group 1 - solid waste

8/13/2019 Group 1 - Solid Waste

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Types of Solid Waste

Solid waste are waste in a solid or semisolid form left from households, construction and industrial sites

containing materials that have not been separated out or sent for recycling. Solid waste can be classified into

different types depending on their source. Solid wastes are any discarded (abandoned or considered waste-like)

materials.

Municipal Solid Waste (MSW)

This garbage is generated mainly from residential and commercial complexes. Consists of everyday items we use and then throw away, such as product packaging, grass

clippings, furniture, clothing, bottles, food scraps, newspapers, appliances, paint, and batteries.

This includes household waste, construction and demolition debris, sanitation residue, waste fromstreets.

As urbanization rises, theres a change in lifestyle and food habits, the amount of MSW has beenincreasing rapidly and its composition is changing.

The consumer market has grown rapidly leading to products being packed in cans, aluminumfoils, plastics, and other such non-biodegradable items that cause incalculable harm to the

environment.

MSW is often considered a renewable power source. It is fed into a combustion chamber to beburned. The heat released from burning the MSW is used to produce steam, which turns a steam

turbine to generate electricity.

Type of litter

Approximate time it takes to

degenerate

Organic waste such as vegetable and fruit peels, leftover

foodstuff, etc.

a week or two.

Paper 1030 days

Cotton cloth 1030 days

Wood 1015 years

Agricultural Solid Waste.

Agricultural production leaves considerable amounts of agricultural waste. Some of it is recycledinto the agricultural production as fertilizer, while large amounts remain unused and in many

instances pose a disposal problem.

Uncontrolled burning in the fields is not only a hazardous disposal solution - it is also wasting usefulenergy.

With efficient collection systems, waste from agricultural production can be utilized as fuel forpower and heat production.

In some agricultural industries large amounts of biomass waste is already concentrated andreadily available for utilization.

The palm oil industry, for instance, produces significant amounts of empty fruit bunchthat can be incinerated.

In the sugar industry, significant amounts of bagasse the waste after extraction ofsugaris an equally excellent fuel.

Rice productionmay also be industrialized to such an extent that rice husks are availablein amounts sufficient for incineration in a boiler, thereby securing a basis for power and

heat production.

Commercial Solid Waste

Generated from commercial places like offices, markets, restaurants, shops, etc. The commercial wastes have characteristics similar to that of domestic waste.

Examples are: Deconstruction sites produce debris of broken buildings materials-bricks,

cements, stone, rock fragments, waste iron or other metals etc. These are

generally called as rubble other building construction materials are asbestos,plastics pipes, broken electrical goods, insulating materials, etc.

Market place produces food waste or garbage, rubbish and thrash materials etc. broken fridges,coolers, air conditioners are generally found in market places.


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Solid waste can create a significant pressure on the environment. For most materials thrown away, waste

disposal sites are required and a replacement is produced using fresh raw materials and more energy. Additionally,

open burning of waste material results in increased air pollution, water pollution and Greenhouse Gas (GHG)

emissions. Improper solid waste disposal also attracts wildlife, and often leads to increased wildlife mortality.

Industrial Solid Waste

Is the waste produced byindustrial activity,such as that offactories, mills andmines. It has existed since the outset of theindustrial revolution. Is defined as waste that is generated by businesses from an industrial or manufacturing

process or waste generated from non-manufacturing activities that are managed as a

separate waste stream.

Common types of industrial solid waste from businesses are:

Empty Chemical Containers Asbestos Containing Materials (ACM) PCB Contaminated Wastes Spilled Non-Hazardous Materials Foundry Wastes Ash Paint Residue, Filters and Dust Sludges Tires Spent Carbon Filters Contaminated Soil Ink Sludges, Solvents and Clean-up Materials Infectious Wastes Chemically Treated Wood Machining Wastes Confidential Documents Electrical Component WastesHospital Solid Waste

Also known as medical waste or clinical waste. Is generated during the diagnosis, treatment, or immunization of human beings or animals or

in research activities in these fields or in the production or testing of biologicals.

This waste is highly infectious and can be a serious threat to human health if not managed ina scientific and discriminate manner.

It has been roughly estimated that of the 4 kg of waste generated in a hospital at least 1 kgwould be infected.

But general wastemakes up at least 85% of all waste generated at medical facilities, and isno different from general household or office waste, and includes paper, plastics, liquids and

any other materials that do not fit into the previous three categories.

The World Health Organization classifies medical waste into:
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Sharps Infectious Pathological Radioactive Pharmaceuticals Others (often sanitary waste produced at

hospital.

Infectious and Pathological Hospital Waste

Infectious hospital waste includes anything

that might carry viruses, fungi, bacteria, or parasites

and that could be spread and infect other people or

areas of a hospital. Examples of infectious waste

include anything that has come into contact with

blood or other bodily fluids, cultures of infectious

materials from labs, and any other material that hasbeen, or might have been, in contact with infectious

material.

Pathological material includes tissues, organs

fetuses, and other body tissue. About 15 percent of a

hospital's waste is made up of infectious and

pathological material.

Sharp Hospital Waste

Sharp hospital waste, also called "sharps,"

include items such as needles, scalpels, broken glass,

nails, hypodermic needles, and any other items that

can cause puncture wounds or cuts. Some of these

items are also classified with infectious waste if they

have come in contact with bodily fluid, but because

they can be dangerous to handle, they are

categorized with the other sharps. About one percent

of a hospital's waste is made up of sharps.

Pharmaceutical Hospital Waste

Pharmaceutical waste includes medication, drugs,

vaccines, and other chemicals that have expired,

been returned, not used, spilled, or contaminated.

Anything that has come in contact with these

products, like gloves, are also categorized as

pharmaceutical waste. Drugs may be in any form, such

as liquid or pills, and they can come in boxes or bottles.About three percent of hospital waste is

pharmaceutical.

Radioactive Hospital Waste

Radioactive hospital waste is mostly seen in

oncological (cancer) wards, where radiation is used as

part of the treatment. Radioactive waste makes up less

than one percent of hospital waste.

General Hospital Waste

General hospital waste is made up of regular

materials, which can be disposed of like household

waste--in a city's waste management system. It can

include office waste, linens, cutlery, kitchen waste, and

anything that does not fall into another category. It

makes up 80 percent of hospital waste.

Special Solid Waste

Is essentially any waste with hazardousproperties which may render it harmful to

human health or the environment.

Elsewhere in the UK, it is referred to as beingHazardous waste.

EPA (environmental protection agency) of UStermed this type of waste which they

categorized into six.

Common Types of Special Waste:

Cement kiln dust Mining waste Oil and gas drilling muds and oil production

brines

Phosphate rock mining, beneficiation, andprocessing waste

Uranium waste Utility waste (i.e., fossil fuel combustion waste)


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Waste Characterization

Is the identification of chemical, microbiological, or radiologicalconstituents of wastematerial. Is the process by which the composition of different waste streams is analyzed.

Ignitability

Are ignitable wastes that can easily catch on fire and sustain combustion.Wastes are considered ignitable when they exhibit any of the following characteristics:

A non- liquid and is capable, under standard temperature and pressure, of causing firethrough friction, absorption of moisture or spontaneous chemical changes and when ignited

burns so vigorously and persistently that it creates a hazard.

Liquid, other than an aqueous solution with less than 24% alcohol by volume, with a flashpointbelow 140 F (60 C) as determined by flashpoint testing.

It is an ignitable compressed gas. It is an oxidizer as a material that may generally by yielding oxygen, cause or enhance the

combustion of other materials.

Ignitable wastes can create fires under certain conditions, are spontaneously combustible, orhave a flash point less than 60 C (140 F).

Examples of Ignitable waste:

Ignitable liquids: acetone, acetonitrile, benzene, hexane, methanol, ethanol,isopropanol, toluene, xylene, methyl ethyl ketone, lacquer thinner.

Ignitable compressed gases: hydrogen, methane, acetylene, propane, butane,spray-paint cans.

Oxidizers: ammonium persulfate, sodium nitrate, potassium permanganate, sodiumperchlorate, hydrogen peroxide (aqueous solution greater than or equal to 8%),

potassium peroxide.

Corrosivity

Corrosive wastesare acids or bases (pH less than or equal to 2, or greater than or equal to 12.5)that are capable of corroding metal containers, such as storage tanks, drums, and barrels.

It is a liquid and corrodes steel at a rate greater than 6.35mm per year at a test temperature of55 C (130F).

Examples of Corrosive waste:

Corrosive aqueous liquids: hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid,perchloric acid, acetic acid, sodium hydroxide solution, potassium

hydroxide solution.

Reactivity

Reactive wastes are wastes that readily explode or undergo violent reactions.

A waste is considered reactive if :

It is normally unstable and readily undergoes violent change without detonating. It reacts violently with water. It forms potentially explosives mixtures with water. When mixed with water, i t generates toxic

gases, vapors or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to human health or the

environment.

It is a cyanide or sulfide bearing waste which when exposed to pH conditions between 2 and 12.5can generates toxic gases, vapors or fumes in a quantity sufficient to present a danger to human

health or the environment.

It is capable of detonation or explosive reaction if it is subjected to a strong initiating source or i fheated under confinement, or a reaction at standard temperature and pressure.

- Examples of reactive waste: Sodium metal, potassium metal, lithium metal,concentrated sulfuric acid, picric acid, trinitrobenzene, metal azides, amides,

benzoyl peroxide.

Toxicity
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Toxic waste is a waste material that can cause death, injury or birth defects to livingcreatures. It spreads quite easily and can contaminate lakes and rivers and atmosphere.

The term is often used interchangeably with hazardous waste, or discarded material thatcan pose a long-term risk to health or environment.

Hazardous wastes are poisonous byproducts of manufacturing, farming, city septic systems,construction, automotive garages, laboratories, hospitals, and other industries. The waste

may be liquid, solid, or sludge and contain chemicals, heavy metals, radiation, dangerous

pathogens, or other toxins. When toxic wastes are land disposed, contaminated liquid may leach from the waste and

pollute ground water.

Toxicity is defined through a laboratory procedure called the Toxicity Characteristic LeachingProcedure (TCLP). The TCLP helps identify wastes likely to leach concentrations of

contaminants that may be harmful to human health or the environment.

Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure (TCLP)

Used to determine if a waste has toxicity characteristics in amounts that meet or exceedregulatory limits causing it to be regulated as hazardous waste.

The TCLP was designed to predict whether a waste is likely to leach chemicals intogroundwater.

It simulates the conditions a waste might encounter in a typical municipal solid waste landfill.Be aware that it is not necessary to identify every chemical component of the waste in

order to meet the hazardous waste regulations and ensure adequate treatment or disposal.

For example, you may only need to have a TCLP done for metals and volatiles if you knowthat the other constituents are not present in the waste. If you are unsure of the types and

concentrations of hazardous contaminants present in the waste, a cost-effective option to

running a TCLP test is to first run a total waste analysis to demonstrate if a waste exhibits

toxicity characteristics.

Examples of Toxic wastes:

Waste containing the following metals or inorganics above specific limits:antimony, arsenic, barium, beryllium, cadmium, chromium, cobalt,

copper, lead, mercury, molybdenum, nickel, selenium, silver, thallium,

vanadium, zinc, asbestos, fluorides.

Waste containing the following organic constituents above constituent-specific limits: benzene, carbon tetrachloride, chlorobenzene, chloroform,

cresols, 1,2-dichloroethane, methyl ethyl ketone, nitrobenzene, pyridine,

tetrachloroethylene, trichloroethylene, PCBs.

Why must waste be characterized?

Facilities handling wastes under Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) must characterize their wastes:

To determine if the waste is hazardous and therefore regulated under RCRA. To determine if the waste is subject to waste-specific management standards (e.g., governing tanks,

surface impoundments, or containers that are used to treat, store, or dispose of ignitable waste possessing

an average volatile organic (VO) concentration at the point of waste origination of equal to or greater

than 500 parts per million by weight.)

To determine if the waste is prohibited under the land disposal restrictions (LDR) and to ensure that therestricted waste meets the required treatment standards prior to land disposal.

To verify that the waste received by offsite facilities is in fact the same waste describe on the shippingmanifest papers, and the waste has been characterized sufficiently to ensure safe management at a site.

More Examples:

Ignitable waste- items containing alcohol, waste from paint, gasoline, diesel fuel, some degreasers, charcoal lighter

fluid, matches, rags soaked with linseed oil, aluminum dust, and phosphorus, mineral spirits (a petroleum distillate

that is used especially as a paint or varnish thinner)

Corrosive waste- battery acid and radiator boil out tanks, waste from rust remover, acid, or alkaline cleaning fluid,

chlorine bleach cleaners, silver polish, oven cleaners containing sodium hydroxide or Iye,

Reactive waste- explosives and some cyanide bearing wastes, lithium-sulfur batteries,

Toxic waste- paint or ink with metal pigments, plating wastes, photographic fixer, oil spills, tailings from various mining

industries, for example concentrated sulphuric acid is pumped into the ground when mining platinum, spent fuelrods from nuclear reactors.


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The following lists toxic products commonly found in the home.

In the yard: Fungicides Insecticides Pesticides Pool chemicals Weed killers

In the house: Aerosol sprays Asbestos Batteries Cleaners Fire extinguishers Fluorescent lamps Nail polish &

remover Syringes/needles

In the garage: Antifreeze Auto batteries Automatic transmission fluid Brake fluid Engine cleaners Flares

Fuel such as butane, diesel, gasoline, kerosene & lamp oil Oil & filters Power-steering fluid

In the workshop: Glues Paint Paint thinners Photo chemicals Solvents Treated wood Wood finishes

Examples of Household Hazardous Waste

In the Home

Household cleaners can contain chemicals that are toxic, corrosive, and sometimes flammable.

Abrasive cleanser Scouring powder Ammonia-based cleaner Chlorine bleach Bleach-based cleaner Disinfectant Drain opener Glass cleaner Oven cleaner Rug and upholstery cleaner Spot Remover Toilet bowl cleaner Silver polish

Aerosol spray canso air freshenero hair sprayo bug killer

Batteries Medicines Syringes (sharps), in sealed, heavy plastic

or metal containers

Floor polish Furniture polish Mothballs Nail polish and remover Shoe polish

In the Garage

Paint productscan contain chemicals that are toxicand flammable (ignitable).

Enamel or oil-based paint Latex or water-based paint Furniture stripper Paint stripper Rust prevention products Stain Varnish Thinner, solvent, and turpentine Wood preservative

utomotive productscan contain chemicals that are toxic, corrosive, and flammable (ignitable).

Anti-freeze Motor oil Auto and motorcycle batteries Car wax Engine cleaner and degreaser Gasoline and diesel fuel Kerosene Auto paint and primer Transmission fluid


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Brake fluid Power steering fluid

In and Around the Yard

Pesticide and garden productscan contain chemicals that are toxicand sometimes flammable

Chemical fertilizer Fungicide Herbicide and weed killer Insecticide or bug killer Flea collars, sprays, and bombs Rodent poisons Roach and ant killers Snail and slug bait

Pool and hobby productscan contain chemicals that are Toxic, Explosive, and Corrosive.

Artist and model paint Firearm cleaning solvent Photographic chemicals Solvent-based glue Pool chemicals, including disinfectants and PH balancing chemicals

Waste Quantification

Is the act of counting and measuring the quantity of waste in a certain place.Sample waste quantification

Table 1 Composition of Domestic Waste by Socioeconomic Stratum

Composition

Socioeconomic StratumHigh Medium Low

Weight in

grams%

Weight in

grams%

Weight in

grams%

Organic

Food wastes 360,309.43 44.37% 610,688.25 36.64% 310,417.09 46.79%

Garden wastes 170,125.16 20.95% 360,408.88 21.62% 78,248.67 11.79%

Excremento de animal 2,985.77 0.37% 20,479.37 1.23% 6,330.80 0.95%

Wood 7,169.70 0.88% 13,903.66 0.83% 2,294.91 0.35%

Textiles 5,909.41 0.73% 72,878.78 4.37% 69,625.92 10.49%

Paper and Cardboard

Newspaper 63,578.08 7.83% 42,737.21 2.56% 8,454.95 1.27%

Packing material 1,430.33 0.18% 2,861.47 0.17% 1,555.94 0.23%

Magazines 9,287.13 1.14% 14,933.85 0.90% 2,770.26 0.42%

Office paper 6,286.49 0.77% 7,077.26 0.42% 3,004.13 0.45%

Various paper 24,267.61 2.99% 28,429.29 1.71% 11,005.70 1.66%


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Various cardboard 23,812.52 2.93% 67,892.30 4.07% 17,969.98 2.71%

Inorganic

Cellophane paper 13.26 0.00% 87.20 0.01% 7.83 0.00%

Plasticized paper 446.69 0.06% 53.67 0.00% 0.00 0.00%

Paper Waxed 476.06 0.06% 563.35 0.03% 117.15 0.02%

Plastic bags 10,343.65 1.27% 26,155.61 1.57% 10,074.28 1.52%

Various plastics 20,960.13 2.58% 33,030.72 1.98% 13,669.50 2.06%

VariousGlass 6,089.36 0.75% 9,743.13 0.58% 2,193.30 0.33%

Aluminiodiverso 512.47 0.06% 1,016.60 0.06% 216.90 0.03%

Cobre 0.00 0.00% 1.42 0.00% 0.00 0.00%

Metal diverso 5,126.11 0.63% 12,029.93 0.72% 2,992.08 0.45%

Sanitationwastes 64,879.90 7.99% 174,765.49 10.48% 64,309.88 9.69%

Disposable diapers 13,330.96 1.64% 82,271.87 4.94% 34,930.21 5.26%

Polystyrene 11,624.08 1.43% 10,049.78 0.60% 9,984.95 1.50%

PapelAluminio 1,652.55 0.20% 1,594.63 0.10% 821.01 0.12%

ResiduosInertes

Ground 1,380.00 0.17% 59,752.46 3.58% 10,824.10 1.63%

Rocks 0.00 0.00% 13,520.50 0.81% 1,658.60 0.25%

Subtotal 811,996.85 100% 1,666,926.68 100% 663,478.14 100%

Table 2 presents the results of the sub products containers waste composition that is thrown away per

socioeconomic stratum. The plastic container is the most common in the three stratums; the medium and the low

stratum generate the highest amount of containers in this category. In the high stratum, after the plastic the

cardboard have a 14.41%.

Table 2 Composition of the Containers Generated by the Socioeconomic Stratum

Containers

Socio economic stratum

High Medium Low

Weight in

grams%

Weight in

grams%

Weight in

grams%

Cardboard 212,966.55 14.41% 237,207.97 8.36% 56,800.66 4.61%

Paper 8,205.07 0.56% 11,507.15 0.41% 7,918.36 0.64%

Plastic 224,937.77 15.22% 667,758.92 23.53% 405,064.63 32.84%


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Tin 89,321.82 6.04% 252,147.63 8.88% 171,972.04 13.94%

Glass 240.00 0.02% 2,880.00 0.10% 2,306.50 0.19%

Transparent Glass 63,939.69 4.33% 132,438.23 4.67% 171,678.86 13.92%

Green Glass 24,723.44 1.67% 10,060.68 0.35% 115,920.04 9.40%

Amber Glass 19,217.13 1.30% 98,961.85 3.49% 75,973.64 6.16%

Aluminum 21,158.40 1.43% 34,547.87 1.22% 19,306.49 1.57%

Plasticized 14,138.76 0.96% 38,407.75 1.35% 22,042.21 1.79%

Polystyrene 2,021.24 0.14% 993.71 0.04% 2,224.25 0.18%

Tetra pack 9,499.88 0.64% 20,973.80 0.74% 16,996.47 1.38%

Weird container 1,019.68 0.07% 2,640.24 0.09% 3,315.25 0.27%

Other 14,138.76 0.96% 38,407.75 1.35% 22,042.21 1.79%

Subtotal 1,478,111.47 100.00% 2,838,020.38 100% 1,233,419.92 100%

Figure 1 shows graphically show the containers behavior per stratum and per kind of container. This graphic shows

the differences in the consumption of the three stratums.

RECYCLABLE MATERIALS

Recycling is a process using waste materials into new products to prevent waste of potentially useful

materials, reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, reduce energy usage, reduce air pollution

(from incineration) and water pollution (from land filling) by reducing the need for "conventional" waste disposal,

and lower greenhouse gas emissions as compared to plastic production. Recycling is a key component of modern

waste reduction and is the third component of the "Reduce, Reuse, Recycle" waste hierarchy.

In the strictest sense, recycling of a material would produce a fresh supply of the same materialfor

example; used office paper would be converted into new office paper, or used foamed polystyrene into new

polystyrene. However, this is often difficult or too expensive (compared with producing the same product from raw

materials or other sources), so "recycling" of many products or materials involve their reuse in producing differentmaterials (e.g., paperboard) instead. Another form of recycling is the salvage of certain materials from complex

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

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100%

Car dboar d P aper P last ic T in Gl ass T r anspar ent

Glass

Gr een G lass Amber G lass A luminum Plas t i c i zed Polys tyr ene Tet r a pack Wei r d

container

Other

High Medium Low


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products, either due to their intrinsic value (e.g., lead from car batteries, or gold from computer components), or

due to their hazardous nature (e.g., removal and reuse of mercury from various items).

Common Recyclable Materials

Papersit includes Computer Print Out (CPO), Tab cards, newspapers, magazines, etc. Glassesit can be color-separated (amber, green, and/or flint) and mixed color glasses. Plastics

There are 7 types of plastics that are identified by a Society of Plastics Industry (SPI) code numberranging from 1 to 7. These numbers are usually found on the bottom of plastic containers inside a three-

arrow recycling symbol.

SPI 1PET (polyethylene terephthalate)is the most readily recyclable material at this time. Examples: 12 L

soda bottle, liquid cleaners, detergents, etc.

SPI 2 HDPE (high-density polyethylene) is currently recyclable in some areas. Examples: base cups for

some plastic soda bottles, lotion, antifreeze, etc.

SPI 3PVC (polyvinyl chloride)includes bottles for cooking oil, salad dressing, floor polish, mouthwash, and

liquor, as well as blister packs used for batteries and other hardware and toys.SPI 4 LDPE (low-density polyethylene) includes grocery bags, bread bags, trash bags, and a variety of

other film products.

SPI 5 PP (polypropylene) includes a wide variety of packaging such as yogurt containers, shampoobottles, and margarine tubs. Also cereal box liners, rope and strapping, combs, and battery

cases.

SPI 6PS (polystyrene)includes Styrofoam coffee cups, food trays, and clamshell packaging, as well as

some yogurt tubs, clear carry-out containers, and plastic cutlery. Foam applications are

sometimes called EPA, or Expanded Polystyrene. Some recycling of polystyrene is taking place,

but is limited by i t low weight-to-volume ration and its value as a commodity.

SPI 7Others. Can refer to application which use some of the above six resins in combination or to the

collection of the individual resins as mixed plastic (e.g., camera film can include several types of

plastic resins).

Metals it includes aluminum, tin-coated steel and bimetal containers, ferrous and non-ferrous metals.Currently, aluminum is a highly valued material for recycling.

Miscellaneous Recyclables it includes lead-acid batteries and household batteries. According to U.S.Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 96% of the lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are recycled;

and button-cell batteries containing mercury and silver or nickel-cadmium batteries are increasingly

targeted for recycling because of the value of recoverable materials, their small size, and other easy

handling relative to other battery types.

RECOVERY OF RECYCLABLE MATERIALS

FROM SOLID WASTE

There are three main methods that can be used to recover recyclable materials from Municipal Solid

Waste (MSW):

Collection of source-separated recyclable materials by either the generator or the collector, with andwithout subsequent processing

Commingled recyclables collection with processing at centralized materials recovery facilities (MRFs) Mixed MSW collection with processing for recovery of the recyclable materials from the waste stream at

mixed-waste processing or front-end processing facilities

Collection of Source-Separated Materials

Source-separated recyclable materials are placed in three separate containers (one for paper, one for

glass, and one for cans and plastics), cardboard is bundled for collection with recyclable materials, residual non-

recyclable wastes are placed in separate containers, and yard wastes are placed in the street for collection with

specialized collection equipment.


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Collection of Commingled Recyclable Materials

The generator only needs to separate recyclable materials from non-recyclables. Newspapers are often

kept separate from the rest of the commingled recyclables to prevent contamination and to improve collection

vehicle efficiency.

The recyclable materials are transported to an MRF where they are segregated into each recyclable

component (glass, metal cans, plastic bottles, etc). Processing operations at MRFs can vary from facilities with

relatively low mechanization, depending primarily on the manual sorting of waste materials, to highly mechanizedautomated sorting processes.

Collection of Mixed MSW

In the third approach to recycling, there is no segregation of recyclables from other waste materials. Mixed

wastes (including recyclables) are set out at curbside, as would be done for landfills or incineration. One collection

vehicle is required for collection of the mixed wastenormally, the familiar packer truck. The mixed waste is then

transported to a central processing facility, which employs a high degree of mechanization, including separation

equipment such as shredders, trommels, magnets, and air classifiers to recover the recyclables. Mixed-waste

processing of recyclables is also known as front-endprocessing orrefuse-derived fuel (RDF) processing of MSW.

Solid Waste Storage and Situ Handling

Storage is the holding of waste for a temporary period of time prior to the waste being treated, disposed,

or stored elsewhere.

Storage for the Hazardous Waste:

Hazardous waste is commonly stored prior to treatment or disposal, and must be stored in containers, tanks,

containment buildings, drip pads, waste piles, or surface impoundments that comply with the RCRA regulations

ContainersA hazardous waste container is any portable device in which a hazardous waste is stored,transported, treated, disposed, or otherwise handled. The most common hazardous waste container is

the 55-gallon drum. Other examples of containers are tanker trucks, railroad cars, buckets, bags, and

even test tubes.

TanksTanks are stationary devices constructed of non-earthen materials used to store or treat hazardous

waste. Tanks can be open-topped or completely enclosed and are constructed of a wide variety of

materials including steel, plastic, fiberglass, and concrete.

Drip PadsA drip pad is a wood drying structure used by the pressure-treated wood industry to collectexcess wood preservative drippage. Drip pads are constructed of non-earthen materials with a curbed,

free-draining base that is designed to convey wood preservative drippage to a collection system for

proper management.

Containment BuildingsContainment buildings are completely enclosed, self-supporting structures (i.e.,they have four walls, a roof, and a floor) used to store or treat non-containerized hazardous waste.

Waste PilesA waste pile is an open, uncontained pile used for treating or storing waste. Hazardous wastewaste piles must be placed on top of a double liner system to ensure leachate from the waste does not

contaminate surface or ground water supplies.

Surface Impoundments A surface impoundment is a natural topographical depression, man-madeexcavation, or diked area such as a holding pond, storage pit, or settling lagoon. Surface impoundmentsare formed primarily of earthen materials and are lined with synthetic plastic liners to prevent liquids from

escaping.

Storage for the Municipal Waste:

Waste is stored at different stages of the waste management chain:

i) Waste is stored at points of generation before collection. Receptacles at points of generation are intended for the

storage of waste between collection days. Aspects to take into account in the choice of receptacle are: size, cost,

availability, durability, type of waste and ease of handling by waste generators and waste collectors. Waste storage

systems must allow for separation at source. The type and size of receptacles will determine the most appropriate

means of transport. The choice of receptacle should also be mindful of the potential impacts at the landfill e.g.

adding plastic to landfill.


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WHY PERFORM LCAs? (THE GOAL AND PURPOSE)

LCAs might be conducted by an industry sector to enable it to identify areas where improvements can be

made, in environmental terms. Alternatively the LCA may be intended to provide environmental data for the public

or for government. In recent years, a number of major companies have cited LCAs in their marketing and

advertising, to support claims that their products are environmentally friendly or even environmentally superior to

those of their rivals. Many of these claims have been successfully challenged by environmental groups.

All products have some impact on the environment. Since some products use more resources, cause more

pollution or generate more waste than others, the aim is to identify those which are most harmful.

Even for those products whose environmental burdens are relatively low, the LCA should help to identify

those stages in production processes and in use which cause or have the potential to cause pollution, and those

which have a heavy material or energy demand.

Breaking down the manufacturing process into such fine detail can also be an aid to identifying the use of

scarce resources, showing where a more sustainable product could be substituted.

The goal of LCA is to compare the full range of environmental effects assignable to products and services

in order to improve processes, support policy and provide a sound basis for informed decisions.

Two types of LCA:

Attributional LCA. It seeks to establish the burdens associated with the production and use of a

product, or with a specific service or process, at a point in.

Consequential LCA.It seeks to identify the environmental consequences of a decision or a

proposed change in a system under study, which means that market and economic implications of a

decision may have to be taken into account.

MAIN PHASES

GOAL AND SCOPE

LCA starts with an explicit statement of the goal and scope of the study, which sets out the

context of the study and explains how and to whom the results are to be communicated. This is a key step

and the ISO standards require that the goal and scope of an LCA be clearly defined and consistent with

the intended application. The goal and scope document therefore includes technical details that guide

subsequent work:

1. the functional unit, an important basis that enables alternative goods, or services, to be

compared and analysed, defines what precisely is being studied and quantifies the service delivered by

the product system, providing a reference to which the inputs and outputs can be related.

2. the system boundaries;

3. any assumptions and limitations;

4. the allocation methods used to partition the environmental load of a process when several

products or functions share the same process; and

5. the impact categories chosen.LIFE CYCLE INVENTORY

It is an analysis involves creating an inventory of flows from and to nature for a product system.

Inventory flows include inputs of water, energy, and raw materials, and releases to air, land, and water. To

develop the inventory, a flow model of the technical system is constructed using data on inputs and

outputs. The flow model is typically illustrated with a flow chart that includes the activities that are going to

be assessed in the relevant supply chain and gives a clear picture of the technical system boundaries. The

input and output data needed for the construction of the model are collected for all activities within the

system boundary, including from the supply chain.

The results of the inventory is an LCI which provides information about all inputs and outputs in the

form of elementary flow to and from the environment from all the unit processes involved in the study.


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For an LCI, the technosphere products (supply chain products) are those that have been

produced by man and unfortunately those completing a questionnaire about a process which uses man-

made product as a means to an end will be able to specify how much of a given input they use. Typically,

they will not have access to data concerning inputs and outputs for previous production processes of the

product. The entity undertaking the LCA must then turn to secondary sources if it does not already have

that data from its own previous studies. National databases or data sets that come with LCA-practitioner

tools, or that can be readily accessed, are the usual sources for that information. Care must then be taken

to ensure that the secondary data source properly reflects regional or national conditions.

LIFE CYCLE IMPACT ASSESSMENT

It aimed at evaluating the significance of potential environmental impacts based on the LCI flow

results. Classical life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) consists of the following mandatory elements:

1. selection of impact categories, category indicators, and characterization models;

2. the classification stage, where the inventory parameters are sorted and assigned to specific

impact categories; and

3. impact measurement, where the categorized LCI flows are characterized, using one of many

possible LCIA methodologies, into common equivalence units that are then summed to provide an overall

impact category total.

In addition to the above mandatory LCIA steps, other optional LCIA elements normalization and

groupingmay be conducted depending on the goal and scope of the LCA study. In normalization, the

results of the impact categories from the study are usually compared with the total impacts in the region of

interest, the U.S. for example. Grouping consists of sorting and possibly ranking the impact categories.

During weighting, the different environmental impacts are weighted relative to each other so that they

can then be summed to get a single number for the total environmental impact.

INTERPRETATION

It is a systematic technique to identify, quantify, check, and evaluate information from the results

of the life cycle inventory and/or the life cycle impact assessment. The results from the inventory analysis

and impact assessment are summarized during the interpretation phase. The outcome of the interpretation

phase is a set of conclusions and recommendations for the study. According to ISO 14040:2006, the

interpretation should include:

1. identification of significant issues based on the results of the LCI and LCIA phases of an LCA;

2. evaluation of the study considering completeness, sensitivity and consistency checks; and

3. conclusions, limitations and recommendations.

A key purpose of performing interpretation is to determine the level of confidence in the final

results and communicate them in a fair, complete, and accurate manner. Interpreting the results of an

LCA starts with understanding the accuracy of the results, and ensuring they meet the goal of the study.

This is accomplished by identifying the data elements that contribute significantly to each impactcategory, evaluating the sensitivity of these significant data elements, assessing the completeness and

consistency of the study, and drawing conclusions and recommendations based on a clear understanding

of how the LCA was conducted and the results were developed.

VARIANTS

Cradle-to-grave. It is the full Life Cycle Assessment from resource extraction (cradle)to use phase and

disposal phase (grave). For example, trees produce paper, which can be recycled into low-energy production

cellulose (fiberised paper) insulation, then used as an energy-saving device in the ceiling of a home for 40 years,

saving 2,000 times the fossil-fuel energy used in its production. After 40 years the cellulose fibers are replaced and

the old fibers are disposed of, possibly incinerated. All inputs and outputs are considered for all the phases of the life

cycle.


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Cradle-to-gate. It is an assessment of a partial product life cycle from resource extraction (cradle) to the

factory gate (before it is transported to the consumer). The use phase and disposal phase of the product are

omitted in this case. It is sometimes the basis for environmental product declarations (EPD) termed business-to-

business EDPs. Using this in LCI, this allows the LCA to collect all of the impacts leading up to resources being

purchased by the facility. They can then add the steps involved in their transport to plant and manufacture process

to more easily produce their own cradle-to-gate values for their products.

Cradle-to-cradle or open loop production. It is a specific kind of cradle-to-grave assessment, where the

end-of-life disposal step for the product is a recycling process. It is a method used to minimize the environmental

impact of products by employing sustainable production, operation, and disposal practices and aims to

incorporate social responsibility into product development. From the recycling process originate new, identical

products (asphalt pavement from discarded asphalt pavement, glass bottles from collected glass bottles) or

different products (glass wool insulation from collected glass bottles).

Gate-to-gate. It is a partial LCA looking at only one value-added process in the entire production chain.

Gate-to-gate modules may also later be linked in their appropriate production chain to form a complete cradle-to-

gate evaluation.

Well-to-wheel. It is the specific LCA used for transport fuels and vehicles. The analysis is often broken down

into stages entitled well-to-station or well-to-tank, and station-to-wheel or tank-to-wheel or plug-to-wheel. The first

stage, which incorporates the feedstock or fuel production and processing and fuel delivery or energy transmission,

and is called the upstream stage, while the stage that deals with vehicle operation itself is sometimes called the

downstream stage. This analysis is commonly used to assess total energy consumption, or the energy conversion

efficiency and emissions impact of marine vessels, aircraft and motor vehicles, including their carbon footprint, and

the fuels used in each of these transport modes.

Economic inputoutput life cycle assessment. It involves use of aggregate sector-level data on how much

environmental impact can be attributed to each sector of the economy and how much each sector purchases

from other sectors. Such analysis can account for long chains (for example, building an automobile requires energy,

but producing energy requires vehicles, and building those vehicles requires energy, etc.) which somewhat

alleviates the scoping problem of process LCA; however, EIOLCA relies on sector-level averages that may or may

not be representative of the specific subset of the sector relevant to a particular product and therefore is not

suitable for evaluating the environmental impacts of products. Additionally the translation of economic quantities

into environmental impacts is not validated.

Ecologically based LCA.While a conventional LCA uses many of the same approaches and strategies as

an Eco-LCA, the latter considers a much broader range of ecological impacts. It was designed to provide a guide

to wise management of human activities by understanding the direct and indirect impacts on ecological resources

and surrounding ecosystems. Eco-LCA is a methodology that quantitatively takes into account regulating and

supporting services during the life cycle of economic goods and products. In this approach services are categorized

in four main groups: supporting, regulating provisioning and cultural services.LIFE CYCLE ENERGY ANALYSIS

Energy production.It is recognized that much energy is lost in the production of energy commodities

themselves, such as nuclear energy, photovoltaic electricity or high-quality petroleum products. Net energy content

is the energy content of the product minus energy input used during extraction and conversion, directly or indirectly.

Energy Cannibalism.It refers to an effect where rapid growth of an entire energy-intensive industry creates

a need for energy that uses (cannibalizes) the energy of existing power plants. Thus during rapid growth the industry

as a whole produces no energy because new energy is used to fuel the embodied energy of future power plants.

Energy recovery.If materials are incinerated during the disposal process, the energy released during

burning can be harnessed and used for electricity production. This provides a low-impact energy source, especially

when compared with coal and natural gas. While incineration produces more greenhouse gas emissions thanlandfilling, the waste plants are well-fitted with filters to minimize this negative impact. A recent study comparing


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energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions from land filling (without energy recovery) against incineration

(with energy recovery) found incineration to be superior in all cases except for when landfill gas is recovered for

electricity production.

Criticism. A criticism of LCEA is that it attempts to eliminate monetary cost analysis, that is replaces the

currency by which economic decisions is made with an energy currency. It has also been argued that energy

efficiency is only one consideration in deciding which alternative process to employ, and that it should not be

elevated to the only criterion for determining environmental acceptability; for example, simple energy analysis doesnot take into account the renewability of energy flows or the toxicity of waste products; however the life cycle

assessment does help companies become more familiar with environmental properties and improve theirenvironmental

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GOD BLESS US ALWAYS