qualitative versus quantitative approaches, conclusions of authors, specific purpose or objective, etc.

Summarize individual studies

Make comparisons and analyses.

Writing the ConclusionIn the conclusion, you should:

Summarize major contributions of significant studies and articles to the body of knowledge under review, maintaining the focus established in the introduction.

Evaluate the current "state of the art" pointing out major methodological flaws or gaps in research, inconsistencies in theory and findings, and areas or issues pertinent to future study.

Conclude by providing some insight into the relationship between the central topic of the literature review and a larger area of study (rationale)

Rationale An explanation of the fundamental reasons

for your research

Justification of your work

Một vài việc cần lưu ý

• Learn / use effective search strategies

• Keep a credible research journal

• Write about everything you read

• Don’t write a lit review (yet)

• Write a summary (today)

• Read others’ lit reviews

• Ask questions!

Goals and Objectives

Goals Objectives=

Research Goal & ObjectivesThe goal (aim) and objectives must be stated at the very beginning of the study, since they will guide the investigator during the process of formulating research questions and hypothesis.

They will also help in the prioritization process.

They will enable the reader or consumer of the work to judge whether the investigator had achieved these objectives or not.

Goals It describes the aim of the work in broad

terms

ObjectivesThese are more specific and relate directly to

research question. They may be divided into two types:

Primary objectives (bound to be achieved)Secondary objectives (by the way)

Research ObjectivesThe research objectives should be:Closely related to the research questionCovering all aspects of the problemVery specificOrdered in a logical sequenceStated in action verbs that could be

evaluated e.g. to describe, to identify, to measure, to compare, etc.

Achievable, taking into consideration the available resources and time

Mutually exclusive, with no repetitions or overlaps

SMART ObjectivesS SpecificM MeasurableA AchievableR RelevantT Time-bound

Mục tiêu nghiên cứuProperly formulated, specific

objectives will facilitate the development of your research methodology and will help to orient the collection, analysis, interpretation and utilization of data.

Giả thuyết nghiên cứu

“ Research hypothesis is a statement of the research question in a measurable form”

Giả thuyết nghiên cứu (t.t) A hypothesis can be defined as a prediction or explanation

of the relationship between one or more independent variables (PREDISPOSING/RISK FACTORS) and one dependent variable (OUTCOME/CONDITION/DISEASE)).

A hypothesis, in other words, translates the problem statement into a precise, clear prediction of expected outcomes.

It must be emphasized that hypotheses are not meant to be haphazard guesses, but should reflect the depth of knowledge, imagination and experience of the investigator.

Research Hypothesis (cont.)Null hypothesisAlternative hypothesis

Example 1: (KAP Study)Area: Family medicine

Topic: communicable diseases- hepatitis

Goal: to contribute to the reduction of hepatitis in VNr through studying public perceptions about the disease

Objective: To assess the awareness, knowledge, and attitudes of the general public towards hepatitis in Viet Nam

Example 2: (Interventional Study)Research area: cardiologyResearch topic: ischemic heart disease

(IHD)Goal: to contribute to prevention of IHDPrimary objective: to determine the effect

of reducing LDL on the occurrence of MISecondary objective: to describe the side

effects of lowering LDLResearch question: does

hypocholesterolemic agent “A” decrease the risk of MI?

Research hypothesis: the risk of MI among patients treated with hypocholesterolemic agent “A” is lower than the risk among controls not treated with hypocholesterolemic agents