grinblatt titman 95 performance evaluation chapter 19

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R. Jarrow et al., Eds., Handbooks in OR MS, Vol. 9 © 1995 Elsev ier Science B.V. All rights reserved Chapter 9 Performance valuation Mark rinblatt Anderson Graduate School of Management, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095-1481, U.S.A. Sheridan Titman W.E. Carroll School of Management, Boston College, Chestnut Hills', MA 02167, U.S./t. 1 Introduction Trillions of dollars are invested in stocks worldwide by institutional portfolio managers. From a social perspective it is important to know whether these in- vestors as a group add value to the portfolios they manage or whether they merely generate wasteful transaction costs through their active management. At the micro level it is important to know how to select a portfolio manager with the ability to add value to the portfolio he manages. Performance evaluation is a topic in finan- cial economics that seeks to address both of these issues. In particular, it studies whether superior returns can be generated by active managers who are better able to collect and interpret information that helps forecast securities returns. 1 To evaluate whether a manager has generated superior returns we need to adjust his portfolio return for risk. Since the mean returns of securities are positively related to their risk, performance measures are based on techniques that adjust for priced risk. Some performance measures use the diversification of a portfolio as an additional criterion for evaluation. This requires an adjustment for both priced risk and unpriced risk, typified by the performance measure known as Sharpe s ratio [Sharpe, 1966]. Sharpe s ratio is the excess return of the portfolio (above the risk-free return) divided by the standard deviation of the return of the portfolio. Adjusting for performance based on the total risk of a portfolio rather than the priced risk of a portfolio is no longer popular and we think inappropriate. This is I Many investors assert that they make money by arbitraging mispriced derivatives. F or example, they may buy a European call option that is underpriced relative to the Black-Scholes model and short the underlying stock in appropriate amounts so as to achieve a riskless return that exceeds the current riskless rate available in the fixed income markets. This type of performance is based on model failure, rather than asymmetric information. Indeed, in the effectively com ple te markets world of derivatives pricing, no asymmetric information about the mean returns of securities is permitted. Since there is no available performance methodology that addresses the issue of performance based on model failure, we do not discuss the issue here. 581

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  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    R. Jarrow et al., Eds., Hand books in OR MS, Vol. 9

    1995 Elsev ier Science B.V. All rights rese rved

    Chapter 9

    Pe r for manc e va luat ion

    Mark rinblatt

    And erson Graduate Schoo l of Management, University of California, Lo s Angeles, CA

    90095-1481, U.S.A.

    Sheridan Titman

    W.E. Carroll Scho ol o f Managem ent, Bos ton College, Chestnut Hills', M A 02167, U.S./t.

    1 I n tr o d u c t io n

    T r i l l i o n s o f d o l l a r s a r e i n v e s t e d i n s t o c k s w o r l d w i d e b y i n s t i t u t i o n a l p o r t f o l i o

    m a n a g e r s . F r o m a s o c i a l p e r s p e c t i v e it i s i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w w h e t h e r t h e s e i n -

    v e s t o r s as a g r o u p a d d v a l u e t o t h e p o r t f o l io s t h e y m a n a g e o r w h e t h e r t h e y m e r e l y

    g e n e r a t e w a s t e f u l t r a n s a c t i o n c o s t s t h r o u g h t h e i r ac t iv e m a n a g e m e n t . A t t h e m i c r o

    l e ve l i t is i m p o r t a n t t o k n o w h o w t o s e l e c t a p o r t f o l i o m a n a g e r w i t h t h e a b i l it y t o

    a d d v a l u e t o t h e p o r t f o l i o h e m a n a g e s . P e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n i s a to p i c i n f i n an -

    c i al e c o n o m i c s t h a t s e e k s t o a d d r e s s b o t h o f t h e s e i s su e s. I n p a r t i c u l a r , i t s t u d i e s

    w h e t h e r s u p e r i o r r e t u r n s c a n b e g e n e r a t e d b y a c ti v e m a n a g e r s w h o a r e b e t t e r a b l e

    t o c o l l ec t a n d i n t e r p r e t i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t h e l p s f o r e c a s t s e c u r i t i e s r e t u rn s . 1

    T o e v a l u a t e w h e t h e r a m a n a g e r h a s g e n e r a t e d s u p e r i o r r e t u r n s w e n e e d t o a d j u s t

    h is p o r t f o l i o r e t u r n f o r r is k . S i n c e t h e m e a n r e t u r n s o f s e c u ri t i e s a r e p o s i t iv e l y

    r e l a t e d t o t h e i r r is k , p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s a r e b a s e d o n t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a d j u s t fo r

    p r i c e d r is k . S o m e p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s u s e t h e d i v e r s i fi c a t i o n o f a p o r t f o l i o a s

    a n a d d i t i o n a l c r i t e r i o n f or e v a l u a t i o n . T h i s r e q u i r e s a n a d j u s t m e n t f o r b o t h p r i c e d

    r i sk a n d u n p r i c e d r is k , t y p i fi e d b y t h e p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e k n o w n a s S h a r p e s

    r a t i o [ S h a r p e , 1 96 6] . S h a r p e s r a t i o i s t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t f o l i o ( a b o v e t h e

    r i s k - f re e r e t u r n ) d i v i d e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n o f t h e r e t u r n o f th e p o r t f o l i o .

    A d j u s t i n g f o r p e r f o r m a n c e b a s e d o n t h e t o t a l r i sk o f a p o r t f o l i o r a t h e r t h a n t h e

    p r i c e d r i s k o f a p o r t f o l i o i s n o l o n g e r p o p u l a r a n d w e t h i n k i n a p p r o p r i a t e . T h i s i s

    I Many investors asse rt that they make money by arb itrag ing mispriced derivatives. F or example,

    they may buy a European call option that is underpriced relative to the Black-Scholes model and

    short the underlying stock in appropriate amounts so as to achieve a riskless return that exceeds

    the current riskless rate available in the fixed income markets. This type of performance is based

    on model failure, rath er than asymmetric information. Indee d, in the effectively com ple te mark ets

    world of derivatives pricing, no asymmetric information about the mean returns of securities

    is permitted. Since there is no available performance methodology that ad dresses the issue of

    performance b ased on model failure, we do not discuss the issue here.

    581

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    582 M. Grinblatt , S. Titrnan

    b e c a u s e t h e m a n a g e r s w h o s e p e r f o r m a n c e is t y pi ca ll y e v a l u a t e d r a re l y m a n a g e t h e

    e n t i r e s a v in g s o f a n i n v e s to r . I n v e s t o r s in m u t u a l f u n d s , f o r e x a m p l e , t y p ic a ll y h o l d

    a n u m b e r o f fu n d s a n d m a y p e r s o n a ll y m a n a g e a l a rg e p o r t i o n o f th e i r w e a lt h .

    T h e y m a y a l s o h o l d a s u b s t a n t i a l fr a c t i o n o f t h e i r w e a l t h i n t h e h o m e t h e y o w n

    o r t h e h u m a n c a p i t a l th e y p o s s es s . E v e n i f w e a r g u e t h a t f o r s o m e i n d iv i d u a ls ,

    m o s t o f t h e i r w e a l t h i s h e l d i n t h e i r p e n s i o n f u n d , m o s t p e n s i o n f u n d s f a r m o u t

    t h e m a n a g e m e n t o f t h e i r a ss e ts t o a n u m b e r o f d if f e re n t f ir m s. It t h e r e f o r e s e e m s

    m o r e i m p o r t a n t t o f o c us o n t h e m a r g i n a l c o n t r ib u t i o n s o f a m a n a g e d p o r t f o l i o t o

    t h e r i s k a n d e x p e c t e d r e t u r n o f a n i n v e s to r . T h i s n e c e s s a r i ly in v o l v e s a d j u s ti n g f o r

    r is k w i t h a m a r g i n a l r i s k m e a s u r e , l i k e b e t a .

    T h e r e a r e t w o b a s i c c l as s es o f p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s a n a l y z e d i n t h is c h a p t e r .

    A n i n tu i ti v e w a y to t h in k a b o u t b o t h c l a ss es o f p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e s i s t h a t t h e y

    c o m p a r e t h e r e t u r n s o f t h e a c ti v el y m a n a g e d p o r t f o l io t h a t i s b e i n g e v a l u a t e d

    w i t h a p a s s i v e ( i . e . b u y a n d h o l d ) p o r t f o l i o w i t h t h e s a m e l e v e l o f r i s k . T h e f i r s t

    c la s s r e q u i r e s t h e o b s e r v a t i o n o f th e r e t u r n s o f th e e v a l u a t e d p o r t f o l i o a s w e l l a s

    t h e r e t u r n s o f a b e n c h m a r k t h a t c o n s is t s o f o n e o r m o r e p o r t f o l io s a l o n g w i th

    a r is k - f r e e a ss e t . T h e s e c o n d c l a ss u t il iz e s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e c o m p o s i t i o n o f

    t h e e v a l u a t e d p o r t f o l io b u t d o e s n o t n e c e ss a r il y r e q u i r e a b e n c h m a r k p o r t fo l i o (s ) .

    I n m o s t c a s e s t h e f i rs t c la s s o f m e a s u r e s a s s u m e s t h a t s t o c k r e t u r n s a r e n o r m a l l y

    d i s t r ib u t e d . T h i s a s s u m p t i o n i s n o t n e e d e d f o r th e s e c o n d c l as s o f m e a s u r e s .

    H o w e v e r , b o t h c la s se s o f m e a s u r e s r e q u i r e t h a t s t o c k r e t u rn s b e d r a w n f r o m a

    s t a t i o n a r y d i s t ri b u t i o n .

    T h e s t a t i o n a r i t y r e q u i r e m e n t i s c o n s i d e r e d b y s o m e t o b e a s e r i o u s w e a k n e s s

    o f th e p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n l it e ra t u re . G i v e n t h e r e c e n t l i t e r a tu r e o n t h e

    n o n s t a t i o n a r i t y o f e x p e c t e d s t o c k r e t u r n s , a s f o u n d , f o r e x a m p l e , i n F e r s o n [ 19 9 5,

    c h a p t e r 5 i n t h is v o l u m e ] a n d H a w a w i n i K e i m [ 1 99 5 , c h a p t e r 17 i n t h is v o l u m e ] ,

    t h is c o n c e r n s e e m s p a r ti c u l a r ly v a li d . H o w e v e r , t h is a s s u m p t i o n i s n e e d e d b e c a u s e

    i t i s g e n e r a l l y i m p o s s i b l e f o r a n o b s e r v e r t o e m p i r i c a l l y d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n

    t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f i n f o r m e d i n v e s to r s a n d t h e ' p e r f o r m a n c e ' o f u n i n f o r m e d

    i n v e s to r s w h o o p t im a l l y r e s p o n d t o c h a n g e s i n t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e r e t u r n

    g e n e r a t i n g p r o c e s s . I n d e e d , a f a i r ' p h i l o s o p h i c a l ' d is t in c t i o n b e t w e e n a n e c o n o m y

    w i t h i n f o r m e d i n v e s t o rs a n d a n e c o n o m y w i t h c h a n g in g p a r a m e t e r s i s o n e o f

    m a g n i t u d e . I n t h e f o r m e r , o n l y a f e w i n v e s t o r s o b s e r v e t h e n o n s t a t i o n a r i t i e s ,

    w h e r e a s i n t h e l a t t e r , v ir t ua l ly a ll in v e s t o rs o b s e r v e t h e n o n s t a t i o n a r i t i e s ( a n d o n l y

    t h e e v a l u a t o r i s n a i v e ) . A m o r e s o p h i s t i c a t e d e v a l u a t i o n t e c h n i q u e t h a t m o d e l s t h e

    n o n s t a t i o n a r it i e s k n o w n t o u n i n f o r m e d m a r k e t p a r t i c ip a n t s c a n in p r in c i p le a v o i d

    t h is p r o b l e m , b u t m o d e l l i n g w h a t is k n o w n b y ' th e m a r k e t ' i s s p e c u l a t iv e a t b e st .

    2 . M e a s u r e s b a s e d s o le ly o n r e t u r n s

    2 .1 . Tr e y n o r s r at io , J e n s e n s a l p h a , a n d t h e Tr e y n o r - B l a c k a p p r a i s a l r a t io

    A n u m b e r o f m e a s u r e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e a r e b a s e d o n t h e c a p i ta l a s s e t p r ic in g

    m o d e l , a t h e o r y r e l a ti n g e x p e c t e d r e t u r n t o a m e a s u r e o f ri sk k n o w n a s ' b e t a '.

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch. 19. Perform ance Evalua tion 583

    ~ p

    r f + 1 3 p R ~ r f

    J

    Tre yn o r sRat io

    Eva l u a te d 1

    P o r t f ~ , i p h a / ~ e c u r i t ie s M a rk e tL i n e

    P p

    Fig. 1. Th e distinction betw een T reynor s ratio an d Jensen s alpha.

    B e t a is t h e s l o p e c o e f f i c ie n t i n a r e g r e s s i o n o f t h e r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t f o l i o b e i n g

    e v a l u a t e d a g a i n s t th e r e t u r n o f a p ro x y f o r th e m a r k e t p o r t f o l io . T h e r e l a t io n

    b e t w e e n b e t w e e n b e t a a n d e x p e c t e d r e t u r n is g r a p h ic a ll y r e p r e s e n t e d b y t h e

    s e c u r i t i e s m a r k e t l i n e , o b s e r v e d i n F i g u r e 1 ( a n d d i s c u s s e d i n F e r s o n [ 1 9 9 5 ,

    c h a p t e r 5 i n t h i s v o l u m e ] ) . T h e t r u e m e a n r e t u r n s a n d b e t a s ( a s o p p o s e d t o t h e i r

    e s t i m a t e d v a l u e s ) o f a l l s e c u r i t ie s a n d a ll p a s si v e p o r t f o l i o s o f s e c u r i t ie s l ie o n t h is

    l in e if t h e C a p i t a l A s s e t P r i c in g M o d e l ( C A P M ) is t r u e .

    2.1.1. Treynor s ratio

    T r e y n o r s r a t io [ T r e y n o r , 19 6 5 ] w a s t h e f i rs t a c a d e m i c a t t e m p t t o a d j u s t r e t u r n s

    w i t h b e t a s i n o r d e r t o m e a s u r e p e r f o r m a n c e . I t is c o m p u t e d a s

    / ~ p rf

    L

    t h e a v e r a g e r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t f o l i o in e x c e ss o f th e r i s k - f r e e r e t u r n d i v i d e d b y th e

    p o r t f o l i o s b e t a . I t is th u s t h e s l o p e o f a l in e c o n n e c t i n g t h e r i s k - f r e e r e t u r n t o t h e

    e v a l u a t e d p o r t f o l i o in m e a n - b e t a s p a c e, a s il lu s t ra t e d i n F i g u r e 1.

    2.1.2. Jen sen s alpha

    A v a r i a t i o n o f t h e ~ I? ey no r a p p r o a c h , k n o w n a s J e n s e n s a l p h a , is th e a r i t h m e t i c

    d i f fe r e n c e o f th e p o r t f o l i o s r e t u r n f r o m t h e r e t u r n o f a p o r t f o l i o o n t h e s e c u ri ti e s

    m a r k e t l i n e w i t h t h e s a m e b e t a , a s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g u r e 1 . S i n c e a l l s e c u r i t i e s

    a r e e x p e c t e d t o l ie o n t h e s e c u r i ti e s m a r k e t l in e i f t h e C A P M h o l d s, t h e a l p h a s

    o f p a s si v el y m a n a g e d p o r t f o l io s ( w i t h r e tu r n s m e a s u r e d b e f o r e t r a n s a c t i o n c o st s,

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    584 M. Grinblatt S. Titman

    f e es , a n d e x p e n s e s ) , a r e e x p e c t e d t o b e z e r o . A n a c ti v el y m a n a g e d p o r t f o l i o w i t h

    a s i g n i f i c a n t l y p o s i t i v e J e n s e n ' s a l p h a i s t h e r e f o r e i n t e r p r e t e d a s a p o r t f o l i o t h a t

    i s m a n a g e d w i t h s u p e r i o r f o r e c a s t s . W e w i l l l a t e r e x a m i n e t h e c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r

    w h i c h t h i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n i s c o r r e c t .

    J e n s e n ' s a l p h a i s a m o r e c o m m o n l y us e d m e a s u r e o f p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n T r e y n o r ' s

    r a t io . O n e r e a s o n f o r i ts p o p u l a r i t y is t h a t i t i s e a s il y c o m p u t e d b y f i n d in g t h e

    i n t e r c e p t i n t h e r e g r e s s i o n ,

    R p re = l y p - J r - / ~ p k M - r f ) - ~ - 6 p

    (1)

    T h e i n t e r c e p t , O ~p, c o m p u t e d a s

    l Y p =

    Rp - rr

    - f l p k M - r f ) ,

    (2)

    is t h e a v e r a g e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t f o l i o le s s t h e p r o d u c t o f th e p o r t f o l i o ' s b e t a

    a n d t h e a v e r a g e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f t h e m a r k e t p o r t f o l i o . I n tu i ti v e l y , J e n s e n ' s a l p h a

    is th e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e r e t u r n o f t h e e v a l u a t e d p o r t f o l io a n d t h e r e t u r n o f

    t h e p a s s iv e p o r t f o l i o c o n s is ti n g o f b e t a u n i ts o f th e b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o a n d o n e

    m i n u s b e t a u n i t s o f t h e r i s k - f r e e a s s et .

    2.1.3. Ra nk ing o f forecasting abili ty and the Tre ynor -Blac k appraisal ratio

    T r e y n o r ' s ra t i o w a s d e s i g n e d t o r a n k p o r t f o l i o s a n d d o e s n o t d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r

    a p a r t i c u l a r p o r t f o l i o w a s m a n a g e d b y s o m e o n e w i t h s u p e r i o r a b il it ie s . H o w e v e r ,

    i f ' u n i n f o r m e d m a n a g e r s ' h a v e p o r t f o l i o s ( a b s e n t f e e s , e x p e n s e s , a n d t r a n s a c t i o n

    c o s t s ) t h a t p l o t o n t h e s e c u r i t i e s m a r k e t l i n e , a n y m a n a g e r w i t h f o r e c a s t i n g

    a b i li ty is e x p e c t e d t o h a v e a T r e y n o r r a t io ( a b s e n t t h e s e s a m e f r i c ti o n s ) t h a t i s

    s i gn i f i c an t ly i n exces s o f t he s l ope o f t he s ec u r i t i e s m a r k e t l i ne , RM - - r f , w he r e /?M

    is t h e a v e r a g e r e t u r n o f th e p r o x y f o r t h e m a r k e t p o r t fo l i o .

    A m a n a g e r ' s a g g r e s s i v e n e s s i n u s i n g i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l a l t e r t h e e x p e c t e d r e t u r n

    o f a p o r t f o l io . H e n c e a m a n a g e r w i th l ow r is k a v e r si o n a n d g o o d i n f o r m a t i o n m a y

    o u t p e r f o r m a m a n a g e r w i th a h ig h d e g r e e o f r is k a v e rs i o n a n d g r e a t i n f o r m a t i o n .

    M e a s u r e s l ik e T r e y n o r ' s , t h a t i n v o l v e a r a t i o o f r e t u r n t o r is k m i t i g a te t h i s p r o b l e m .

    H o w e v e r , t h e r e is n o a p r io r i r e a s o n t o b e l ie v e th a t t h e b e t a a d j u s t m e n t s u g g e s te d

    b y T r e y n o r is t h e c o r r e c t o n e f o r a c a r d i n a l r a n k i n g o f m a n a g e r i a l i n f o r m a t i o n

    p r e c i s i o n . F o r e x a m p l e , a m a n a g e r w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o f o r e c a s t t h e e p s i l o n i n a

    m a r k e t m o d e l r e g r e ss io n

    3 )

    m i g h t h e d g e o u t t h e m a r k e t r i sk a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a c q u i s i t i o n o f l a r g e p o s i t io n s

    i n t h e s e c u r i t y . T h i s r e q u i r e s s h o r t i n g l i d o l la r s o f t h e m a r k e t p o r t f o l i o f o r e a c h 1

    i n v e s t e d i n t h e i t h s e cu r i ty . I f t h e s e f o r e c a s t s a r e i m p e r f e c t , s o t h a t ~ i c o n d i t i o n e d

    o n t h e m a n a g e r ' s i n f o r m a t i o n s t i l l h a s s o m e v a r i a b i l i t y , a l e s s r i s k a v e r s e m a n a g e r

    wi l l gene r a l l y t ake a l a r ge r pos i t i on i n s ecu r i t y i . I n t h i s c a se , s i m p l e d i v i s i on by

    t h e p o r t f o l i o b e t a w i l l n o t c a p t u r e t h e r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r u n s y s t e m a t i c r i s k o f t h e

    l es s ri s k a v e r s e m a n a g e r .

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch. 19. Performance Evaluation 585

    A m e a s u r e d e r i v ed f r o m J e n s e n ' s a l p h a ca n r a n k m a n a g e r s a c c o r d i n g t o

    i n f o r m a t i o n p r e c i s io n . C o n n o r K o r a c z y k [ 19 8 6] d e s c r i b e a c a s e i n w h i c h th e

    T r e y n o r B l a c k [ 19 7 3] a p p r a i s a l r a t io ,

    O~p

    Sp

    w h i c h is J e n s e n ' s a l p h a d i v i d e d b y t h e s t a n d a r d d e v i a ti o n o f t h e e r r o r t e r m

    i n t h e r e g r e s s i o n u s e d t o o b t a i n a l p h a , p r o p e r l y r a n k s m a n a g e r s a c c o r d i n g t o

    t h e i r f o r e c a s t i n g a b i li ti es . H o w e v e r , t h i s r e s u l t re q u i r e s a n u m b e r o f a s s u m p t i o n s

    b e f o r e i t is v a l id , in c l ud i n g : n o a b il it y to f o r e c a s t t h e m a r k e t , m u l t i v a r i a t e n o r m a l

    r e t u r n s , e x p o n e n t i a l u t i li ty a s t h e c r i te r i o n f o r i n v e s t m e n t f o r a ll m a n a g e r s , a n d t h e

    t r a d a b i l i t y o f a l l a s s e t s f o r a l l m a n a g e r s . T h e s e r e s t r i c t i o n s a p p e a r t o b e s t r i n g e n t

    e n o u g h t o p r e c l u d e t h e u s e f u l n e s s o f t h is r a t io a s a t o o l f o r r a n k i n g

    W h i l e t h e a b i l it y t o r a n k m a n a g e r s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p r e c i s io n o f t h e i r f o r e c a s t -

    i n g a b i l i t y i s a n i d e a l , w e m u s t g e n e r a l l y c o n t e n t o u r s e l v e s w i t h t h e s e p a r a t i o n

    o f p o r t f o l i o m a n a g e r s i n t o t w o c l a ss e s: t h o s e w i t h s u p e r i o r f o r e c a s t i n g a b i li ty a n d

    t h o s e w i t h o u t i t. O n e c a n n o t b e g r e a t l y d i s a p p o i n t e d t h a t r a n k i n g is p r o b a b l y i m -

    p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e o f d if f e r e n c e s i n m a n a g e r i a l ( a n d u l t i m a t e l y c l i en t ) r i s k a v e r si o n .

    H o w e v e r , t h e a b i li ty t o f o r e c a s t s e c u r i t ie s r e t u r n s is r a r e i f o n e l a r g e ly a c c e p t s t h e

    c o m m o n a c a d e m i c v i ew o f t h e e f f ic ie n t m a r k e t s h y p o th e s is . A m e a s u r e o f p e r f o >

    m a n c e t h a t m e r e l y id e n t if i es t h e f e w m a n a g e r s w i t h f o r e c a s t in g a b i li ty w o u l d t h e n

    b e q u i t e u s e f u l .

    2.2. Asset pricing, performance measurement, and Roll s critique

    T h e m e a s u r e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e t h a t w e d is c us s ed i n t h e l as t se c t io n u s e d t h e

    C a p i t a l A s s e t P r i c i n g M o d e l a s t h e t h e o r e t i c a l b a s i s f o r t h e i r c o n s t r u c t i o n . A s a

    r e s u l t , t h e b e n c h m a r k s o r i g i n a l l y u s e d t o c o m p u t e t h e s e m e a s u r e s a r e p r o x i e s f o r

    t h e v a l u e - w e i g h t e d m a r k e t p o r t f o l i o . H o w e v e r , o t h e r b e n c h m a r k s h a v e b e e n u s e d

    t o e s t i m a t e J e n s e n ' s a l p h a , T r e y n o r ' s r a ti o , a n d t h e T r e y n o r - B l a c k r a ti o . O n e c a n

    a ls o u s e a m u l t ip l e p o r t fo l i o b e n c h m a r k w i th J e n s e n ' s a lp h a . T h e s u m m e d p r o d u c t

    o f t h e m u l t i p l e r e g r e s si o n b e t a s a n d t h e a v e r a g e e x ce ss r e tu r n s o f th e b e n c h m a r k

    p o r t f o l i o s is t h e n s u b t r a c t e d f r o m t h e a v e r a g e ex c e ss r e t u r n o f t h e p o r t f o l i o

    b e i n g e v a lu a t e d . T h e a l p h as o b t a i n e d f r o m a m u l ti p le p o r t f o l io b e n c h m a r k a r e

    e q u i v a l e n t t o t h e a l p h a s t h a t w o u l d b e o b t a i n e d f r o m u s i n g th e e x - p o s t e f fi c ie n t

    c o m b i n a t i o n o f th e p o r t f o l i o s in t h e b e n c h m a r k . 2

    T h e c h o i c e o f a b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o i s p r o b a b l y t h e m o s t c o n t r o v e r s i a l i s s u e

    i n p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a ti o n . T h e d e b a t e a b o u t b e n c h m a r k s w a s in i ti a te d b y R o l l

    [ 1 9 7 8 ] w h o n o t e d t h a t d i f f e r e n t b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o s p r o v i d e d i f f e r e n t r i s k a d -

    j u s t m e n t s a n d h e n c e d i f fe r e n t a s s e s sm e n t s o f a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e . H e s h o w e d

    t h a t t w o b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o s l y in g i n s id e t h e m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f f i c ie n t f r o n t i e r

    2 Grinblan Titman [1987] sho w that the m ean-variance efficient combination of a set of

    mu ltiple bench mark s will be itself mea n-variance efficient if and o nly if the Jen sen's alphas derived

    from these m ultiple portfolio benchm arks are all zero.

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    586 M. Gr inb la tt S . T i tm an

    c o u l d r e v e r s e t h e r a n k i n g s o f a g r o u p o f p a s s iv e p o r t f o l i o s . P o r t f o l i o s l y in g a b o v e

    t h e s e c u r i t ie s m a r k e t l i n e w i t h o n e b e n c h m a r k l ie b e lo w t h e s e c u ri ti e s m a r k e t

    l in e w i t h th e o t h e r b e n c h m a r k a n d v i ce v e r sa . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , a b e n c h m a r k

    p o r t f o l i o t h a t is m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t c a n n o t d i s t in g u i sh b e t w e e n p a s si v e p o r t -

    f o l i o s . Pa s s i ve po r t f o l i o s , l i ke a l l s ecu r i t i e s , l i e on t he s ecu r i t i e s m ar ke t l i ne i n

    th i s case .

    T h e r e a s o n f o r t h is is a m a t h e m a t i c a l r e l a t io n . T h e e q u a t i o n o f th e s e c u ri ti e s

    m a r k e t l in e ,

    w h e r e

    r i = r f - - 1 - f l i / ~ E - - r f ) ,

    for a l l i

    c o y ff i , k E

    var ( /~E)

    is m e r e l y t h e ( n e c e s s a ry a n d s u ff ic ie n t) f ir st o r d e r c o n d i t i o n f o r th e m e a n -

    v a r i a n c e e f f i ci e n c y o f th e b e n c h m a r k ( p o r t f o l io E ) u s e d t o c o m p u t e b e t a . B e c a u s e

    o f th is m a t h e m a t i c a l p r o p e r t y o f m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi ci en c y , i t w o u l d s e e m t h a t

    a p r o p e r b e n c h m a r k p o r t fo l i o n e e d s t o b e b o t h m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi ci en t a n d

    m e a n - v a r i a n c e i n e ff ic i e n t a t t h e s a m e t i m e . I t n e e d s t o b e m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t

    s o t h a t t h e p o r t f o l io s o f u n i n f o r m e d m a n a g e r s a n d a ll p as si v e p o r t fo l i o s w i ll

    h a v e J e n s e n ' s a l p h a s o f z e r o . I t n e e d s t o b e m e a n - v a r i a n c e i n e ff ic i e n t f o r th e

    p o r t f o l i o s o f m a n a g e r s w i t h f o r e c a s t i n g a b i l i t y s o t h a t t h e s e p o r t f o l i o s c a n h a v e

    n o n z e r o a l p h a s .

    T h i s w o u l d s e e m t o b e a n i m p o s s ib l e t as k f o r a p o r t f o l i o , b u t f o r t h e f a c t

    t h a t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n s e t s o f m a n a g e r s w i t h f o r e c a s ti n g a b i li ty d i ff e r f r o m t h o s e

    w i t h o u t f o r e c a s t i n g a b i l i t y . T w o m a n a g e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t i n f o r m a t i o n s e t s w o u l d

    n e c e s s a r il y d r a w d i f f e re n t m e a n - s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n d ia g r a m s . I n p a r ti c u l a r, t h e

    m a n a g e r w i t h f o r e c a s t in g a bi li ty w o u l d h a v e m e a n - v a r i a n c e f r o n t ie r s t h a t a r e

    i m p r o v e d b y d y n a m i c p o r t f o l i o s t ra t e gi e s - - s t ra t e g ie s t h a t w e i g h t m o r e h e a v i ly

    t h o s e s e c u r i t i e s t h a t a r e f o r e c a s t e d t o h a v e u n u s u a l l y h i g h r e t u r n s i n a p e r i o d .

    M a n a g e r s l a ck i n g th i s a bi li ty c a n n o t a c h i e v e a b e t t e r m e a n - v a r i a n c e t r a d e o f f b y

    d y n a m i c a l l y c h a n g i n g t h e i r p o r t f o l i o w e i g h t s . H e n c e , t h e i r e f f i c ie n t f r o n t i e r p l o t s

    i n s i d e t h e e f f i c ie n t f r o n t i e r o f i n f o r m e d m a n a g e r s , a s i n F i g u r e 2 . T h i s i n s i g h t

    i m p l ie s t h a t p o r t f o l i o p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a t i o n m a y e s c a p e R o l l' s c r it i q u e i f w e

    u s e a b e n c h m a r k t h a t l i e s o n t h e l i n e c o n n e c t i n g p o i n t s A a n d B i n F i g u r e 2 .

    T h i s b e n c h m a r k is m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t w i t h r e s p e c t t o p a s s iv e p o r t f o li o s b u t

    n o t w i th r e s p e c t t o t h e d y n a m i c p o r t f o l io s c h o s e n b y m a n a g e r s w i t h f o r e c a s t in g

    abi l i ty .

    T h e p e r f o r m a n c e o b t a i n e d w i t h a b e n c h m a r k h a v i n g t h i s p r o p e r t y i s a n a l y z e d

    i n m o d e l s d e v e l o p e d b y M a y e r s R i c e [ 1 97 9 ], D y b v i g R o s s [ 1 9 85 a , b ] , a n d

    G r i n b l a t t T i t m a n [1 9 8 9 b ]. I n t h e s e m o d e l s , i n v e s t o r s w i t h s u p e r i o r i n f o r m a o

    t i o n a b o u t i n d i v i d u a l s e c u r i ti e s r e t u r n s ( i. e . s e l e c ti v i ty i n f o r m a t i o n ) b u t w i t h n o

    i n t b r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e r e t u r n o n t h e b e n c h m a r k ( i . e . t i m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n ) a c h i e v e

    p o s i ti v e a lp h a s i f t h e b e n c h m a r k is m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch 19 Performance Evaluation 587

    Efficient FrQ ntier of

    M ea n Informed Managers

    Return / j . ~ / EfficientF[ontierof

    informedManagers

    Risk free / / / \

    Return A

    Standard Deviation

    of Return

    Fig. 2. Differences betw een the eff icient frontiers of informed and u ninform ed po rtfolio managers.

    a n i n v e s t o r w i t h o u t f o r e c a s t i n g a b i l i ty . F o r i n v e s t o r s w i th t i m i n g i n f o r m a t i o n , t h i s

    r e s u l t d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i ly h o ld . W e w i l l d e f e r d i s c u s s io n o f th i s t i m i n g p r o b l e m

    u n t i l l a t e r .

    A p r a c t i c a l c o m p l i c a t i o n s t il l r e m a i n s . F i g u r e 2 is b a s e d o n t h e e x - a n t e m e a n s

    a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s o f p o r t f o l i o s r a t h e r t h a n t h e i r e s t i m a t e d m e a n s a n d

    s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s . I t su g g e s ts t h a t w e e m p l o y a b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o o n t h e e x -

    a n t e e f f ic i e n t f r o n t i e r , b u t f i n d i n g s u c h a p o r t f o l i o i s n o t a n e a s y t a s k . M o t i v a t e d

    b y t h e C A P M , e a r ly e m p i r ic a l s tu d i es o f m u t u a l f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e m a d e u s e o f

    v a l u e - w e i g h t e d p o r tf o l i o s a s b e n c h m a r k s . T h e s e s t u d i e s w e r e u n d e r t a k e n p r i o r

    t o th e l a t e 1 9 70 s, w h e n a n u m b e r o f C A P M a n o m a l i e s w e r e d i s c o v e r e d . 3 G i v e n

    t h e m o r e r e c e n t e m p i r i c a l e v i d e n c e , th e b e n c h m a r k s u s e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s a p p e a r

    t o b e i n a p p r o p r i a t e f o r s t u d y in g p o r tf o l i o p e r f o r m a n c e , s i n c e t h e y c a n b e g a m e d

    b y m a n a g e r s a w a r e o f C A P M - r e l a t e d a n o m a l i e s , l ik e t h e w e l l - k n o w n f i rm s iz e o r

    d i v i d e n d y i e l d e f fe c t s. I n t h e n e x t s e c t i o n , w e o u t l i n e t h e r e s u l t s f r o m e m p i r i c a l

    s t u di e s o f f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h t e c h n i q u e s t h a t a r e b a s e d o n s e c u r i t i e s m a r k e t

    l in e a n al y si s . W e c a n s e e h o w b e n c h m a r k s h a v e e v o l v e d a s w e a n a l y z e t h e s e s t u d ie s

    i n c h r o n o l o g i c a l o r d e r .

    3 W hile there was evidence in the early 1970s of a b eta-rela ted anomaly, this a nonlaly was

    small for stocks with betas close to 1 (e.g. portfolios with betas from 0.85 to 1.1 de viate d by

    at most 0.5 pe r year from the sec urit ies m arket l ine, which is well within levels of statistical

    tolerance). Since most mutual funds, and certainly the average mutual fund, have betas closc

    to 1 , ear ly empir ical s tudies of mutual fund p er formance fe l t that CA PM proxies w ere a pprop r ia te

    benchmarks.

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    588 34. Gtinblatt S. Titman

    2.3. Empirical studies that employ securi t ies market l ine analysis

    2 .3.1 . S tudies that employ a s ingle port fo l io be nc hm ark

    J e n s e n ' s d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , s u m m a r i z e d i n a r t i c l e s i n t h e Journa l o f F inance

    [ 1 9 6 8 ] a n d t h e

    Journa l o f Bus iness

    [ 19 69 ], w a s o n e o f t h e e a r l i e s t a n d m o s t

    i n fl u e n ti a l s tu d i e s o f m u t u a l f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e s t u d y u s e d J e n s e n ' s a l p h a t o

    e v a l u a t e t h e y e a r l y r e t u r n s o f 1 15 m u t u a l f u n d s o v e r t h e 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 6 4 p e r i o d . T h e

    s a m p l e i n c l u d e d a ll o f th e f u n d s t h a t w e r e f o l l o w e d b y W i e s e n b e r g e r ' s I n ves t m en t

    C o m p a n i e s o v e r th e e n t i r e 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 6 4 p e r io d . T h e b e n c h m a r k u s e d t o e v a l u a te

    t h e s e f u n d s w a s t h e S & P c o m p o s i t e i n d e x w h i c h i s a v a l u e - w e i g h t e d p o r t f o l i o

    ( c o n s i s t i n g o f 5 0 0 s to c k s a f t e r M a r c h 1 , 1 95 7 a n d 9 0 s t o c k s p r i o r t o t h i s d a t e ) .

    J e n s e n c o n c l u d e d t h a t o v e r t h e 1 9 5 5 - 1 96 4 p e r i o d , m u t u a l f u n d s, o n a v e r a g e ,

    a c h i e v e d a ri s k - a d ju s t e d p e r f o r m a n c e o f a b o u t - 0 . 9 % p e r y e a r. 4 W h e n t h e v a r i o u s

    c o m m i s s io n s a n d e x p e n s e s o f t h e f u n d s w e r e a d d e d b a c k t o th e f u n d s ' r e t u rn s ,

    t h e r i s k - a d j u s t e d p e r f o r m a n c e w a s v i rt u a ll y z e r o . T h u s , t h e a v e r a g e r e t u r n s o f t h e

    f u n d s w e r e c o n s i s t e n t w i t h w h a t w o u l d b e e x p e c t e d i n a n e f f i c i e n t m a r k e t . S i m i l a r

    r e s u l ts w e r e f o u n d b y M c D o n a l d [1 97 4] u s i n g t h e e q u a l l y - w e i g h t e d N Y S E i n d e x

    a s hi s b e n c h m a r k .

    F o r a s m a l l e r s a m p l e o f 5 6 f u n d s, J e n s e n a l s o e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r f u n d s t h a t d i d

    r e l a ti v e l y w e l l ( p o o r l y ) f r o m 1 9 4 5 - 1 9 5 4 a l so d i d w e l l ( p o o r l y ) f r o m 1 9 5 5 - 1 9 6 4 .

    T h e c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e f ir s t h a l f r e t u r n s a n d s e c o n d h a l f r e tu r n s w a s 0 .6 4

    i n d ic a t in g t h a t t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f s o m e m u t u a l f u n d s p e rs is ts o v e r t im e . T h i s

    w o u l d b e e v i d e n c e a g a i n s t m a r k e t e f f i ci e nc y i f i t w e r e t h e p o s i t i v e p e r f o r m e r s

    t h a t d i d w e l l p e r s i s t e n t l y . H o w e v e r , t h e e v i d e n c e s u g g e s t s t h a t i t i s p r i m a r i l y

    t h e b a d p e r f o r m e r s t h a t e x h i b i t p e r s i s t e n t p e r f o r m a n c e . T h e s e p e r s i s t e n t l y b a d

    p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s c o u ld h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d b y fu n d s t ha t g e n e r a t e d v e r y

    h i g h c o m m i s s i o n s a n d o t h e r e x p e n s e s . T h e s t u d y f a i l e d t o f i n d e v i d e n c e o f

    p e r s i s t e n t l y p o s i t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e .

    I n a c o m m e n t o n J e n s e n ' s s tu d y , M a i n s [1 97 7] a r g u e d t h a t t h e m u t u a l f u n d

    r e t u r n s u s e d b y J e n s e n w e r e b i a s e d d o w n w a r d s. J e n s e n a s s u m e d t h a t t h e d i v i d en d s

    o f th e f u n d w e r e p a i d o u t a t t h e e n d o f t h e y e a r w h i c h w a s in fa c t n o t t r u e . A s

    a re s u l t, t h e i n t e r e s t i n c o m e o n t h e d i v i d e n d p a y m e n t s w a s i g n o r e d i n J e n s e n ' s

    a n al ys is . T h e w a y in w h ic h J e n s e n a d d e d b a c k e x p e n s e s a n d c o m m i s si o n s p r o d u c e d

    a s i m i la r b i as i n h is e s t i m a t e s o f g ro s s r e t u rn s . M a i n s a l s o q u e s t i o n e d J e n s e n ' s

    e s t i m a t e s o f s y s t e m a t i c ri sk .

    T o re a s s e s s t h e J e n s e n r e s ul ts , M a i n s a n a l y z e d t h e m o n t h l y r e t u r n s o f 70 of t h e

    1 15 f u n d s e x a m i n e d b y J e n s e n o v e r th e s a m e 1 9 5 5 to 1 .9 64 t i m e p e r i o d . T h e u s e

    o f m o n t h l y r e t u r n s , r a t h e r t h a n t h e y e a r ly r e t u r n s u s e d b y J e n s e n , e l i m i n a t e s t h e

    b i a s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e d i v i d e n d s w e r e p a i d a t t h e e n d o f

    t h e y e a r a n d p r o v i d e s s u p e r i o r e s t i m a t e s o f th e b e t a s a n d a l p h a s o f t h e f u n d s .

    4 While some fu nds achieved positive abnorm al returns, it is difficult to ascertain the implications

    of this for the efficient markets hypothesis because of the multiple comparison being ma de. That

    is, even if no superior fund managem ent ability existed, we w ould expect som e funds to achiever

    superior risk-adjusted returns b y chance.

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    Ch 19 Performan ce Evaluation 589

    M a i n s c o n c l u d e d t h a t , o n a v e r a g e , t h e n e t ri s k -a d j u s te d r e t u r n s o f m u t u a l f u n d s

    w e r e a b o u t z e r o . H o w e v e r , a f t e r a d d i n g b a c k e x p e n s e s , t h e i r g r o s s r i s k - a d j u s t e d

    r e t u r n s w e r e a b o u t 1 p e r y e a r . A l t h o u g h t h e st u d y d i d n o t r e p o r t t h e s ta t is ti c al

    s i g n if i c a n c e o f t h a t 1 a b n o r m a l r e t u r n , i t is u n l i k e ly t h a t a 1 r e t u r n si g n if i ca n t ly

    d i f fe r s f r o m z e r o .

    A m o r e r e c e n t a p p l i c a ti o n o f th e s e c u r it ie s m a r k e t l i n e m e t h o d o l o g y w as

    u n d e r t a k e n b y I p p o l i t o [ 1 9 8 9 ] . U s i n g t h e S & P 5 0 0 b e n c h m a r k , I p p o l i t o f o u n d

    s l ig h t ly p o s i t i v e a v e r a g e a lp h a s ( 0 . 8 3 p e r y e a r ) f o r h i s s a m p l e o f m u t u a l f u n d s

    i n a l a t e r p e r i o d ( 1 9 6 5 - 1 9 8 4 ) . I p p o l i t o i n t e r p r e t s h i s f i n d i n g s a s i n d i c a t i n g t h a t

    m u t u a l f u n d s a r e a b l e to u s e t h e i r s u p e r i o r in f o r m a t i o n t o g e n e r a t e a b n o r m a l

    r e t u r n s . H o w e v e r , a s w e d i s cu s s i n t h e n e x t s u b s e c ti o n , s u c h c o n c l u s i o n s a r e h i g h l y

    d e p e n d e n t o n t h e c h o i c e o f b e n c h m a r k p o r t fo l io s .

    2 3 2 S t u d i e s w i t h m u l t i p l e p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s

    M o r e r e c e n t s t u d i e s h a v e e x a m i n e d t h e s e n si ti vi ty o f p e r f o r m a n c e i n f e r e n c e s

    t o t h e c h o i c e o f t h e b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o li o , e x a m i n in g m u l t ip l e a s w e l l as s i n gl e

    p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s . T h e r e a r e a n u m b e r o f a d v a n ta g e s t o u s in g m u l t i p le

    p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s . F i rs t, u n l e s s s to c k r e t u r n s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y o n l y o n e

    c o m m o n f a c t o r , i t i s u n l i k e l y th a t a n a r b i t ra r i ly c h o s e n d i v e r s i f ie d p o r t f o l i o w i ll

    b e m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi ci en t . H o w e v e r , as G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 19 8 7] e m p h a s i z e ,

    i f s e c u r i ti e s r e t u r n s a r e g e n e r a t e d b y a t m o s t k fa c t o r s , t h e n i n t h e a b s e n c e

    o f a r b i t ra g e , a n y k w e l l -d i v e r s if i e d p o r t f o l i o s w i ll s u m t o t h e m e a n - v a r i a n c e

    e f f ic i e n t f r o n t i e r . F o r t h is r e a s o n w e g e n e r a l l y f e e l m o r e c o m f o r t a b l e w i t h m u l t i p l e

    p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s t h a n w i t h s in g le p o r t f o l io b e n c h m a r k s . M o r e o v e r , t h e r e is a n

    a l t e rn a t i v e a s se t p r ic i n g t h e o r y , th e A r b i t r a g e P r i ci n g T h e o r y ( A P T ) , s u m m a r i z e d

    b y C o n n o r & K o r a j c z y k [1 9 95 , c h a p t e r 4 o f t h is v o lu m e ] , t h a t m a k e s u s e o f a

    m u l t i p le p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k a n d w h i c h p r o v id e s g u i d a n c e o n h o w t o s e l e c t a

    m u l t i p le p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k .

    E m p i r i c a l in v e s ti g a ti o n s o f m u t u a l f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h m u l t i p l e p o r t f o l i o

    b e n c h m a r k s c a n b e f o u n d i n p a p e r s b y L e h m a n n & M o d e s t [ 1 98 7 ], G r i n b l a t t &

    T i t m a n [ 1 9 8 9 a , 1 9 9 4] , C o n n o r & K o r a j c z y k [1 99 1], a n d E l t o n , G r u b e r , D a s &

    H l a v k a [1 99 3]. T h e s t u d y b y L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t w a s t h e f ir st t o a d a p t t h e

    A P T t o p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u at io n . T h e b e n c h m a r k s c o n s i d e r e d b y L e h m a n n a n d

    M o d e s t i n c lu d e d t h e C R S P v a l u e- w e i g h te d in d e x o f a ll N Y S E a n d A M E X l is te d

    s to c k s ( V W ) , t h e C R S P e q u a l l y -w e i g h t e d i n d e x o f a ll N Y S E a n d A M E X l is te d

    s t o ck s ( E W ) , a n d 5 , 10 , a n d 1 5 p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s f o r m e d u s i n g a v a r i e t y

    o f f a c t o r a n a ly s i s m e t h o d s . O v e r t h e 1 96 8 to 1 9 8 2 t i m e p e r i o d t h e y f o u n d t h a t

    b e n c h m a r k s f o r m e d w i t h t h e v a ri o u s f a c t o r a n al ys is m e t h o d s p r o d u c e d s i m i la r

    p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s. H o w e v e r , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s w i t h t h e E W a n d V W

    b e n c h m a r k s d i f f e r e d f r o m e a c h o t h e r a s w e l l a s f r o m t h e n u m b e r s g e n e r a t e d w i th

    t h e f a c t o r a n al ys is b e n c h m a r k s . T h e f a c t o r a n al ys is b e n c h m a r k t h a t t h e y e x a m i n e d

    i n t h e g r e a t e s t d e t a i l g e n e r a t e d v e r y n e g a t iv e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s o n a v e r a g e ,

    a p p r o x im a t e l y - 4 p e r y e a r. T h e E W i n d e x g e n e r a t e d p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s o f

    s im i la r m a g n i t u d e w h i le t h e V W i n d e x g e n e r a t e d p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s t h a t w e r e

    c l o s e t o z e r o o n a v e r a g e .

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    590 M . G r i n b la t t S . T i t m a n

    A l t h o u g h t h e f a c t o r an a ly s is b e n c h m a r k h a s s t ro n g t h e o r e t i c a l m o t i v a t io n , t h e

    e x t r e m e n e g a t i v e a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s i t g e n e r a t e s i n d i ca t e t h a t th e

    b e n c h m a r k m a y n o t b e a pp r o p r ia t e . G i v e n t h a t t h e 4 n e g a ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e

    g r e a t ly e x c e e d s th e l e v e l o f e x p e n s e s a n d c o m m i s s i o n s, t h e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s

    s u g g e s t t h a t t h e f u n d s m u s t , o n a v e r a g e , b e s y s t e m a t i c a l l y s e l e c ti n g b a d s t o ck s ,

    w h i c h d o e s n o t s e e m p l a u s i b l e . L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t p r o v i d e t w o p o s s i b l e

    e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h i s p e r v e r s e f i n d i n g : o n e i s t h a t t h e m u t u a l f u n d s e x h i b i t t i m i n g

    a b il it y , w h i c h b i a s e s t h e b e t a e s t i m a t e s u p w a r d s a n d t h e i n t e r c e p t s d o w n w a r d s

    ( s e e S e c t io n 2 . 4) ; th e s e c o n d is t h a t t h e b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l io s c a n n o t b e c o m b i n e d

    t o f o r m a p o i n t o n t h e m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi ci en t f r o n ti e r.

    L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t ' s e a r li e r w o r k 5 s u g ge s ts t h a t t h e s e c o n d e x p l a n a t i o n i s

    v e r y p l a u s i b le . T h e f a c t o r a n a ly s is b e n c h m a r k , l ik e t h e E W b e n c h m a r k , e x h i b i ts

    a s t r o n g s i z e - r e l a t e d b i a s . I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e s t o c k s o f l a r g e f i rm s e x h i b i t n e g a t i v e

    a l p h a s w h e n e v a l u a t e d b y th i s b e n c h m a r k . S i n c e m u t u a l f u n d s g e n e r a l l y s e l e c t

    l a r g e r t h a n a v e r a g e s t o c k s , i t f o l l o w s t h a t t h e y a r e l i k e l y t o e x h i b i t n e g a t i v e

    p e r f o r m a n c e w h e n m e a s u r e d a g a i ns t t hi s b e n c h m a r k . L e h m a n n & M o d e s t [1 98 7]

    a l s o e x a m i n e d t h e p o s s ib i li ty t h a t t h e n e g a t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e e s t i m a t e s r e s u l t f r o m

    t h e m u t u a l f u n d s t i m i n g th e m a r k e t . T h e y d i d t hi s b y e m p l o y i n g a T r e y n o r &

    M a z u y [ 19 6 6] q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n , b u t f a i le d t o f i nd e v i d e n c e o f p e r v a s i v e ti m i n g

    b e h a v i o r . 6

    C o n n o r & K o r a j c z y k [1 9 91 ], u s in g a fi ve f a c t o r m o d e l , a n a l y z e d t h e s a m e s a m p l e

    o f m u t u a l f u n d s o v e r t h e s a m e t i m e p e r i o d a s d i d L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t . T o d e r iv e

    t h e i r f i ve p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k t h e y f ir s t c o n s t r u c t e d f iv e p o r t f o l io s u s i n g p r i n c i p a l

    c o m p o n e n t s a n a ly s is . F o u r l i n e a r c o m b i n a t i o n s o f t h e s e f i ve p o r t f o l i o s t h a t b e s t

    m i m i c a s et o f f o u r p r e sp e c i f ie d m a c r o e c o n o m i c f a ct o r s a re t h e n f o r m e d t o y i el d

    f o u r n e w f a c t o r p o r t f o l i o s t h a t c o r r e s p o n d t o t h e f o u r m a c r o - f a c t o r s . A f i f t h

    f a c t o r , th e r e s i d u a l o f th e r e g r e s s i o n o f t h e v a l u e - w e i g h t e d i n d e x o n t h e p r e v i o u s l y

    d e s c r i b e d f o u r m a c r o - f a c t o r p o r t f o l io s , w a s a l s o u s e d . ( T h e p e r f o r m a n c e r e s u lt s

    g e n e r a t e d w i th t h is r e s id u a l a r e t h e s a m e a s th o s e t h a t w o u l d h a v e b e e n g e n e r a t e d

    b y i n c lu d i n g t h e v a l u e - w e i g h t e d i n d e x i t s el f a s t h e f i f th f a c t o r. ) B e c a u s e o f t h e

    i n c l u si o n o f t h is f if th fa c t o r , C o n n o r a n d K o r a c z y k d i d n o t f in d th e s a m e e v i d e n c e

    o f n e g a ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e f o u n d b y L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t.

    G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 1 9 8 9 a ] p r o v i d e d f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e t h a t t h e n e g a t i v e a b n o r -

    m a l r e t u r n g e n e r a t e d w i t h L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t ' s f a c t o r a n al ys is b e n c h m a r k is

    t h e r e s u l t o f t h e i n e ff i ci e n cy o f th e b e n c h m a r k . I n a d d i t i o n t o e x a m i n i n g p e r f o r -

    m a n c e w i t h t h e e q u a l l y - w e i g h t e d a n d v a l u e - w e i g h t e d i n d i c e s a n d t h e L e h m a n n

    a n d M o d e s t 1 0 f a c t o r b e n c h m a r k , t h e y d e v e l o p e d a s e c o n d m u l t ip l e p o r t f o l io

    b e n c h m a r k , r e f e r r e d t o a s 'P 8 ' , t h a t i s f o r m e d o n t h e b a s i s o f s e c u ri t ie s c h a r a c te r .-

    5 Lehmann & Mo dest [1989], which developed the factor analysis technique used in L ehlnann &

    M odest [1987], was published later than their mu tual fund study.

    Even if timing ability w ere pervasive, it is unlikely that it wo uld result in neg ative intercepts.

    Under reasonable parameter values, the intercept is likely to be positive for positive timers. It is

    more plausible that the negative intercepts are cau sed by perverse timers. For example, mutual

    funds m igh t choose to be v ery conservative w he n return variances and exp ected returns are

    unusually high,

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    Ch 19 Performance Evaluation 591

    is tic s. T h i s e i g h t p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k c o n s i st e d o f fo u r s i z e - b a s e d p o r t f o l io s , t h r e e

    d i v i d e n d - y i e l d - b a s e d p o r t f o l i o s , a n d t h e l o w e s t p a s t r e t u r n s p o r t f o l i o . T h e r a t i o -

    n a l e f o r f o r m i n g b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o s b a s e d o n s e c u r it ie s c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s is t h a t

    t h e s e c h a r a c t e r is t i c s m a y b e b e t t e r p r o x i e s f o r t h e t r u e f a c t o r s t h a n f a c t o r s f o r m e d

    w i t h s ta t is t ic a l f a c t o r a n al y si s. I n t h e i r s a m p l e p e r i o d , t h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k c o u l d n o t

    b e g a m e d b y s i m p le s tr a te g ie s b a s e d o n w e l l -k n o w n C A P M a n d A P T a n o m a l i es ,

    s u c h a s f i r m s i z e, d i v i d e n d y i e l d , b e t a , s k e w n e s s , i n t e r e s t r a t e s e n s i t i v i t y , o r p a s t

    p e r f o r m a n c e ] I n a d d i t io n , t h e b e n c h m a r k d i d n o t g e n e r a t e s i g n if ic a n tl y d i f f er e n t

    a l p h a s f o r p o r t f o l i o s g r o u p e d b y i n d u s tr y , s

    I n a d d i t i o n t o e x a m i n i n g t h e a c t u a l r e t u rn s o f t h e m u t u a l f u n d s , G r i n b l a t t &

    T i t m a n [ 1 98 9 a ] a n a l y z e d w h a t t h e y c a ll e d ' h y p o t h e t i c a l p o r t f o l i o s ' , f o r m e d f r o m

    t h e q u a r t e r l y h o l d i n g s o f t h e m u t u a l f u n d s. I n c o n t r a s t t o t h e a c t u a l p o r t f o l i o s o f

    t h e f u n d s , t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l p o r t f o l i o s c o n s i s t e d e n t i r e l y o f e q u i t y . S i n c e a m u t u a l

    f u n d m a n a g e r ' s d e c i s i o n s t o a l l o c a t e a s s e t s b e t w e e n c a s h , b o n d s a n d s t o c k s d o

    n o t a f f e c t t h e s e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s , t h e i r b e t a s a r e l ik e l y t o v a r y m u c h l es s

    t h a n t h e b e ta s o f t h e a c tu a l fu n d r e tu r n s. H e n c e , p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e m e n t

    b i a se s a r i s in g b e c a u s e o f t i m i n g t h e m a r k e t a r e s u b s ta n t ia l ly l o w e r w i t h t h e s e

    h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s . I n a d d i t i o n , t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l p o r t f o l i o r e t u r n s i n c l u d e n o

    e x p e ns e s o r t r a n s a c t io n c o st s a n d t hu s s h o u l d g e n e r a t e z e r o p e r f o r m a n c e u n d e r

    t h e n u l l h y p o t h e s i s t h a t f u n d m a n a g e r s h a v e n o s p e ci a l i n f o r m a t i o n .

    T h e G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 19 8 9a ] f in d in g s c o n f i rm e d t h e L e h m a n n a n d M o d e s t

    c o n c l u s io n t h a t b e n c h m a r k c h o i ce d o e s m a t t e r. F o r t h e a c t u a l m u t u a l f u n d r e -

    t u r ns , t h e E W i n d e x a n d t h e f a c t o r an a ly s is b e n c h m a r k g e n e r a t e d v e r y n e g at i v e

    p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s o n av e ra g e . I n c o n tr a st , t h e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s g e n e r -

    a t e d by t h e V W i n de x a n d th e P 8 b e n c h m a r k y i e ld e d p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s t h a t

    w e r e c l o s e t o z e r o o n a v e r a g e . T h e v a r io u s b e n c h m a r k s a l so r a n k e d t h e m u t u a l

    f u n d s d i ff e re n t ly , [ G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n , 1 98 8] . T h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k r a n k e d f u n d s

    v e r y d i f fe r e n tl y t h a n t h e E W i n d e x a n d t h e 1 0 f a c t o r b e n c h m a r k . H o w e v e r , t h e 1 0

    f a c t o r b e n c h m a r k p r o v i d e d p e r f o r m a n c e s c o re s th a t w e r e s i m il ar t o th e E W i n de x

    o n a f u n d b y f u n d b a s i s. T h e c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t [ f r o m G r i n b l a t t

    & T i t m a n , 1 9 9 4 ] w a s 0 . 8 6. 9

    A n e v a l u a t i o n o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s o f t h e p o r t fo l i o s f o r m e d f r o m t h e

    q u a r t e r l y h o l d i n g s r e v e a l e d s l ig h tl y p o s it iv e p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h t h e V W i n d ex

    ( 1 . 9 p e r y e a r ) a n d t h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k ( 1. 1 p e r y e a r ) b u t n e g a t i v e a v e r a g e

    v See Hawaw ini & Keim [1995, chapter 17 of this volume) and De Bondt & Thaler [1995,

    chapter 13 of this volume] for m ore detail.

    s A recent paper by Sharpe [1992] forms benchm arks in a similar man ner. Sha rpe po stulates that

    the 'style' of each m anaged portfolio can be ch aracterized as a linear function of 12 prespecified

    passive portfolios th at represent the various dimension s of investment style. To find the com bination

    of these 12 portfolios that has the same style as the managed portfolio that is being evaluated, he

    regresses the m anaged portfolio 's return on the returns of the 12 style portfolios. T he estimated

    betas from this regression are then used as portfolios weights to construct a passive portfolio with

    the sam e style as the managed portfolio.

    9 This distinction from the Lehmann and Modest results can be explained by differences in the

    sample period.

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    592 M. Gr inb la tt S . T i tm an

    p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h b o t h th e E W i n d ex ( - 3 . 0 p e r y e a r ) a n d th e f a c to r a na ly sis

    b e n c h m a r k ( - 2 . 4 p e r y e a r ) . T h e p o si ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e w a s s ta ti st ic a ll y s ig n if i-

    c a n t w i t h th e V W i n d e x b u t n o t w i th t h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k . T h e n e g a ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e

    w a s s t a t is t ic a l ly s i g n i fi c a n t w i t h t h e f a c t o r a n a l y si s b e n c h m a r k b u t n o t w i t h t h e

    E W i n de x . S i n c e w e c a n r u l e o u t t im i n g a n d e x p e n s e s a s a n e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e

    n e g a t i v e p e r f o r m a n c e n u m b e r s g e n e r a t e d w i th t h e e q u a l ly - w e i g h t e d i n d e x a n d

    t h e f a c t o r a n a l y s i s b e n c h m a r k , w e m u s t c o n c l u d e t h a t t h e s e b e n c h m a r k s a r e n o t

    m e a n - v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t a n d a r e t h u s in a p p r o p r i a t e f o r t h e e v a l u a t i o n o f f u n d

    p e r f o r m a n c e .

    G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n ' s [ 1 98 9 a ] an a l ys i s o f th e a g g r e s s iv e g r o w t h f u n d s i s e s p e -

    c ia l ly u s e f u l f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g t h e s u i t a b il it y o f t h e d i f f e r e n t b e n c h m a r k s . T h e

    h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s o f th e s e f u n d s g e n e r a t e d s ig n i fi ca n t p o s i ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e

    ( 3 . 3 p e r y e a r ) w h e n m e a s u r e d re l a ti v e t o t h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k . H o w e v e r , t h e p e r -

    f o r m a n c e is s u b st a nt iM l y n e g a t i v e ( - 3 . 7 ) w h e n m e a s u r e d r e la t iv e t o th e f a c t o r

    a n a l y si s b e n c h m a r k . T o u n d e r s t a n d t h i s, c o n s i d e r t h e f a c t t h a t a g g r e s s iv e g r o w t h

    f u n d s i n v e s t h e a v i l y in r e l a ti v e l y l a r g e f ir m s w i t h l o w d i v i d e n d y i e ld s . S i n c e t h e

    r e t u r n s o f la r g e f i r m s w i t h l o w d i v i d e n d y i e ld s d o p o o r l y r e l a ti v e t o t h e f a c t o r

    a n a l y s i s b e n c h m a r k ( a s s h o w n i n G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 1 9 8 8 ] ) , m u t u a l f u n d s t h a t

    f o ll o w s u c h a s t ra t e g y w ill a ls o e x h i b it p o o r p e r f o r m a n c e w h e n m e a s u r e d w i th

    r e s p e c t t o t hi s b e n c h m a r k e v e n i f s o m e o f t h e f u n d s r e a l ly d o h a v e s u p e r i o r

    a b il it ie s . H o w e v e r , w h e n t h e s e b i a se s a r e e l i m i n a t e d w i th t h e P 8 b e n c h m a r k , t h e

    h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s o f t h e a g g r e ss iv e g r o w t h f u n d s e x h ib i t p o s i ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e

    o n a v e r a g e .

    T h e p o s i ti v e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s o f t h e a g g re s si v e g ro w t h

    f u n d s d o e s n o t i m p l y t h a t i n v e s to r s c a n r e a li z e a b n o r m a l r e t u r n s b y h o l d i n g s h a re s

    d i r e c tl y i n th e s e f u n d s . T h e a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e a c t u a l f u n d r e t u r n s i s

    c l o se t o z e r o o n a v e r a g e. T h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l

    r e t u r n s a n d t h e a c t u a l r e t u rn s c a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e e x p e n s e s o f t h e f u n d s a n d

    t h e c o s t s o f t r a d in g ( e. g. b r o k e r a g e c o m m i s io n s a n d t h e b i d - a s k s p r e a d ) . T h e

    e s t i m a t e s o f t h e s e c o s t s t h a t a r e d e r i v e d f r o m t h i s d i f f e r e n c e is a b o u t 2 . 5 p e r

    y e a r f o r t h e a v e r a g e m u t u a l f u n d in t h e s a m p l e ( a n d a b o u t 3 f o r t h e a v e r a g e

    a g g r e s s i v e g r o w t h f u n d ) .

    T h e w o r k o f E l t o n , G r u b e r , D a s & H l a v k a [ 1 99 3 ], p u n c t u a t e s t h is e v i d e n c e o n

    t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o li o in d r a w i n g p e r f o r m a n c e e v a l u a ti o n

    c o n c lu s io n s . T h e y p r o p o s e a 3 - i n d e x b e n c h m a r k t h a t i n c l u d es b o n d p o r t f o l io s a s

    w e l l a s s to c k p o r t f o l i o s . S p e c i fi c al ly , t h e i r b e n c h m a r k is c o m p r i s e d o f t h e S & P 5 0 0

    i n d e x , a s m a l l s to c k i n d e x , a n d a b o n d i n d e x . T h e y u s e d t h i s b e n c h m a r k t o r e e v a l -

    u a t e I p p o l i t o 's c o n c l u s io n s a b o u t m u t u a l f u n d s g e n e r a t i n g a b n o r m a l r e tu r n s . T h e y

    f o u n d t h a t w i t h t h e i r b e n c h m a r k , I p p o l i t o ' s s a m p l e o f m u t u a l f u n d s g e n e r a t e d

    i n s i g n i f i c a n t n e g a t i v e a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , a t t r i b u t i n g I p p o l i t o ' s ' p e r f o r m a n c e '

    t o f u n d h o l d i n g s o f n o n - S & P 5 0 0 st o ck s a n d b o n d s .

    T h e i m p o r t a n c e o f t h e c h o i c e o f a b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o is n ic e ly i ll u s tr a t e d

    b y th e c o n t r a d i c t o r y r e su l ts o n a v e r a g e f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e b e t w e e n s i n gl e p o r t f o -

    l io a n d m u l t i p l e p o r t f o l i o b e n c h m a r k s a n d b e t w e e n d i f f e re n t m u l t ip l e p o r t f o l i o

    b e n c h m a r k s . T h e l e ss o n o f R o l l [ 19 78 ] c o u l d n o t b e m o r e c le a r: W h e n e v a l u a ti n g

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch. 19. Perform ance Evalua tion 593

    t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f a f u n d m a n a g e r , t h e b e n c h m a r k m u s t b e e x - a n t e e f f ic i e n t w i t h

    r e s p e c t t o t h e m e a n - v a r i a n c e s e t g e n e r a t e d b y t h e p as s iv e i n v e s t m e n t s t r a te g i e s

    t h a t t h e f u n d m a n a g e r c o n s i d e r s fe a s ib l e.

    2.3 .3. I s there d i ff erent iaI pe r for m an ce?

    T h e p o s i ti v e a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e ti c a l m u t u a l f u n d r e t u r n s

    i n t h e G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 1 9 89 a ] s t u d y s u g g e s ts th a t a t l e a s t s o m e f u n d s h a v e

    s u p e r i o r s e l e c t i o n a b i l i t y . G i v e n t h i s , i t i s n a t u r a l t o a s k w h e t h e r s o m e f u n d s

    r e a l iz e b e t t e r p e r f o r m a n c e t h a n d o o t h e r f u n ds . W e w il l d is cu s s t w o w a y s to t e s t

    t h i s p r o p o s i t i o n : T h e m o s t g e n e r a l t e s t i s t o s i m u l t a n e o u s l y e s t i m a t e t h e m a r k e t

    m o d e l r e g r e ss i o n s f o r e a c h o f t h e m u t u a l f u n d s a n d t o j o i n tl y te s t t h e r e s t r i c t io n

    t h a t t h e i r J e n s e n ' s a l p h a s a r e e q u a l t o e a c h o t h e r . T h i s t e s t d o e s n o t q u a n t i f y

    d i f f e r e n t i a l p e r f o r m a n c e . I t m e r e l y r e j e c t s o r f a i l s t o r e j e c t t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t

    a l l f u n d s h a v e t h e s a m e r i s k - a d j u s t e d r e t u r n s . A s e c o n d t e s t , w h i c h a n a l y z e s

    w h e t h e r t h e p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e o f a m u t u a l f u n d i s a g o o d i n d i c a t o r o f its f u t u r e

    p e r f o r m a n c e , h a s t h e a b il it y t o q u a n t i f y d i ff e r e n c es i n p e r f o r m a n c e .

    W i t h i n t h e f ir s t c la s s o f te s t s, G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 1 98 9 a ] e s t i m a t e d a s e r ie s

    o f j o i n t F - t e s t s t o d e t e r m i n e w h e t h e r m u t u a l fu n d s w i t h th e s a m e i n v e s t m e n t

    o b j e c ti v e s al l g e n e r a t e t h e s a m e p e r f o r m a n c e , l T h e s e t e st s r e v e a l e d e v i d e n c e

    o f d i f fe r e n t ia l p e r f o r m a n c e f o r t h e a c t u a l a s w e ll as t h e h y p o t h e t i c a l r e t u r n s o f

    t h e a g g r e s s i v e g r o w t h a n d g r o w t h f u n d s . T h e r e w a s n o e v i d e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i a l

    p e r f o r m a n c e a m o n g t h e f u n d s w i th o t h e r i n v e s t m e n t o b j e ct iv e s .

    T e s ts o f t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f m u t u a l f u n d p e r f o r m a n c e m a y b e s o m e w h a t l e ss

    g e n e r a l, b u t th e y m o r e d i r e ct ly a d d r e ss t h e q u e s t i o n t h a t is o f m o s t i n t e r e s t t o

    m u t u a l f u n d i n v e st o rs . Is t h e p a s t p e r f o r m a n c e o f a f u n d a g o o d i n d i c a t o r o f i ts

    f u t u re p e r f o r m a n c e ?

    D i r e c t t e s ts o f t h is p r o p o s i t i o n a r e f o u n d i n G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 19 9 2] a n d

    H e n d r i c k s , P a t e l & Z e c k h a u s e r [1 99 3]. G r i n b l a tt a n d T i t m a n e x a m i n e d t h e a c t u a l

    r e t u r n s o f a s a m p l e o f 27 9 f u n d s o v e r t h e 1 97 5 t o 1 9 8 4 t i m e p e r i o d u s i n g t h e i r P 8

    b e n c h m a r k . T h e y d iv i d e d t h e s a m p l e i n t o 1 9 7 5 - 1 9 7 9 a n d 1 9 8 0 - 1 9 8 4 s u b p e r i o d s

    a n d e x a m i n e d w h e t h e r b e t t e r t h a n a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e i n t h e e a r l i e r h a l f i s

    i n d ic a t iv e o f b e t t e r t h a n a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e i n th e l a t e r h a lf . T h e i r r e s u lt s

    p r o v i d e w e a k s u p p o r t f o r t h e h y p o t h e s is t h at b e t t e r t h a n a v e r a g e p e r f o r m a n c e

    p e r si st s o v e r ti m e . F o r e x a m p l e , th e s u b s a m p l e o f fu n d s t h a t a c h i e v e d p e r f o r m a n c e

    i n t h e t o p d e c i l e i n t h e f i r s t s u b p e r i o d d i d n o t r e a l i z e a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e o n

    a v e r a g e in t h e s e c o n d s u b p e r i o d ( a l th o u g h t h e p e r f o r m a n c e w o u l d b e p o s i t iv e if

    e x p e n s e s w e r e a d d e d t o t h e r e t u r n s ) . I n c o n t r a s t , f u n d s t h a t p e r f o r m e d i n t h e

    b o t t o m d e c i l e i n t h e f i r s t s u b p e r i o d r e a l i z e d a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e o f - 3 . 6

    p e r y e a r . T h e d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n t h e p e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e s e g r o u p s o f f u n d s is

    s t a t is t i c a ll y s i gn i f i c an t a t t he 5 l eve l.

    T h e H e n d r i c k s , P a t e l , a n d Z e c k h a u s e r s t u d y , w h i c h l o o k s a t n o - l o a d g r o w t h -

    o r i e n t e d m u t u a l f u n d s f r o m 1 9 7 4 - 1 9 8 8 , p r o v i d e s st r o n g e r e v i d e n c e t h a t f u n d s

    m Because their sample included 157 mutual funds but only 120 monthly observations they did

    not have enough degrees of freedom to jointly test the equality of all of the intercepts.

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    5 9 4

    M . G rinblatt, S. Titrnan

    t h a t d o w e l l i n t h e p a s t d o w e l l i n t h e f u t u r e . I n t h e i r s t u d y , f u n d s i n t h e t o p

    o c t i l e o f p a s t p e r f o r m e r s o v e r t h e p a s t y e a r ( a s m e a s u r e d w i t h r a w r e t u r n s ) ,

    o u t p e r f o r m e d t h e l o w e s t o c t il e p a s t p e r f o r m e r s i n t h e f o l lo w i n g y e a r, b y 1 0 - 1 6

    p e r y e a r ( as m e a s u r e d b y r i s k - a d j u s t e d r e t u r n s , w i t h th e v a r i a t i o n d e p e n d i n g o n

    t h e b e n c h m a r k ) . T h e i r a n a l y s is s u g g e s ts t h a t t h e b e s t w a y to p r o f i t f r o m t h is

    p e r s i s t e n c e i s t o f o c u s o n t h e r a w r e t u r n s o f f u n d s i n th e p r i o r f o u r q u a r t e r s . 11

    I n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t p e r f o r m a n c e b e y o n d t h e p r e v i o u s f o u r q u a r t e r s d o e s n o t s e e m

    t o p r e d i c t f u t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e . I n c o n t r a s t t o G r i n b l a t t & T i t m a n [ 19 9 2] , t h e y f i nd

    p r o f i t s f r o m b u y i n g t h e w i n n e r s a s w e l l a s f r o m s e l li n g th e l o s e rs . W h i l e t h e p r o f i ts

    f r o m b u y i n g t h e p a s t p e r f o r m e r s i n t h e t o p o c t i l e a r e l a r g e f o r s o m e b e n c h m a r k s ,

    t h e y g e n e r a l l y a r e n o t s t a t is t i c a ll y s i g n i f i c an t . 12

    2. 4 . Timing, se lec t iv ity and b iases in Jensen s a lpha

    W e n o w a n a l y z e h o w t i m i n g a n d s e l e c t iv i t y a b i li ty af f e c t p e r f o r m a n c e a n d

    d i s cu s s m e t h o d s t o s e p a r a t e t h e s e t w o t y p e s o f p e r f o r m a n c e a b il it y . T h e d i s t i n c t i o n

    b e t w e e n t i m i n g a n d s e le c t iv i ty is i m p o r t a n t i n th a t i t i s g e n e r a l l y m o r e d i ff i cu l t t o

    e v a l u a t e p e r f o r m a n c e w h e n t h e r e is a n y t i m i n g a b i li ty c o n t r i b u t i n g t o it .

    11 Th e pe r s i s t e nc e o f a bnorm a l p e r fo rm a nc e fo r on l y a bou t fou r qua r t e r s i s no t c ons i s te n t wi t h

    the idea tha t so me fun d m anagers ha ve super ior abil ity. Ab i l i ty should la s t m ore than fo ur quar te rs .

    In add i t ion , fou r qu ar te rs of h i s tor ica l re turns i s not a sufficiently long t ime se r ies tO draw pro per

    s ta t i s ti ca l infe rences a bou t abi li ty , g iven the vola ti l ity of mu tua l fund re turns . H ence , the fun d

    rankings o f Hendricks , Pa te l & Zec khau se r [1993] a re la rge ly due to noise in s tock re turns . Th e i r

    e v i de nc e on pe r s i s t e nc e ma y be r e l a t e d t o r e c e n t e v i de nc e o f pe r s i st e nc e i n i nd i v idua l s toc k r e t u rns

    [e .g . Jegadeesh & Ti tman, 1993] . Funds tha t happen to hold s tocks tha t do we l l , and cont inue to

    hold tho se s tocks , wi l l cont inu e to do w e l l because of the pe rs i s tence in the indiv idua l s tock re turns .

    W hi le Hend ricks , Pa te l & Zeck haus e r [1993] emp loy s imula t ions to conc lude tha t pe rs i s tence in

    s tock re turns i s not dr iv ing the i r hot -hands e ffec t , the i r s imula t ions a re based on randomly he ld

    equa l ly-w eighted por t fo l ios of 100 stocks . Re la t ive to ac tua l fund s t ra tegies over th i s t ime pe r iod ,

    th i s approach may be b iased aga ins t f inding a s tock pe rs i s tence e ffec t .

    12 A recen t pap er by Brown, G oe tzm ann, Ibbotson & Ross [1992] a rgues tha t re sul t s of

    pe rs i s tenc e wi l l app ear spur ious ly in samples l imi ted to surviv ing mu tua l funds . T he i r a rg um ent

    i s tha t funds tha t choose h igh r i sk s t ra tegies and survive in the f i rs t ha l f of the sample pe r iod

    are l ike ly to hav e abov e average re turns . I f these funds cont inu e the i r h igh r i sk s t ra tegy and

    con t inue to survive , they a re a l so l ike ly to achieve above norm al re turns in the se cond ha l f of

    the sample . This b ias in favor of f inding pe rs i s tence i s offse t somewhat by the fac t tha t funds

    which do poo r ly in the f i rst ha l f of the sample a re m ore l ike ly to exi t the samp le in the te s t

    pe r i od (be c a use o f poo r pe r fo rma nc e i n t he t e s t pe r i od ) t ha n t hose funds t ha t d i d we l l i n t he

    f i rs t ha l f . Survivorship b ias of th i s type i s the re fore more severe for the pas t lose rs than for the

    pas t winners , b ias ing our te s t s aga ins t f inding pe rs i s tence . Apparent ly , these two e ffec t s a re e i the r

    unim por tant in prac t ice , or a l te rna tive ly , they cance l each o the r out . Test s of the p e rs i s tence of

    mutua l fund pe rformance on samples tha t a re not subjec t to a smwiva l requi rement [e .g . Grinbla t t

    & Ti tm an, 1993, foo tno te 13] , prov ide evidence tha t is s imi la r to te st s on samples tha t requ i re

    surviva l for the ent i re sample pe r iod . Malkie l ' s [1995] work , however , sugges ts tha t conc lus ions

    a bou t t he u n i mp or t a nc e o f su rv ivo r sh ip ma y be s e ns i ti ve to t he t i me pe r i od s t ud ie d . In pa r t ic u l a r ,

    he f inds tha t the re i s no eviden ce of pe rs i s tence am ong a sample of surviv ing an d no n-surviv ing

    funds in the 1980s (but the re i s pe rs i s tence in the 1970s). Brown & Go e tzm ann [1995] , us ing da ta

    on non-surviv ing funds , s imi la r ly f ind tha t survivorship b ias p lays som e ro le (a lbe i t a mo des t one)

    in the h ot hand s pe rs i s tence f indings.

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch. 19. P erformance Evaluation 595

    W e c a n m o r e f o r m a l l y c la s s if y t h e s e t w o t y p e s o f a b i li t y w i t h a s i m p l e r e g r e s s i o n .

    L e t

    ~ i = e x c e s s r e t u r n o f a s s e t j

    x i = t h e i n v e s t o r s p o r t f o l i o w e i g h t o n a s s e t j , w h i c h i s r a n d o m , s i n c e t h e

    i n v e s t o r m a y a l t e r h i s p o r t f o l i o i n r e s p o n s e t o ( re a l o r i m a g i n e d ) i n f o r m a -

    t i o n .

    /~p t h e s u m m e d p r o d u c t o f F j a n d x j

    = e x c e s s r e t u r n o f t h e i n v e s t o r s p o r t f o l i o o f t h e N r i sk y a s s e t s

    /~E = t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f th e p o r t f o l io o f ri sk y a s s et s t h a t is m e a n - v a r i a n c e

    e f f i c ie n t f r o m t h e p e r s p e c t i v e o f a n u n i n f o r m e d o b s e r v e r .

    A r e g r e s s i o n o f t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f s e c u r i ty i o n t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f a m e a n -

    v a r i a n c e e f fi c ie n t b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o i m p l i e s th a t t h e e x c e ss r e t u r n o f e a c h a s se t

    is

    w h e r e

    c o y h E )

    /3 -

    v a r ( R E )

    a n d , g i v e n t h e e f f i c ie n c y o f t h e b e n c h m a r k , t h e m e a n o f ~j i s z e r o . I t f o l l o w s t h a t

    t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n o f t h e i n v e s t o r s p o r t f o l i o i s

    R p = ~ p R E -~ - ~ :p 5 )

    w h e r e

    N N

    t i p

    = y ~ 2 j f l j

    a n d g p = ~ 2 J ~ )

    . j = l . i = l

    l h k i n g t h e e x p e c t e d v a l u e o f b o t h s id e s o f e q u a t i o n ( 5) y i e ld s

    E ( R p ) = E f i p ) E R E ) + c o v ( t i p , R E ) + g ~ : p ) ( 6 )

    T h e f ir s t t e r m o n t h e r i g h t h a n d s i d e o f e q u a t i o n ( 6 ) is t h e e x p e c t e d e x c e s s r e t u r n

    o f t h e p o r t f o l i o c o n d i t i o n a l o n k n o w i n g t h e p o r t f o l io s t a r g e t r is k le v el . T h e s e c o n d

    t e r m , t h e c o v a r i a n c e b e t w e e n t h e p o r t f o l io b e t a a n d t h e r e tu r n o f t h e b e n c h m a r k ,

    is t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n o f t i m i n g t o t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n . T h e t h i r d t e r m , w h i c h i s t h e

    s u m o f t h e c o v a r i a n c e s b e t w e e n t h e p o r t f o l i o h o l d in g s a n d t h e r e s id u a l s , i s t h e

    c o n t r i b u t i o n o f s e le c t iv i ty to t h e e x c e ss re t u r n . T o t a l a b n o r m a l p e r f o r m a n c e , t h e

    s u m o f t h e l a t t e r t w o t e rm s , c a n b e s h o w n t o b e t h e s u m o f t h e c o v a r i a n c e s

    b e t w e e n t h e p o r t f o l i o w e i g h t s a n d t h e r e t u r n s ,

    N

    cov 7)

    j = l

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    596

    M . G r in b l a t t, S . T i t m a n

    G r i n b l a t t T i t m a n [ 19 8 9b ] h a v e sh o w n t h a t t h is c o v a r i a n c e s h o u l d b e p o s i t iv e f o r

    i n v e s t o r s w i t h t h e a b i l i t y t o f o r e c a s t r e t u r n s . 13

    I t is o f t e n d i f f ic u lt t o p r o p e r l y c a p t u r e p e r f o r m a n c e w i t h J e n s e n ' s a l p h a ,

    T r e y n o r ' s r a t i o , o r t h e T r e y n o r - B l a c k a p p r a i s a l r a t i o if b e t a s c h a n g e . F o r e x -

    a m p l e , i f t h e b e t a o f t h e p o r t f o l i o i n c r e a s e s as t h e f o r e c a s t e d b e n c h m a r k r e t u r n

    i n c r e a se s , t h e s i ng l e p o r t fo l i o b e t a e s t i m a t e d w i t h J e n s e n ' s r e g r e s s i o n w i l l o v e r -

    e s t i m a t e t h e a v e r a g e b e t a , E ( f ip ) . T h e r e s u l t i n g i n t e r c e p t i s t h e n u n d e r e s t i m a t e d

    a n d u n d e r c e r t a i n c o n d i t i o n s c a n b e n e g a t i v e f o r in v e s t o r s w i t h t im i n g i n f o r m a -

    t io n . 14 F i g u r e 3, d r a w n fr o m G r i n b l a t t T i t m a n [ 1 9 8 9b ] , p r o v i d e s a b i n o m i a l

    i l lu s t r a t i o n o f th i s p h e n o m e n o n . P o p u l a r e x a m p l e s i n th e l i t e r a t u r e i l l u s t ra t e th a t

    t h is p h e n o m e n o n c a n a ls o o c c u r fo r c e r t a i n p a r a m e t e r v a lu e s w h e n t h e p o r t f o l io

    b e t a i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f a n o r m a l l y d i s t r i b u t e d t i m i n g s i g n al . 15

    T h e l a r g e s a m p l e v a l u e ( o r p r o b a b i l i ty l im i t ) o f J e n s e n ' s a l p h a c a n b e d e -

    c o m p o s e d t o b e t t e r a n a ly z e t h i s p h e n o m e n o n a n d t o p o i n t o u t th e r e l a t io n

    o f t h is p e r f o r m a n c e m e a s u r e t o t i m i n g a n d s e le c ti v it y . G r i n b l a t t T i t m a n

    [ 19 8 9b ] s h o w e d t h a t J e n s e n ' s a l p h a c a n b e d e c o m p o s e d i n t o t h e s u m o f t h r e e

    t e r m s :

    [ 1 ~ f i p t - b p ) l R E

    o ~ = p l i m T t = l

    + p l i m

    ~ _ , f ip t [ ~ E t - R ,E )

    ( 8 )

    t = l

    + p l i m ~ pt ,

    w h e r e

    b p = t h e p r o b a b i l i t y l i m i t o f t h e l e a s t s q u a r e s s l o p e c o e f f i c i e n t f r o m t h e t i m e -

    s e r ie s r e g r e s s i o n o f ex c e ss r e t u r n s o f th e e v a l u a t e d p o r t f o l i o a g a i n s t th e

    e x c e ss r e t u r n s o f t h e e f f ic i en t b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o a n d

    /~E = t h e p r o b a b i l i t y l i m i t o f t h e s a m p l e m e a n o f t h e e x c e s s r e t u r n s o f t h e

    b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o .

    13 Vcrrecchia [1980 ] devised an example where betas w ere pro perly measured and wh ere

    perfo rma nce was negative for an investor with t iming information. G rinbla tt Titm an [1989b]

    showed that this was due to a wealth effect . Investors with posit ive information abou t the m arke t

    reduced thei r betas because thei r informat ion m ade them weal th ier . The par t icular u t i l ity funct ion

    used by Verrecchia, qua dratic uti l ity, is one w here in crease d we alth m ake th e investor's r isk aversion

    arbitra ri ly large at larg e wealth levels. Hence, this was an r isky assets were Giffen goo ds-w ealth

    effects dom ina ted su bsti tution effects.

    14 See Jense n [1972], Dybvig Ross [ t985@ A dm ati Ross [1985], Ad ma ti , Bhattacharya,

    Pfleide rer Ross [1986], and Gr inbla tt Titm an [1989b] for oth er conditions that lead to this

    result.

    15 See, for example, G ran t [1977], Dybvig Ross [1985@ and Grinb latt Titm an [1989b].

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    Ch. 19. PerJbrmance Evaluation

    597

    Excess Return

    of Manage Portfolio

    High Beta Portfolio Choice

    A z

    /7

    Low Beta Portfolio Choice

    Excess Return of

    Hl~h Efficient Portfolio

    Low

    Return Retuln

    / rL r H

    /

    /

    alpha

    C

    Fig. 3 . An example of a nega t ive Jensen measure for a marke t t imer . The two sol id l incs p lo t

    the excess re turn of a managed por t fo l io of a r i sk-free inves tment and an inves tment in the r i sky

    eff ic ient por t fo l io aga ins t the la t te r s excess re turn for two di f fe rent choices of be ta . A mark e t -

    t iming s tra tegy, cons t ra ined to cho ose be twe en the two be tas , would p lo t a t point A (poin t B) i f

    inform at ion in dica ted tha t th e excess re turn of the e ff ic ient por t fo l io was expec ted to be rn ( rL).

    The s l ope o f t he do t t e d l i ne is t he e s t i ma t e d be t a i n t he J e nse n re g re s s i on , a nd t he i n t e rc e p t i s t he

    Je nse n me a su re .

    The three terms in equation (8) are respectively the component of performance

    that results from large sample biases in estimated beta, the component that results

    from timing, and the component that results from selectivity. If the first term is

    zero, Jensen's alpha aggregrates the sum of the timing and selectivity components.

    However, this is only the case in the absence of timing information [Grinblatt &

    Titman, 198 , Lem ma 1].

    2.5. Regress ion based t iming measures

    T he re a r e s e ve ra l p roc e dure s t ha t ha ve be e n p ropos e d t o c o r r e c t f o r t he b i a s

    in Jensen ' s a lpha induced b y the e f fec t of t iming abi li ty on the es t imate of be ta .

    The f ir s t is a quadra t i c regress ion , prop osed by Treynor Mazu y [1966]. Thi s

    regress ion,

    /~p - - rf ~ O/p -Ic-f l 0 p (R E r f ) -}- f l i p ( R E r f ) 2 -I- ~ p , (9)

    i s ident i ca l to the regress ion used to compute Jensen ' s a lpha , except tha t an

  • 5/20/2018 Grinblatt Titman 95 Performance Evaluation Chapter 19

    598 M. G r i n b l a t t , S . T i t m a n

    a d d i t i o n a l t e r m , t h e s q u a r e d e x c e ss re t u r n o f t h e b e n c h m a r k p o r t f o l i o is i n c l u d e d .

    A d m a t i , B h a t t a c h a r y a , P f l e i d e r e r R o s s [ 19 8 6] d e v e l o p e d c o n d i t io n s u n d e r w h i c h

    t h e c o e f f i c i en t o n t h e q u a d r a t i c t e r m c a n b e u s e d t o d e t e c t t h e p r e c i si o n o f t h e

    m a n a g e r ' s t i m i n g f o r ec a s ts . L i k e C o n n o r K o r a c z y k , A d m a t i, B h a t t a c h a r y a ,

    P f l e i d e r e r R o s s a s s u m e e x p o n e n t i a l u t il it y a n d m u l t i v a r i a t e n o r m a l i t y . I t is e a s y

    t o s h o w t h a t t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s i m p l y th a t t h e p o r t f o l i o b e t a i s a li n e a r f u n c t i o n o f

    t he t i m i ng s i gna l .

    U n d e r t h e A d m a t i , B h a t t a c h a r y a , P f l e i d e r e r R o s s c o n d i ti o n s , o n e c a n r e l a t e

    t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f t h e T r e y n o r - M a z u y r e g r e s s io n t o t h e t i m i n g a n d s e l e c ti v it y

    c o m p o n e n t s d i s c u s s e d a b o v e . I n t h i s c a s e , f l l p v a r R E ) i s t h e t i m i n g c o m p o n e n t

    o f p e r f o r m a n c e a n d O~p is t h e s e le c ti v it y c o m p o n e n t o f p e r f o r m a n c e . T o t a l p e r f o r -

    m a n c e is th e s u m o f t h e t w o t e rm s . T h e r e i s n o m i s m e a s u r e m e n t o f b e t a i n t h is

    c a se . H o w e v e r , t h e m o m e n t w e d e p a r t f r o m b e t a l i n e ar it y , w e c a n n o l o n g e r a s s e rt

    t h is . T h i s m a k e s t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f t h is r e g r e s s i o n s o m e w h a t n a r r o w .

    T o s e e t h a t t i m i n g a n d s e le c ti v it y a r e r e p r e s e n t e d b y th e s e t e r m s u n d e r t h e

    n a r r o w s e t o f a s s u m p t i o n s , im a g i n e t h a t t h e m a n a g e r o b s e r v e s t h e e x c es s r e t u r n o f

    t h e b e n c h m a r k p l u s n o is e , FE 6 . H i s f o r e c a s t o f t h e b e n c h m a r k r e t u r n is a l in e a r

    f u n c t i o n o f t h i s s ig n a l a n d h i s p o r t f o l i o b e t a i s a l i n e a r f u n c t i o n o f t h e o p t i m a l

    f o r e c a s t . T h i s i m p l i e s t h a t

    ~p = o + ~ RE + ~)

    a n d t h e e x c e ss r e t u r n o f th e p o r t f o l i o is

    [ Y O ll - Y l / ~ E l l - g ) ] R E - 1 - 6 p .

    F r o m t h i s e x p r e s s i o n , l e t u s r e g a r d

    a s th e r e g r e s s i o n r e s id u a l in t h e T r e y n o r - M a z u y r e g r es s io n . G i v e n e x p o n e n t i a l

    u t il it y a n d t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f th e s ig n al s, w e k n o w t h a t t h e p o r t f o l i o w e i g h t s

    t h a t d e t e r m i n e ~ p a r e i n d e p e n d e n t o f / ? E b e c a u s e o f t h e ir i n d e p e n d e n c e f r o m b o t h

    t h e f o r e c a s t o f th e b e n c h m a r k r e t u r n a n d o f t h e e x p e c t e d w e a l t h t h a t is t i e d t o t hi s

    f o r e c a s t . I n a d d i t i o n , ~ , b e i n g n o i s e , i s i n d e p e n d e n t o f R E , m a k i n g t h e r e g r e s s i o n

    res id ua l , Yl ~R E - ] - ~ p - - E

    ~ p ) ) ,

    u n c o r r e l a t e d w i th b o t h o f th e i n d e p e n d e n t v a ri a b le s

    i n t h e q u a d r a t i c r e g r e s s i o n [ e q u a t i o n ( 9 )] . y 0, w h i c h m u l t ip l i e s t h e f i r st v a r i a b l e i n

    t h e T r e y n o r - M a z u y re g r e s si o n , m u s t t h e r e f o r e e q u a l t h e a s y m p t o t ic v a l u e o f i ll ,

    w h i l e ) /1 , w h i c h m u l t ip l i e s t h e q u a d r a t i c t e r m , m u s t e q u a l t h e a s y m p t o t i c v a l u e o f

    f1 2. E ( ~ p ) , w h i c h i s t h e l a r g e s a m p l e e x p e c t a t i o n o f w h a t i s l e ft , m u s t e q u a l t h e

    a s y m