Growing Through Change

Training the Cambiata Voice

by

Kevin M. Tomb

Submitted to the Department of Music

Westminster College, New Wilmington, PA,

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for Honors Research

Co-Advisers: Robin Lind, Ph. D. and Daniel Perttu, D.M.A.

May, 1, 2012

i

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………………………. ii

ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………………iii

CHAPTERS

I. Introduction…………………………………………………………………… 2

II. Review of Literature…………………………………………………………...7

III. Method………………………………………………………………………. 15

IV. Results……………………………………………………………………….. 23

V. Discussion…………………………………………………………………… 27

BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………………………….. 32

APPENDICIES

Appendix A: Informed Consent Forms..………………………………………… 35

Appendix B: Vocal Technique Evaluation Form...……………………………… 39

Appendix C: “I’m Bound Away”……………………………………………...… 43

Appendix D: “The Gallant Knight”……………………………………………… 44

Appendix E: Judges’ Scores ……..……………………………………………… 46

Appendix F: Solfege Examples…………………………………………………. 47

ii

Acknowledgments

Special thanks goes to the honors board, Dr. Robin Lind, Dr. Daniel Perttu, and

Dr. Mandy Medvin, who assisted in the development and implementation of this project.

Additional thanks goes to the adjudicators, Mr. Edgar Groves and Mr. William Ambert,

who ranked the participants in the study. A final thank you goes to the school teachers,

Mr. Johnny Priano and Mrs. Heather Groves-Edwards, who assisted in gathering

participants for the study.

iii

Abstract

In the realm of vocal pedagogy, boys who are under 18 are rarely trained because their

voice has not matured. The purpose of this study is to determine if pedagogy can be

effective during a boy’s adolescent years (12-16). Eight different boys between the ages

of twelve to fifteen participated in this study. The participants were matched based on

their pre-test scores and then randomly assigned to one of two groups, one of which

received the pedagogy, the other of which did not. Both groups were assessed on vocal

technique at the beginning and end of the study to determine the overall improvement.

The study showed that the participants who received the pedagogy improved to a greater

degree than the participants who did not, both on average and on an individual basis. The

study suggests that vocal pedagogy can be used effectively to improve the technique of

male students whose voices are still changing.

Growing Through Change

Training the Cambiata Voice

by

Kevin M. Tomb

Submitted to the Department of Music

Westminster College, New Wilmington, PA,

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for Honors Research

Co-Advisers: Robin Lind, Ph. D. and Dr. Daniel Perttu, Ph. D.

May, 1, 2012

2

Growing Through Change:

Training the Cambiata Voice

Introduction

Singing is an ability that should be trained throughout the development of the

male voice. Despite this adage, the adolescent, or pubescent, student, usually between the

ages of 12 and 15, is not often trained professionally. A review of the literature, including

“The Choral Journal” and “Music Educators Journal” as well as published books on vocal

technique, such as “Cambiata Concept” and “Teaching Singing,” shows that male

students in particular even less frequently receive training than their female counterparts

because techniques for teaching them are not developed as fully as techniques for

teaching the mature voice. In fact, only one source reviewed develops a pedagogy

specifically for the younger voice in general (Phillips, 1996). The male student’s singing

voice can be cultivated throughout adolescence through both group lessons in choir and

private lessons in a studio, so that the student may gain more confidence in himself,

around his peers and in front of crowds, and may gain stronger abilities to sing correctly,

accurately, and beautifully. The purpose of this study is to examine through experimental

means the effect of a six-week pedagogy (the Cambiata Pedagogy) on the male student’s

singing voice. The hypothesis that this study examines is that vocal ability in the

changing voice can be enhanced to a greater degree by using the Cambiata Pedagogy for

private voice lessons.

The Adolescent Voice

During adolescence, the male’s larynx drastically grows in size (Punt, 1979). The

larynx houses the vocal cords, the vibrating part of the vocal tract that controls pitch

(Appelman, 1967). The change in size of the larynx is visibly evident by the growth of

3

his “Adam’s Apple,” a visible bulge in a male’s throat (Punt, 1979). The drastic change

in the male’s larynx accounts for the breaks in his speaking voice, as he struggles to

adjust to using the now-larger larynx (Punt, 1979). The breaks are caused by failure to

adapt to the change as quickly as it happens. The result of this change is that the male

voice becomes lower in pitch. The female larynx, in contrast, changes more moderately,

causing fewer breaks as it grants an extended range (Punt, 1979).

Unfortunately, this time of change often discourages young students from singing,

as notes that once rang with a beautiful timbre are now difficult for the changing voice to

sing (Punt, 1979). The student can easily become uninterested in singing if the teacher

does not encourage him properly. In Teaching Kids to Sing, Phillips (1996) describes the

different methods by which voices are categorized by different experts in the field.

Categorization of the male changing voice is important to the health of the young male’s

voice, as attempting to sing out of his appropriate range can cause damage to the male’s

voice. McKenzie (1956) believes the changing voice to be an “Alto-tenor” and places the

range from a G3 to a G4 (Figure 1).

The “Cambiata” approach splits the adolescent voice, or voices going through change

into different phases: unchanged voices (trebles), those in the first phase of change

(Cambiata), those in the second phase of change (baritone), and those who have changed

voices (basses) (Collins, 1981; Cooper, 1953; Cooper & Kuersteiner, 1965). Swanson

(1973, 1977) uses only three stages, the boy alto with a range from G3 to F4 (Figure 2),

Figure 1- McKenzie’s Alto-tenor Range

4

the baritone with range from D3 to E4 (Figure 3), and the newly changed bass with range

A2 to G3 or A3 (Figure 4).

Herman (1988) uses a classification method where first tenor is ranged from Bb3 to A4

(Figure 5), second tenor from Ab3 to D4 (Figure 6), baritone from F3 to C4 (Figure 7),

and bass from G2 to C3 (Figure 8).

The most commonly used method for classifying voices is by Cooksey (1986) and uses

three stages: Stage I has a range of Ab3 to C5 (Figure 9); Stage II has a range of F3 to A4

(Figure 10); and Stage III has a range of D3 to F#4 (Figure 11).

Figure 2- Swanson’s Boy Alto Range

Figure 3- Swanson’s Baritone Range

Figure 5- Herman’s First Tenor Range

Figure 6- Herman’s Second Tenor Range

Figure 4- Swanson’s Bass Range

Figure 7- Herman’s Baritone Range Figure 8- Herman’s Bass Range

5

The concept that most of these teachers share in common is that each agrees that the male

voice range often will fall closer to one octave (eight notes). With the exception of

McKenzie (1956), all agree that the voice changes in different stages, which is critical to

consider both when training young males and selecting an appropriate repertoire of

songs.

Working with the Adolescent Male

Training students at this level is often difficult, as their voices are constantly

changing, but many teachers and theorists encourage teaching students at this age for the

benefits granted by the stage of development of the student. Piaget states that starting as

early as age 11 or 12 (about seventh grade), students gain the ability to deal with

hypotheses and draw conclusions from concepts (Piaget, 1970). Gaining this ability

makes the student’s mind ideal for understanding the concepts of a vocal pedagogy. The

student at this age is also discovering his identity. A self-created form of identity,

behavior and self-esteem, can be developed by allowing the student to participate in

activities that interest him (Moshman, 1999). Behavior style can be reinforced by the

discipline and self-esteem can be reinforced by the positive feedback throughout the

Figure 9- Cooksey’s Stage I Range

Figure 10- Cooksey’s Stage II Range

Figure 11- Cooksey’s Stage III

Range

6

vocal lessons. More often than not, singing becomes labeled as a feminine activity, which

causes young males to avoid it (Moshman, 1999). With voice lessons, the students may

gain more self-esteem about the singing behavior, and thus become less intimidated by

social pressure. Therefore, at younger ages, it is more necessary to encourage male

students than female students to sing. As male students grow older, into the ninth and

tenth grades, boys are more comfortable with their masculinity and thus more willing to

admit to “opposite-sex behavior” (Simmons, 1987). The increased flexibility in gender

roles is also reflected in a willingness to sing, in spite of the feminine connotation. By

keeping a student’s interest throughout the middle school years, the students can easily be

encouraged to continue singing despite the difficulty of the voice change.

7

Review of Literature

Lessons in singing can be easily divided into two main categories: group lessons

and private lessons. Group lessons are most often found in the choral environment, in

which the students in the group sing together. Private lessons are when a teacher has an

opportunity to work with a student on a one-on-one basis. The current study focuses on

private lessons. Group lesson pedagogy warrants review as a basis upon which private

lessons can build. The elements of vocal lessons which are taught by all teachers are

posture, breath control, resonance (vibration of the air), register shifts (places where the

voice changes primary resonance areas), diction, and expression.

Choir Environment

The choir environment is difficult because the teacher must not only train the

students in proper vocal technique, but also prepare the repertoire with the students for

the concert each semester. Collins’s (1981) review of the Cambiata Concept, which was

originally developed in part by Irvin Cooper (1971), is one of the best presentations of the

ideals that Cooper developed in his last thirty years of life. As Cooper’s protégé, Collins

(1981) is able to compile the most convincing review available due to his familiarity with

Cooper’s work (Collins, 2007). After Cooper’s death, Collins himself founded the

Cambiata Press, which has been the leading publisher in music for the changing voice

(Collins, 2007).

The overreaching method on teaching vocal technique in a group setting is the

song method, in which singing a song is the core activity and the means for teaching

vocal technique (Collins, 1981). In Cambiata Method by Collins, the song method is

introduced and discussed heavily. The song method is effective in the sense that students

are motivated to sing more when they are singing something that has substance, rather

8

than a warm-up, which is usually simply a scale pattern (Collins, 1981). The current

study allows the student an opportunity to apply techniques learned in lessons to a song,

but the techniques are not taught through the song exclusively. In individual lessons,

vocalises or warm ups on a vowel or other neutral syllable are used to teach techniques.

This method of teaching vocal technique is more effective as it allows the student to

focus on one aspect of singing at a time. Instead of concerning himself with the words or

melody, the student can practice techniques to improve posture, breath control, or

resonance in the context of warm-ups. The current study recognizes that reducing to one

aspect of singing (e.g. posture or breathing) at a time is of greater benefit.

The other critical component of the song method is that the music has to be

adaptable to the choir (Collins, 1981). Cooper’s basic premise is that the music chosen

for a choir should be intended for the voices that make up the choir (Collins, 1981).

Collins encourages that the music selected have a Cambiata part for the changing voice,

because the tenor and bass parts are typically too high or too low, respectively. As most

pieces of music do not include a Cambiata part, the other recommendation is ‘voice

jumping,’ in which boys are encouraged to switch between voice lines depending on their

range (Collins, 1981).

In a choir setting, the male student suffers from the lack of individual attention

that can be provided in a lesson setting. The use of songs allows the teacher to rehearse

all students at once, regardless of ranges. Ultimately, though there are benefits to group

lessons, the remainder of this review will focus on methods for private lessons.

Private Lessons

Private lessons are typically reserved for students who can afford to pursue

individualized training for their voice. Because the teacher works with the student in a

9

one-on-one situation, the teacher can more easily determine the student’s ability and

needs. The current study uses a combined methodology from several sources in order to

fully understand the most effective means to developing the changing voice. The majority

of sources studied describe the following aspects of good vocal technique: posture, breath

control, phonation or tone production, resonance and timbre, range and vocal registers,

diction, and expression.

Posture. Posture is the first part of vocal technique taught because poor posture

can negatively impact the other parts of vocal technique (David, 2008). Proper posture is

standing with feet shoulder width apart, one foot slightly in front of the other, and a

raised chest with shoulders back (Duey, 1951). The Cambiata Pedagogy describes this

stance by simply asking the student to stand in a “superhero pose.” From this stance, only

minor corrections need to be made by teacher. The idea for the “superhero pose” was

drawn from the ‘noble posture’ idea (Duey, 1951). An alternative to asking the student to

stand with ‘noble posture’ is asking the student to jump without leaving the ground to

stretch out the spinal cord (David, 2008). This method was not used in the current study

due to its possibility of perceived foolishness in the eyes of the student.

Breath control. Breath control consists of two obvious parts, the inhalation and

the exhalation. A full, proper inhalation fills the lungs through the use of the diaphragm

and intercostal muscles (Lawson, 1944). The muscles expand the lungs, creating a

vacuum in the lungs which will fill with air naturally (Appelman, 1967). The breath

should be simultaneously taken in through the mouth and nose while keeping the ribcage

and chest high (Burgin, 1973). When teaching breath control, it is recommended that this

natural occurrence not be overcomplicated with explanation (Burgin, 1973). In the

Cambiata Pedagogy, inhalation is done through a straw in order to encourage proper

10

diaphragmatic-costal breathing. In order to keep the ribcage and chest high, the student is

reminded of the proper posture that has been discussed.

Proper exhalation is critical to proper sound production, as it is the exhaled air

that interacts with the vocal folds (Appelman, 1967). Sounds without pitch such as an ss

for a legato (connected) breath or ha for staccato (separated) breath should be used

initially (David, 2008). As with inhalation, the diaphragm and intercostals control the

exhalation of the air (David, 2008). The Cambiata Pedagogy encourages proper

exhalation by having the student engage the diaphragm by feigning lifting a heavy object.

Phonation or tone production. Phonation is the actual creation of the sound

through the vocal folds vibrating against each other (Appelman, 1967). The first part of

teaching phonation involves use of a pitch that is not predetermined (Phillips, 1996). This

allows the student to experiment with his voice without the concern of singing a ‘right’ or

‘wrong’ note. The student moves from humming pitches to singing vowels on pitches

(Lawson, 1944). After phonation is discussed, the student is asked to sing a specific pitch.

The student is encouraged to first hear the sound inside his head (audiate) and then create

the sound with his voice (Burgin, 1973). In order to articulate the pitch, the student uses

glottal stops, which is closing the vocal folds together and stopping the air, and therefore

the sound (Appelman, 1967). Rather than describe the exact details of the workings of the

vocal folds to the students, the Cambiata Pedagogy asks the student to imitate sounds

demonstrated by the teacher.

Resonance and timbre. After production of a tone is understood, the student is

taught how to refine it. The way a note sounds has three aspects aside from the vowel

used: pitch, intensity, and timbre (Appelman, 1967). The timbre of a note is controlled by

the resonating chambers of the head, nasal cavities, and mouth, the high chambers, and

11

chest and body, the low chambers (Burgin, 1973). In order to practice activating these

chambers, the student is asked to imitate animal sounds, such as the bleat of a sheep for

the nasal cavities or the moo of a cow for the chest cavities (Phillips, 1996). To these

animal sounds, the Cambiata Pedagogy adds a laugh of the “Wicked Witch” for the nasal

cavities and a laugh of an evil villain for the chest cavities. Another method used to

activate frontal, nasal resonance is using the consonant cluster ny as in nyah (David,

2008). To ny, the Cambiata Pedagogy adds n and ng for the same effect. In addition to

using specific consonants, certain vowels, such as ay and ah, encourage higher and lower

resonance, respectively (David, 2008).

Until the student has grasped the ideas of proper resonance, specified pitch is

avoided in the Cambiata Pedagogy. The student can more easily sing higher notes if they

understand the resonating chambers used to sing them. Some teachers recommend that

control of tone by the larynx be discussed, but several prefer to use imagery to experience

the same control (Burgin, 1973). Using the latter technique, the Cambiata Pedagogy

suggests having the student imagine cotton balls in their mouth or the beginning of a

yawn. The reason that the larynx is not discussed heavily is because too much concern

with it can lead to muscular tension, especially on high notes (David, 2008). Tension can

also be avoided by mentally and physically preparing for the higher notes in advance or

thinking down to the pitch (David, 2008).

Range and vocal registers. A discussion of pitch includes the concepts of range

and vocal registers. Range is difficult to develop consistently at the adolescent age

because the larynx is going through a dramatic change (Punt, 1979). However, range

extension exercises, such as vocal sirens imitating the siren on a police car, can still be

done (Phillips, 1996). In addition to sirens, the Cambiata Pedagogy includes slides from

12

the top of the range to the bottom and the bottom of the range to the top. Several registers

exist within a student’s range. Vocal registers are typically associated with the resonating

chambers that are used the most in that portion of the student’s range (Appelman, 1967).

The ultimate goal of vocal training is to connect the registers throughout the range as

smoothly as possible (Burgin, 1973). The most effective method for connecting registers

is activating all of the resonating chambers in every part of the range (David, 2008). The

Cambiata Pedagogy employs this strategy by asking the student for a ‘male wicked

witch,’ as opposed to a female, to create a lower pitch but higher resonance. Another

method used to connect the higher resonating chambers with a lower part of the range is

the use of the ny, n, and ng sounds in the lower range. The Cambiata Pedagogy expands

upon this by asking the student to remember the feeling of a higher resonating vowel

when singing a lower resonating vowel, and vice versa, in order to combine the

resonating chambers.

Diction. Diction consists of the formation of words using both the vowels and

consonants. The pure vowels, ah, eh, ee, oh, and oo, are practiced one at a time on

vocalises (Lawson, 1944). The vowel shape is primarily controlled by the back of the

tongue and slightly by lip shape (Burgin, 1973). The Cambiata Pedagogy asks the student

to make guttural, primal sounds to encourage vowel formation in the larynx and at the

back of the tongue. Another technique used in the Cambiata Pedagogy is prefacing the

vowel with an m to encourage the use of the higher resonating chambers while still

maintaining the vowel. When singing diphthongs, or combinations of two vowels, the

Cambiata Pedagogy asks the student to spend the most time on the first of the two vowels

in order to maintain pitch and vowel purity. Moving to the second vowel too soon

compromises the shape of the mouth and, consequently, the pitch (Duey, 1951).

13

In the Cambiata Pedagogy, time was devoted to developing the consonant

articulators: the lips, the teeth, and the tip of the tongue (Appelman, 1967). Prior to

practicing articulation, the student was encouraged to loosen his face by saying “Q X” in

a dramatic fashion with exaggerated facial movements. Consonant clarity is developed

through the use of rhythmic patterns and tongue twisters (Phillips, 1996). Tongue twisters

such as “toy boat” and “red leather, yellow leather” are used to challenge the student to

move his articulators around the words quickly. After the student can speak the tongue

twisters, the Cambiata Pedagogy encourages singing the tongue twisters. This manner of

learning is to be duplicated in the context of a song by having the student speak lyrics

prior to singing them.

Expression. After the voice is functioning at a peak technical ability, it is

necessary to include emotional expression to give the song meaning. The primary method

of including expression is adding dynamic contrast and mood. Dynamic contrast is the

most easily modeled of the two, but the extremes of dynamics must be avoided to keep

from damaging the voice (Burgin, 1973). In the Cambiata Pedagogy, dynamics are

introduced with vocalises by having the student crescendo (get louder) and decrescendo

(get softer) in the context of a five-note pattern. Blending the concept of mood into the

song is easier with a grasp on dynamics. The student is asked by the teacher why the

singer is singing softly or loudly, which provides a starting point for assigning mood to

the text.

The mood of the song should match the timbre used to sing it (Lawson, 1944).

Despite this concept, the Cambiata Pedagogy does not stress the timbre used, as

attempting to change timbre often interferes with proper technique. As in teaching

diction, the music is added after the student can speak the text (Burgin, 1973). The

14

Cambiata Pedagogy asks the student to read the text in a dramatic ‘Shakespearian’ tone to

encourage proper vocal placement in the speaking voice. If the student does not

understand this concept, he is encouraged to try speaking like a politician, refined and

confident. While speaking dramatically, the student is also encouraged to think of which

word bears the most importance in each sentence. The student is then asked to think of a

character, or, alternatively, think of himself in a situation similar to that of the character.

In the example of “Gallant Knight” (Appendix D), the character would be a squire

announcing a knight.

Conclusion

Most sources do not focus on the changing voice at all. Phillips’s source is the one

that focused specifically on the child’s voice, but does not describe it in a private lesson

environment (Phillips, 1996). Collins focuses on the male changing voice in Cambiata

Concept, but only in the choir environment as well (Collins, 1981). The Cambiata

Pedagogy is designed specifically for training the adolescent student to sing. Despite the

lack of specific methodology for training the changing voice, the Cambiata Pedagogy

adapted pedagogies from the sources reviewed.

15

Method

Selection of Participants

First, participants were recruited for this study. For the purpose of this study,

participants were required to be male students, ages 12-15, who were experiencing or

about to experience their voice change into adolescence. In order to find participants,

several teachers in the area were contacted and given information about the experiment.

An informed consent form (Appendix A) was developed, and teachers were asked to

distribute the forms to interested students who fit the profile of the required participant.

Two teachers from two different school districts were involved, and a total of eight

participants volunteered. The participants consisted of two 12-year-olds, three 13-year-

olds, one 14-year-old, and two 15-year-olds.

In addition to the participants, two adjudicators were chosen to assess the

participants’ performance on pre- and post- tests. One teaches at a local college and

formally taught at a local high school for 30 years. The other is the choir director at a

local high school and has his own private teaching studio for voice lessons.

Pre-Test

Development of test. The test used for both the pre- and post- procedures was

developed using the Vocal Technique Evaluation Form (Appendix B), adapted from

Teaching Kids to Sing (Phillips, 1996). This form was used because it was intended as an

instrument to assess a student’s improvement over time. The scale used was a Lickert

scale of one to five, five being the most superior achievement. The Vocal Technique

Evaluation Form assessed (1) respiration: divided into posture, breathing motion, breath

control, and breath support, (2) resonant tone production: divided into laryngeal position,

vibrato, clarity, pitch, registers, resonance, and projection, (3) diction: divided into

16

flexibility of articulators (tongue, lips, teeth, jaw), position of articulators, and word

intelligibility, and (4) expression: divided into phrasing, range, dynamic variation, agility

and tempo variation, and meaning and mood. The items on the Evaluation Form were all

testable in the context of the song “I’m Bound Away” (Appendix C) with the exception

of breath control and range. Because there is no sustained note lasting 40 seconds or more

in the song, the participants were asked to sing the alphabet on a single pitch at one letter

per beat at 80 beats per minute. This was chosen over a sustained note because it would

give the participants a means of measuring their own achievement. Because the range of

the song is no more than a sixth (six notes), the participants were asked to sing the

syllable ha in a pulsated, separated do-sol-do pattern from the bottom to the top of their

range. The final part of the test required the participant to sing “I’m Bound Away” with

the piano doubling the melody, after hearing it sung once. Each participant’s pre-test was

video recorded for review by the adjudicators.

Implementation of pre-test. The participant entered the practice room and was

taken through a brief warm up regimen. First, he used a pitchless ha sound to prepare the

breathing mechanisms. Next, the participant performed a vocal siren from the top of his

voice to the bottom and then the bottom of their voice to the top. To warm-up with

specified pitches, he started with a five note pattern (do-re-mi-fa-sol-fa-mi-re-do) on a lip

buzz. Next, the participant sang an arpeggio on a pulsed ha-ha then a connected ha (do

mi sol mi do-mi-sol-mi-do). To prepare creation of vowels, he sang mee may mah moh

moo on the same pitch with a slide of a minor third on the last syllable. To focus the

sound into a forward resonance, using high resonating chambers, the participant sang

hing-ee hing-ay hing-ah (sol-sol sol-sol sol-sol-fa-mi-re-do). For the last warm-up, the

17

student sang on zah (do-sol____1-fa-mi-re-do). Throughout the warm-up procedure, there

was no instruction given on how to improve the sound.

Assessment of pre-test. The adjudicators were given the video recordings of the

participants for assessment using the Vocal Technique Evaluation Form. The scores were

then summarized by adding each judge’s scores together and then averaging the two total

values in order to best match the students by score.

Pre-test matching. The participants were then listed by order of score and those

that were in adjacent rank were matched. After the participants were matched, a coin was

flipped to determine which participant would receive the Cambiata Pedagogy

(experimental group) and which would not (control group). One exception was made to

this randomization. For a pair of brothers in different matched pairs, the determination of

the placement into groups was done simultaneously in order to eliminate the variable of

one telling the other about the pedagogy.

Pedagogy

The participants in the experimental group participated in the Cambiata

Pedagogy. The participants in the control group did not receive any further pedagogy

beyond the group lessons with their choir directors. The Cambiata Pedagogy was

designed as a six-week program with the participant receiving one half-hour lesson each

week.

First week of the pedagogy. In the first week, participants were taught about

proper posture, breathing, larynx position, and articulator use in singing. In order to teach

posture, the instructor demonstrated proper posture while encouraging the participant to

start with a ‘superhero pose’ as a basis for having feet on the floor; one foot slightly

1 Designates a sustained note

18

ahead of the other; knees slightly relaxed; spine lifted up and out of the hips; shoulders

slightly back and down; sternum up throughout the act of singing; head level and held

high hands and arms down and back at the sides. The superhero pose was derived from

the ‘noble posture’ (Duey, 1951). Any corrections to the posture were made verbally.

To teach breathing, the teacher required the participant exhale all air, and then

inhale once all air had been expelled in order to feel the lower part of the lungs fill up and

avoid an incorrect high breath. Another method used was giving the participant a straw

through which to inhale. The purpose of this was to assist in a technique used for filling

up the lungs with a proper low breath. To learn exhalation, the participant was instructed

to inflate a balloon without puffing out his cheeks in order to engage the abdominal

muscles. In order to ensure that the participant could exhale properly without the balloon

in place, he was asked to hold a sheet of paper at an arm’s length and use sharp pulses of

breath to move it.

To train the larynx to stay down into a relaxed position, the participant was asked

to yawn, which naturally raises the soft palate and lowers the larynx. In addition to this

technique, the participant did a vocal sigh on a light ah to open up the space. If neither

indirect approach worked, the participant was encouraged to feel the openness in his

throat by imagining a lottery machine in his throat. To practice articulation, the

participant relaxed the jaw with chewing motion, and said the letters Q and X with

exaggerated motions. The teacher used tongue twisters such as “aluminum linoleum” or

“toy boat” to keep the articulators agile. The participant was then asked to imitate

patterns presented by the teacher that included consonants and vowels on different

rhythms.

19

The second week of the pedagogy. In the second week, the teacher reviewed

several of the exercises used in the prior week in order to prepare the participants for the

exercises to be taught in the second week. Musical context was added to the techniques

taught in the first week. The participant buzzed his lips, which energized the breath for

singing. To improve the participant’s breath management, the instructor had him sing an

ascending and descending eight-note scale in half notes (two beats each) by adding one

note at a time (do, do-re-do, do-re-mi-re-do, etc.). In order to experience pulsating breath

in musical context, the participant was asked to sing an arpeggio (do mi sol mi do) on the

word ha.

To practice articulation, the participant sang “The lips the teeth the tip of the

tongue” and “Mama made me munch my M&Ms” on one pitch. After that, the participant

was asked to sing ‘Aluminum Linoleum’ on a scale pattern. The teacher then introduced

phrasing by having the participant sing five-note patterns in one breath (do-re-mi-fa-sol-

fa-mi-re-do). The participant was then asked to sing “America the Beautiful” as the

teacher corrected the phrasing used by the participant.

The third week of the pedagogy. In week three, as before, the participants used the

same exercises used in the prior weeks to prepare for new uses of the techniques. The

participant was asked to add specific pitches to the vocal sigh in an upper range and then

use a contrasting low villainous laugh in his lower range while keeping his larynx

relaxed. After experiencing the high and low sensations with a relaxed larynx, the

participant sang ascending and descending patterns while keeping the larynx low. The

teacher assessed this by observing the participant’s throat for laryngeal movement. The

participants were then asked to find a high resonance chamber using the ‘mask,’ which

was defined as the upper cheek bones and nasal cavities. The teacher demonstrated

20

laughter like the Wicked Witch from the “Wizard of Oz” or sheep bleating so the

participant could recognize the sound of the placement. After imitating the noises, the

participant was asked to speak text from the song “The Gallant Knight” or “America the

Beautiful” while using frontal resonance.

The next step for the teacher was to train participant to learn how to speak clearly,

because singing clearly is more difficult than speaking clearly. To accomplish this, the

teacher mumbled through a poem or lyrics and then overtly articulated every syllable

before asking the participant to do the same.

The fourth week of pedagogy. The lesson in week four began as the past two, with

review of exercises used in past weeks. The participant then was asked to use the frontal

resonance on pitches, starting with an ay vowel, which is the easiest to perform with this

technique.

The participant was then taught how to use vibrato, a technique used by

musicians to add more color to the sound through slight modifications of the pitch and

volume. The teacher started with breath pulses, moved to pulses while saying he-he-he,

and then removed the h to have an e-e-e sound. Through this, the teacher watched the

participant’s abdominal muscles to be sure that the pulses came from abdominal pressure

and not the throat muscles. Use of the throat muscles was specifically avoided because

the tension caused can be damaging to the voice.

The fifth week of pedagogy. Week five began with review of prior exercises,

before beginning to teach the song, “The Gallant Knight,” in which the participant was

asked to mark phrases into his copy of the music. After doing this, the participant was

asked to speak the phrases in rhythm before singing them with proper phrasing. The

teacher then began training the participant to use the relaxed laryngeal position and

21

frontal resonance at the same time. The most effective metaphor was that of an iceberg,

which has a tip of focus (the frontal resonance) and a large mass beneath (breath support

and lowered larynx). The participant was asked to use farm sounds, like sheep bleats and

cow moos, to practice using the higher and lower resonating chambers respectively. The

teacher then encouraged the participant to combine the higher and lower chambers on

multiple vowels.

The participant continued practicing vibrato through the use of vowel pulses e-e-

e. The teacher used a metaphor of lifting the iceberg to engage the abdominal muscles.

The participant then sang the song while practicing clarity of diction.

The sixth week of pedagogy. During the final week, the teacher had the participant

walk through and demonstrate the proper techniques for singing. The participant sang the

alphabet on one pitch, as he did earlier in the experiment, so that he could see the growth

of his own breath control. Following this, the participant was asked to do vocal warm

ups on the word ha to observe the growth of his own range.

The participants were then asked to deliberately pulse notes in order to create a

slow vibrato in the song at a slower tempo. When the tempo was returned to its proper

pace, the participant was encouraged to also speed up the pulsation. The teacher then

asked the participant to perform the song as an opera singer.

The teacher then asked the participant to develop a character and a mood for the

piece. If needed, the teacher suggested the character of a page or squire of a knight. The

participant was then told that the following week will be the post-test, and the

culmination of the experiment.

22

Post-Test

Implementation of post-test. Following the Cambiata Pedagogy, both the

experimental and control group participants were contacted. The exact same procedure

for testing was used for the post-test as was used in the pre-test at the beginning of the

project. There were no reminders of lessons made to the experimental group prior to the

test. The participant entered the practice room and was taken through a brief warm up

regimen. First he did a pitchless ha sound to prepare the breathing mechanisms. Next, the

participant did a vocal siren from the top of their voice to the bottom and then the bottom

of their voice to the top. Then to warm up with specified pitches, he started with a five

note pattern (do-re-mi-fa-sol-fa-mi-re-do) on a lip buzz. Next, the participant sang an

arpeggio on a pulsed ha-ha then a connected ha (do mi sol mi do-mi-sol-mi-do). To

prepare creation of vowels, he sang mee may mah moh moo on the same pitch with a slide

of a minor third on the last syllable. To focus the sound into a forward resonance, using

high resonating chambers, the participant sang hing-ee hing-ay hing-ah (sol-sol sol-sol

sol-sol-fa-mi-re-do). For the last warm up, the student sang on zah (do-sol____2-fa-mi-re-

do). Throughout the warm up procedure, there was no instruction given on how to

improve the sound.

Assessment of post-test. The adjudicators were then given the video recordings of

the participants for assessment using the Vocal Technique Evaluation Form. The scores

were then summarized for the purpose of developing a statistical analysis.

2 Designates a sustained note.

23

Results

Statistical Analysis

The judges assigned a rank on a Lickert scale (one to five, with five being the

most superior) in 19 categories. On the pre-test, the percent agreement between judges

was 77.63%, and on the post-test, the percent agreement between judges was 81.83%, an

average of 79.73%. These numbers were found by dividing the score of the first judge by

the score of the second judge in order to compare them. The ranks given by each judge

were added together and the two sums were averaged for the pre- and post- test scores. A

table displaying the pre-post scores, amount of improvement in scores over the six-week

period, and percentage of improvement shows the extent of individual change in each

matched pair. In addition, a mixed-between-within analysis of variance (ANOVA) was

used to examine whether the amount of change was greater for the experimental group

versus the control group. Table 1 represents the summary of the data collected for this

experiment.

Table 1- Individual Pre-Post Scores, Amount of Improvement, and Percentage of

Improvement in Scores for the Control versus the Experimental Participants

Group – Pair Number Pre Post Improvement % Improved

Control – 1 31.50 42.00 10.50 33.33%

Experimental – 1 32.50 46.00 13.50 41.54%

Control – 2 42.00 55.00 13.00 30.95%

Experimental – 2 42.00 63.00 21.00 50.00%

Control – 3 49.50 55.50 6.00 12.12%

Experimental – 3 53.50 71.50 18.00 33.64%

Control – 4 53.50 60.50 7.00 13.08%

Experimental – 4 53.50 65.50 12.00 22.43%

Control – AVG 44.13 53.25 9.12 20.68%

Experimental –AVG 45.38 61.50 16.13 35.54%

24

Table 1 presents information on individual scores. When inspecting the data, it is

clear that for each pair, the amount of improvement and percent improvement was greater

for the individuals in the experimental group versus the control group in all four pairs.

Table 1 shows that in the pre-test, the participants in the control group averaged a score

of 44.13. In the post-test, the control group averaged a score of 53.25. The pre-post

improvement is 9.12, which is a 20.68% improvement. In the pre-test, the experimental

group averaged a score of 45.38. In the post-test, the experimental group averaged a score

of 61.50. The pre-post difference is 16.13, which is a 35.54% improvement. Appendix E

shows all of the ranks assigned by each judge in the pre- and post- test assessments.

To see if these differences were statistically significant, a mixed between-within

analysis of variance was conducted to assess the impact of two different interventions

(the developed pedagogy and classroom training, classroom training alone) on

participants’ scores on the Vocal Technique Evaluation Form, across two time periods

(pre-intervention and post-intervention). There was a substantial main effect for time,

Wilks Lambda = .06, F (1, 6) = 93.994, p = .0001, partial eta squared = .94. Both groups

had higher scores at the post test versus the pre test. More importantly to the premise of

this study, there was a significant interaction between group and time, Wilks Lambda =

.452, F (1, 6) = 7.261, p = .036, partial eta squared = .55, suggesting a difference in the

effectiveness of the two approaches. Specifically, at the post-test, the experimental group

showed a significantly greater improvement in scores than the control group, indicating

that the addition of the pedagogy to the classroom training was an effective intervention.

25

Group # Pre/Post Respiration AVG Tone AVG Diction AVG Expression AVG

C 1 Pre- 8.50 10.00 5.00 8.00

Post- 9.00 14.00 7.50 11.50

Difference 0.50 4.00 2.50 3.50

C 2 Pre- 8.50 10.00 5.00 8.00

Post- 9.00 14.00 7.50 11.50

Difference 0.50 4.00 2.50 3.50

C 2 Pre- 9.50 15.50 6.00 11.00

Post- 15.00 19.00 7.50 13.50

Difference 5.50 3.50 1.50 2.50

C 3 Pre - 10.50 19.50 8.50 11.00

Post- 13.00 19.50 8.00 15.00

Difference 2.50 0.00 -0.50 4.00

C 4 Pre- 10.50 20.50 9.50 13.00

Post- 11.50 22.50 9.00 17.50

Difference 1.00 2.00 -0.50 4.50

E 1 Pre- 6.50 10.50 7.50 8.00

Post- 9.50 13.50 9.50 13.50

Difference 3.00 3.00 2.00 5.50

E 2 Pre- 9.00 17.00 7.00 9.00

Post- 13.50 23.00 9.50 17.00

Difference 4.50 6.00 2.50 8.00

E 3 Pre- 10.00 21.00 9.00 13.50

Post- 12.50 28.00 11.50 19.50

Difference 2.50 7.00 2.50 6.00

E 4 Pre- 10.50 20.50 9.00 13.50

Post- 12.50 24.50 10.50 18.00

Difference 2.00 4.00 1.50 4.50

AVG C Difference 2.38 2.38 0.75 3.63

AVG E Difference 3.00 5.00 2.13 6.00

Table 2- Improvement by Category

26

Findings for the participants’ scores on the individual sections of the Vocal

Technique Evaluation Form (Respiration, Tone, Diction, and Expression) are shown in

Table 2. As shown, there was more improvement in the experimental versus control

group for all categories on average. To see if these differences were due to the

intervention, a mixed between-within participants analysis of variance was conducted to

assess the impact of two different interventions (the developed pedagogy and classroom

training, classroom training alone) on participants’ scores on the individual sections of

the Vocal Technique Evaluation Form (Respiration, Tone, Diction, Expression), across

two time periods (pre-intervention and post-intervention). Overall, these analyses indicate

that a clear difference was found between the two groups on ‘Expression,’ but not on the

other categories.

For ‘Respiration,’ there was a substantial main effect for time, Wilks Lambda =

.244, F (1, 6) = 18.552, p = .005, partial eta squared = .76. Both groups had higher scores

at the post test versus the pre test. There was not a significant interaction between group

and time, however, Wilks Lambda = .960, F (1, 6) = .251, p = .634, partial eta squared =

.04, suggesting little difference in the effectiveness of the two approaches. For ‘Tone,’

there was a substantial main effect for time, Wilks Lambda = .153, F (1, 6) = 33.152, p =

.001, partial eta squared = .85. Both groups had higher scores at the post test versus the

pre test. Again, there was not a significant interaction between group and time, Wilks

Lambda = .588, F (1, 6) = 4.200, p = .086, partial eta squared = .41, suggesting little

difference in the effectiveness of the two approaches. Finally, for ‘Diction,’ there was a

substantial main effect for time, Wilks Lambda = .310, F (1, 6) = 13.336, p = .011, partial

eta squared = .69. Both groups had higher scores at the post test versus the pre test, but

there was no significant interaction between group and time, Wilks Lambda = .663, F (1,

27

6) = 3.050, p = .131, partial eta squared = .34, suggesting little difference in the

effectiveness of the two approaches.

This pattern changes for the final measure. Here, for ‘Expression,’ there was a

substantial main effect for time, Wilks Lambda = .45 F (1, 6) = 127.964, p < .0005,

partial eta squared = .955, as well as a significant interaction between group and time,

Wilks Lambda = .435, F (1, 6) = 7.791, p = .032, partial eta squared = .57, suggesting a

difference in the effectiveness of the two approaches. Specifically, while all participants

improved with the passage of time, the greatest improvement was seen with the

developed pedagogy and classroom training, as opposed to classroom training alone.

These findings indicate that the study intervention was particularly effective in

influencing the participants’ skill with phrasing, range, dynamics, tempo, and meaning.

27

Discussion

The improvement in the vocal ability of the experimental group is consistent with

the hypothesis that vocal ability in the changing voice can be enhanced to a greater

degree by using the Cambiata Pedagogy for private voice lessons. The Cambiata

Pedagogy was developed with the assistance of several sources as discussed in the

literature review. By combining techniques of several researchers and updating the

vernacular thereof, the Cambiata Pedagogy was made into an appropriate form for both

the current time and younger age of the student.

In addition to the quantitative data gathered to support the hypothesis, the

participant was also observed qualitatively during the course of the study. The

participants were open to trying all of the techniques described, with the encouragement

of the instructor. Throughout instruction, the participants were asked if they were

comfortable with the techniques before the pedagogy proceeded allowing each of them an

opportunity to move at their own pace. In addition to their understanding, the

participant’s fatigue level was also observed. This was done both by direct inquiry of the

student and by outward observations, and allowed the instructor to gauge the

appropriateness of the pacing. When necessary, the instructor asked the participant to

stop singing, take full breaths and relax his voice, especially when the participant came in

vocally fatigued from the day or ill. The qualitative observations allowed the instructor to

assess on an overall level how the student was improving.

An important part for the execution of any pedagogy apart from the improvement

of the student is the student’s receptiveness and desire to continue. Every one of the

participants showed an excitement when coming into the lesson weekly. One participant

shared that, through the week, he had the song stuck in his head, and had practiced

29

throughout the week. Several of the participants’ parents mentioned that their child was

looking forward to each lesson. The participants’ desire to come to each lesson weekly

was also evident in their effort to reschedule lessons whenever they missed due to other

commitments. Each one was willing to work around the instructor’s schedule as much as

possible. The desire to continue taking lessons even after the experiment had ended is

what speaks the most for the participant’s enjoyment of the pedagogy is. One participant

wanted to continue, even when told that any further lessons would not be complimentary.

Through observing the participants’ receptiveness to the pedagogy, it is clear that this

was an enjoyable and beneficial experience for the students.

On one hand, the findings of this study were based on a small sample size. Ten

different teachers were informed of the study being conducted. Of the ten, two school

districts did not allow the use of their students as participants. Five teachers did not

respond, leaving their students out of the enrollment for participants. Of the remaining

three teachers who did respond, one said that there were no participants that met the

requirements of the experiment enrolled in her choir. Each of the two cooperating

teachers distributed between 15 and 20 consent forms to their students. The eight students

who returned their completed consent forms were enrolled in the experiment. The current

study was significantly limited in participants and resources. Future experiments should

try to enroll not only a greater number of participants, but also a more diverse sample. In

order to incorporate more diverse demographic, students who are not in choir should also

be considered as a secondary control or experimental group. It is notable, however, that

even with the small sample size, the results are strong. Therefore, the techniques used in

this study merit further investigation.

30

In future research, it would also be beneficial to continue the study over a longer

period of time, to evaluate long term effectiveness of the lessons. After receiving the

informed consent forms from the participants, conducting the pre-test, matching the pairs,

and coordinating schedules with the participants, only six weeks remained in the semester

to conduct the experiment through use of the Cambiata Pedagogy. Another idea to

explore is if the lessons learned in the Cambiata Pedagogy allow for students to continue

developing at an improved rate or if they are forgotten and they return to the same level

as those who did not benefit from the Pedagogy. To evaluate this, another test could be

administered after a significant time (three to five months) has passed.

The Cambiata Pedagogy itself could be made more effective in improving vocal

development. The lessons would ideally start earlier in the student’s life, and continue

longer through the time of changing voice. Six weeks is a short time when considering a

student’s vocal development, especially when the student has already been developing for

the years prior. Another improvement that would assist in vocal development is

encouraging the student to journal the individual time spent familiarizing himself with his

own voice. There are several different techniques for developing different aspects of

singing, and each technique is more effective for some than for others. A third method

that would assist in vocal development is parental involvement. Getting the parent to

understand even the most basic of concepts presented in the Cambiata Pedagogy would

allow for further enforcing of good singing habits. The overall techniques presented in

the Cambiata Pedagogy have room for improvement. As the Pedagogy was taught to the

experimental groups, the most effective techniques, as determined by the student’s

receptiveness, were discovered through trial and error. An updated pedagogy would do

well to include the most effective of the methods administered throughout the six weeks.

31

The student should also be given the opportunity to showcase his talents, or sing in

public, for a receptive, appreciative audience.

The effectiveness of the Cambiata Pedagogy was partially due to the age of the

students. During this time, the student is beginning to develop habits that will shape his

learning in the future (Moshman, 1999). Being able to work with students at this age

makes it easier to break poor singing habits, such as improper breathing or diction,

because these habits have not yet become ingrained. In addition to altering bad habits, the

students are more likely to be receptive to good habits (Moshman, 1999). Proof of the

student’s receptiveness is that it only took one or two corrections for the student to

recognize what needed to be changed and be able to perform more successfully on a

consistent basis. A fear of any aspiring vocalist is bad feedback becoming the norm. If a

student receives criticism about his voice from his siblings or peers before receiving the

opinion of a trained educator, he is likely to develop a dislike of his own ability, despite

his talent. Students at this age also need something in which they can take pride, or

establish identity (Moshman, 1999). Teaching a student to sing in his younger years can

equip him with a sense of musical identity, confidence, and a skill set that can positively

influence his life.

32

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Appelman, D. R. (1967). The science of vocal pedagogy. London: Indiana University

Press.

Barham, T. J. (1991). The boy's changing voice: new solutions for today's choral teacher.

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Beery, L. (2009). Music for men in the middle. Choral Journal , 50 (4), 34-43.

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Cottrell, D. (2010). Support or resistance? examining breathing techniques in choral

singing. Choral Journal , 50 (9), 53-59.

David, M. (2008). The new voice pedagogy. Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.

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Freer, P. K. Boys' changing voices in the first century of MENC journals. (2008). Music

Educators Journal , 95 (1), 41-47.

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Freer, P. K. (2009). Choral warm-ups for changing adolescent voices. Music Educators

Journal , 95 (3), 57-62.

Freer, P. K. (2010). Foundation of the boy's expanding voice: a response to Henry Leck.

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singing voice. United States of America: Harper & Brothers.

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Journal , 49 (11), 49-60.

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Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

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Company, Inc.

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Simmons, R. G. (1987). Moving into adolescence: the impact of pubertal change and

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Swanson, F. J. (1977). The male singing voice ages eight to eighteen. Cedar Rapids, IA:

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Appendix A

35

Informed Consent Forms

Dear Student and Parent,

My name is Kevin Tomb, and I am a Music Education student at Westminster

College. As a part of my graduation requirements for the All-College Honors Program at

Westminster, I am required to complete a research project in my field. In order to do this,

my advisor, Dr. Robin Lind, and I developed the idea of creating a pedagogy designed to

teach male students going through puberty how to sing through individualized voice

lessons.

I will be recruiting 20 students, half of whom will be placed in the control group,

and the other half will be placed in the experimental group. Every student involved will

meet with me at least twice during the experiment; the first time will be to judge their

abilities prior to the experiment, and the second will be to judge their abilities following

the experiment. In order to assess their abilities, I will be video recording two aptitude

tests at the beginning and end of the study. These video recordings will be reviewed by

Westminster College instructors, Mr. William Ambert, an experienced voice teacher, and

Mr. Edgar Groves, an experienced choral conductor. The students in the experimental

group will take vocal lessons from me once a week for ten weeks, during which I will

teach them the proper techniques for singing. My teaching methods have been reviewed

by Dr. Lind, who is an expert in vocal pedagogy, as well as the college’s ethics board.

The students placed in the control group will only be pre- and post-tested, but will not

receive the pedagogy. Any information concerning the identity of the students will

remain confidential.

36

The risks of the experiment are minimal. Any use of the voice can cause vocal

strain, but the experimenter has designed his experimental pedagogy so that the subject

will learn the proper methods for vocal production prior to actually using the voice. My

research, as well as the exact details of the pedagogy and aptitude tests which I will use,

can be made available upon request, through either e-mailing me at

tombkm@wclive.westminster.edu or calling me at (412) 865-9482. I will be more than

happy to answer any questions that you have. If you are willing to allow your student to

participate, please return the following consent form, completed, to his music teacher by

the end of the week.

Thank you for your cooperation,

Kevin Tomb

37

Parental Consent Form

I, _______________________ give my child ________________________

permission to participate in the experiment conducted by Kevin Tomb. I understand that

my signature on this document gives Kevin permission to video record my child during

his singing “aptitude tests.” I also understand that not every student will be taught lessons

throughout the 10 weeks and that the selection of the students who will receive lessons is

random. I realize that the results of this research will be made public, but the videotapes,

specific test results, and identity of each student will be kept confidential. The researcher

will not share the videotapes with anyone except the outside adjudicators, and the

videotapes will be deleted at the end of the project.

I understand that should I have any concerns, that I can contact Kevin and they

will be addressed. If my concerns continue, I understand that I can withdraw my child

from the experiment at any time, including during a music lesson by contacting Kevin

directly by phone or email at (412) 865-9482 and tombkm@wclive.westminster.edu or

Dr. Robin Lind by email at lindra@ westminster.edu.

Signed:

Parent: _____________________________________________ Date: __________

I understand that the pre and post tests will be video recorded for review by the

adjudicators.

38

Student Consent Form

I, _____________________, agree to participate in the experiment conducted by

Kevin Tomb. I understand that my signature on this document gives Kevin permission to

video record myself during my singing “aptitude tests.” I also understand that I may not

be taught lessons throughout the 10 weeks and that the selection of the students who will

receive lessons is random. I realize that the results of this research will be made public,

but the videotapes, specific test results, and identity of each student, including myself,

will be kept confidential. The researcher will not share the videotapes with anyone except

the outside adjudicators, and the videotapes will be deleted at the end of the project.

I understand that should I have any concerns, that I can contact Kevin and they

will be addressed. If my concerns continue, I understand that I can withdraw myself from

the experiment at any time, including during a music lesson, by contacting Kevin directly

by phone or email at (412) 865-9482 and tombkm@wclive.westminster.edu or Dr. Robin

Lind by email at lindra@ westminster.edu.

Signed:

Student: _______________________________________ Date: ___________

I understand that the pre and post tests will be video recorded for review by the

adjudicators.

Appendix B

39

Vocal Technique Evaluation Form Replicated from Kenneth H. Philip’s “Teaching Kids to Sing”

Number: _________ Circle one: Pre Post

RESPIRATION

Posture

1. Poor: lack of seven postural elements: Feet on the floor; one foot slightly ahead of

the other; knees slightly relaxed; spine lifted up and out of the hips; shoulders

slightly back and down; sternum up throughout the act of singing; head level and

held high hands and arms down and back at the sides

2. Below Average: Stands/sits upright with little vitality

3. Average: awareness demonstrated for correct posture

4. Above average: most postural elements correct

5. Superior: all seven postural elements correct

Breathing Motion

1. Poor: inverted chest breathing

2. Below average: correct inhalation but incorrect exhalation

3. Average: correct motion under conscious control

4. Above average: correct motion with fast reflexive control

5. Superior: correct motion used habitually in singing

Breath Control

1. Poor: 10”- tone sustained

2. Below average: 15”- tone sustained

3. Average: 20” - tone sustained

4. Above average: 30”- tone sustained

5. Superior: 40”-tone sustained

Breath Support

1. Poor: no use of abdominal musculature

2. Below average: some use of abdominal musculature

3. Average: shows tendency to use abdominal muscular consciously

4. Above average: use of abdominal musculature becoming a habit

5. Superior: habitual use of abdominal musculature

RESONANT TONE PRODUCTION

Laryngeal Position

1. Poor: moves to a high position in all registers

2. Below average: varies in position as to vocal demands

3. Average: remains down in lower register but rises in upper

4. Above average: remains relatively down throughout registers

5. Superior: remains down consistently throughout registers

40

Vibrato

1. Poor: absent – straight tone

2. Below average: some – very uneven

3. Average: present but uneven

4. Above average: present consistently with slight variation

5. Superior: present consistently with no variation

Clarity

1. Poor: lack of clarity in all registers

2. Below average: some clarity in middle register

3. Average: clarity varies over registers

4. Above average: mostly clear in all registers

5. Superior: very clear in all registers

Pitch

1. Poor: accurate matching below 50%

2. Below average: accurate matching of at least 50%

3. Average: accurate matching of at least 75%

4. Above average: accurate matching of at least 90%

5. Superior: accurate matching of at least 99%

Registers

1. Poor: use of lower adjustment only

2. Below average: strong lower with weak upper adjustment

3. Average: use of both adjustments with register break between

4. Above average: use of both adjustments with no break between

5. Superior: upper, middle, and lower adjustments equally balanced

Resonance

1. Poor: indistinguishable quality

2. Below average: some distinguishable quality

3. Average: distinguishable quality

4. Above average: quality distinguishable by fullness and depth

5. Superior: quality distinguished by fullness, depth, and uniformity

Projection

1. Poor: very weak

2. Below average: weak

3. Average: some projection

4. Above average: projects well but lacks ring

5. Superior: projects fully with characteristic ring

41

DICTION

Flexibility of Articulators (tongue, lips, teeth, jaw)

1. Poor: very rigid muscle interference

2. Below average: much muscle interference

3. Average: some muscle interference

4. Above average: relaxed production free of tension

5. Superior: agile production with distinct articulation

Position of Articulators

1. Poor: grooved tongue, tight jaw, small mouth opening

2. Below average: stiff tongue, tense jaw, small mouth opening

3. Average: relaxed tongue, tense jaw, medium mouth opening

4. Above average: forward tongue, relaxed jaw, medium mouth opening

5. Superior: forward tongue, relaxed jaw, wide mouth opening

Word Intelligibility

1. Poor: garbled

2. Below average: poor vowel formation, lazy consonants

3. Average: some vowel uniformity, slow consonants

4. Above average: vowel uniformity, crisper consonants

5. Superior: vowel uniformity, exaggerated, and rapid consonants

EXPRESSION

Phrasing

1. Poor: unable to sustain minimal phrases

2. Below average: sustains short phrases

3. Average: sustains medium phrases

4. Above average: sustains long phrases

5. Superior: sustains extended phrases

Range

1. Poor: less than one octave

2. Below average: one octave

3. Average: one octave and a fifth

4. Above average: two octaves

5. Superior: three octaves

Dynamic Variation

1. Poor: p-p-p; no < >

2. Below average: p-mp-p; minimal < >

3. Average: p-mf-p; average < >

4. Above average: pp-f-pp; above average < >

5. Superior: pp-ff-pp; superior control < >

42

Agility and Tempo Variation

1. Poor: unable to sing short melismatic phrase at slow tempo

2. Below average: sings short melismatic phrase at slow tempo

3. Average: sings short melismatic phrase at medium tempo

4. Above average: sings medium melismatic phrase at medium tempo

5. Superior: sings long melismatic phrase at fast tempo

Meaning and Mood

1. Poor: expressionless

2. Below average: minimal expression

3. Average: some textual contrast evident

4. Above average: reflects general meaning and mood

5. Superior: reflects accurate meaning and mood

Judge Signature _____________________________________________

Appendix C

43

Appendix D

44

45

Appendix E

46

Judges’ Scores

SUM AVG

Part. # Group Judge A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S

1 C 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 1 3 3 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 1 34 42

2 3 1 3 1 2 1 3 4 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 4 3 3 3 50

2 C 1 3 2 3 2 3 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 1 48 50

2 3 3 3 2 3 1 3 4 3 3 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 2 3 51

3 E 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 1 1 37 42

2 3 3 3 3 2 1 2 4 3 2 3 2 3 3 1 3 2 2 2 47

4 E 1 3 2 2 2 4 1 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 2 2 2 49 54

2 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 3 3 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 3 58

5 E 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 3 1 2 1 1 1 27 33

2 2 2 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 38

6 C 1 3 3 2 3 2 1 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 2 55 54

2 3 2 3 2 2 1 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 2 2 4 2 2 3 52

7 C 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 23 32

2 3 2 3 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 40

8 E 1 3 2 2 2 2 1 3 3 2 3 3 3 2 4 2 2 2 2 2 45 54

2 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 62

RESPIRATION TONE PRODUCTION DICTION EXPRESSION

Table 3- Pre-Test scores

SUM AVG

Part. # Group Judge A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S

1 C 1 3 3 4 3 2 1 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 1 43 55

2 4 4 5 4 4 2 3 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 4 3 3 4 67

2 C 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 3 2 3 3 2 3 2 48 55.5

2 4 3 4 3 2 2 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 4 4 3 3 3 63

3 E 1 4 3 3 4 4 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 3 67 63

2 3 3 3 4 3 2 3 4 3 3 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 4 59

4 E 1 4 4 2 3 4 3 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 66 71.5

2 3 3 3 3 3 5 5 5 3 5 5 4 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 77

5 E 1 3 1 2 2 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 3 3 4 3 3 2 3 3 45 46

2 3 3 3 2 3 1 2 1 3 2 2 4 3 2 3 4 2 2 2 47

6 C 1 4 3 3 3 3 1 4 4 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3 65 60.5

2 3 1 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 2 2 3 4 4 3 3 4 56

7 C 1 4 1 1 2 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 3 2 2 2 2 2 1 35 42

2 3 3 2 2 2 1 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 3 3 2 3 3 49

8 E 1 3 3 3 3 3 2 3 4 3 4 4 3 4 4 3 3 3 3 3 61 65.5

2 3 3 4 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 3 4 4 5 4 4 4 70

RESPIRATION TONE PRODUCTION DICTION EXPRESSION

Table 4- Post Test scores

Appendix F

47

Solfege Examples

C: do re mi fa sol la ti do’

D: do re mi fa sol la ti do’

E: do re mi fa sol la ti do’

F: do re mi fa sol la ti do’

B: do re mi fa sol la ti do’