gregory rodocker's study guide for test #3 histology @ nsu

8/14/2019 Gregory Rodocker's Study Guide for Test #3 Histology @ NSU

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1. Basal cells: -regenerative

2. Brush cells: - sensory

B. picture showing the main components of the Respiratory Epithelium: PT stain high

mag.

II. Trachea: the air tube

A. Mucosa composed of typical respiratory epithelium:

1. Also--is an underlying set of

a. C-shaped cartilage rings: structure and Functionb. Seromucous glands: that produce a more watery mucous.

B. Open portion closed by: (1)-smooth muscle (2)-fibroelastictissue

Figure 176. Section of trachea showing the respiratory epithelium with gobl

cells and columnar ciliated

cells. Also shown are serous glands in the lamina propria and hyaline cartilage. T

mucous fluid

produced by the goblet cells and by the glands forms a layer that permits the cili

movement to

propel foreign particles out of the respiratory system. PT stain. Medium

magnification.


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V. Bronchi:

A. There are a pair of primary bronchi

1. Each one branches dichotomously 9-12 timesB. Cartilage network keeps the lumen open for airflow.

*A*. Picture (left): pg 347.- Micrograph showing the layers in the wall of a large bronchus.

*B*. Picture (right): pg 346. -

V. Bronchiole: starts on page 349.

1. Airways less than 5 mm. 2. No cartilage 3. No glands other t

goblet cells

*. No submucosal glands

A. Respiratory bronchiole and alveolus: region of transition from conducting to respirato

portions

1. Alveoli: 200 um in diameter and Arranged along and around alveolar ducts and sac

2. picture belolw-Left: section of a Terminal Bronchiole w/small portion of respiratory

bronchiole continuous

w/an alveolar duct and many alveoli.

3. Picture below-right: alveolar sacs


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4. Picture below-: diagram of portion of bronchial treenote that the smooth muscle

he alveolar duct

disappears in the alveoli.

5. Picture below-right: pulmonary alveoli showing the structure of the interalveolar

eptum.

6. Picture below- part of the interalveolar septum showing the bloodair barr

a. Mechanism of gassous exchange: to reach the RBC, O2 traverses the surf

ning, the alveolar

epitheliumcytoplasm, and the plasma. In some locationsm, there is loose

nterstitial tiddue

between the epithelium and endothelium.


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*A*. Cells composing an alveolus:

A. Type I alveolar cell aka: Squamous alveolar cell

B. Type II alveolar cell: Serve as basal cells to replace themselves and type I cells

*1*. Electron Micrograph of Type II cell: protruding in the alveolar lumen.

a. Arrows: indicate lamellar bodies containing newly synthesized pulmonary

urfactant.

**. Note: the microvilli of the Type II cell and the Junctional complexes (JC)

hat are connected to

type I epithelial cell.


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1. Produce surfactant: a mix of phospholipids and proteins.

a. Functions: to coat the alveolar surfaces of the lung made and secreted by t

I pneumocytes andprevents alveolar collapse at the end of expiration by reducing surface

ension.

C. Alveolar macrophages: Dust cells1. picture below pg. 354Observe in the interalveolar septum 3 laminar

structures-(arrow heads)

a. Arrow Heads constituted by a central basement membrane and 2 ver

hin cytoplasmic layers.

**. These layers are formed by the cytoplasm of epithelial cell type

and the cytoplasm of

capillary endothelial cells.

VI. Pathology Emphysema: is an actual loss of lung tissue caused by chronic irritation and/or

pollutants, lack of 1-Anti-trypsin


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A. Emphysema victims are referred to as fighters: as they adopt strategies that allow

continued successful ventilation

long into the disease process.

B. Barrel Chest caused by Emphysema: (((?)))

*A*. 2 types of Emphysema: classically of two types by region of tissue destroyed.

A. Centrilobular or centroacinar B. Panlobular or panacinar

*B*. Gross Emphysematous Lung: note the open appearance of the lung tissue.

A. Emphysematous lung section (left picture): (((?)))

*C*. Certain genetic or reactive abnormalities are associated with impaired Ciliary

function: (ciliary dyskinesia syndromes),

and may predispose patients to sinusitis, bronchiectasis, and male infertility

immotile sperm)

1. (relating to picture above) Chronic irritation of the respiratory mucosa produces

hyperplasia: of these glands

(increased Reid ratio) and an increased ratio of mucus-secreting to serous cells

================================================END==THE=RESPI

ORY=SYSTEM=============================


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A. Largest and heaviest single organ of the body: 1.2-2.3 m2 surface area

B. Consist of:

1. Outer epidermis

2. Lower dermis

3. Underlying hypodermis: (which is not actually considered part of the skin)

. Epidermis: Stratified squamous epithelium

1. Cells called keratinocytes

A. Also contains:

1. Melanocytes: Produce melanin

2. Langerhans cells:

3. Merkels cells:

B. Thin vs. thick skin: What varies is the thickness of the epidermis

1. Thick skin or non-hairy: Palms and soles2. Thin skin or hairy: Found everywhere else

*1*. Picture below: Thin skin


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I. Epidermal layers

A. Stratum basale: Single layer of columnar to cuboidal cells on basement membrane

1. Desmosomes and hemidesmosomes:

2. Intense mitotic activity: (every 15-30 day replacement)

3. Produce keratin

B. Stratum spinosum: Cuboidal to flattened cells

1. Spiny, studded appearance

2. Thicker in areas of wear and tear

3. Provides resistance to abrasion

C. Stratum granulosum: 3-5 layer of flattened polygonal cells

1. Cells release lipid material that seals the cell layer

D. Stratum lucidum: More obvious in thick skin

1. Translucent and Flattened cells: Dying and dead cells

E. Stratum corneum: 15-20 layers (in thick skin)

1. Flattened, non-nucleated keratinized cells

2. Cells dead: Cells lost to wear and tearII. Melanocytes : Produce melanin

1. Eumelanin dark brown

2. Pheomelanin reddish

A. Racial and individual differences in skin color result from the amount of melanin

not: the # of melanocytes

1. picture below: of Melanocyte and surrounding cells

B. Protection by melanin: Note that the melanin granules are around the nucleus to protec

rom solar radiation

1. Skin color caused by melanin, blood vessels and blood flowing


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V. Langerhans and Merkels cells.

A. Langerhans cells are the APCs of the skin

B. Merkels cells may be sense organs for: mechanoreception or serve a neuroendocrine V. Dermis: CT that supports the epidermis and connects it to the hypodermis

*A*. Two layers

1. Papillary layer: that is thickest in wear and tear areas

2. Reticular layer:

A. Contains.

1. Hair follicles 2. Sebaceous glands 3. Sweat glands: All of epiderm

origin

4. Sympathetic but no parasympathetic innervations: to skin structures

5. Rich blood and lymph supply

6. Sensory structures

a. Pacinian corpuscles:

b. Meissners corpuscles:

c. Free nerve endings:


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VII. Sebaceous glands:

1. Acinar glands

2. 100 glands/cm2 : 400-900 glands/cm2 on face, forehead and shouldersA. Produce sebum: Lipids including triglycerides, waxes squalene and cholesterol

1. Squalene : (aka spinicene or supraene)

VIII. Sweat gland: Everywhere but in the glans penis

A. Functions to Produce sweat: Water, sodium chloride, urea, ammonia ad uric acid

B. ducts lined by: stratified cuboidal epithelium

X. Skin Cancer: One third of all cancers are skin cancers


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A. Three types:

1. Squamous cell carcinoma

2. Basal cell carcinoma

3. Malignant melanoma

B. Picture of Squamous and basal cell Carcinoma.

C. Merkel Cell Carcinoma: Merkel cell carcinoma is a rare type of skin cancer that usually

appears as a flesh-colored or

bluish-red nodule, often on your face, head or neck. Like other types of skin cancers, the

ncidence of Merkel cell carcinoma is increasing worldwide.

1. Also called Neuroendocrine carcinoma of the skin:

2. Asociated with: Older people , Long-term sun exposure, Weak immune system=================================END===CHAPTER===ON====SKIN===

==================================

A. Consists of the.

1. Kidneys

2. Ureters

3. Urinary bladder

4. Urethra

B. Job of the Urinary System:

1. Filtration

2. Active reabsorption: uses the atpases


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a. About 1500 ml urine/day is produced

II. Structural and functional unit the Nephron

A. Structure of the glomerulus:


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V. Nephron : sturctrual and functional unit

A. Consists of the .

1. Glomerulus 3. Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) 5. Distal

convoluted tubule (DCT)

2. Bowmans capsule 4. Loop of Henle 6. Collecting ductV. Overview of kidney - Cortex

A. picture below: Higher Magnification of Cortex


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VI. Macula densa : Special regulatory structure Name means dense spot

1. Part of the Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA):

2. Composed of tightly packed cells in the wall of the DCT

A. picture below: Macula densa


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VII. Juxtaglomerular apparatus: Specialized cells in the wall of the afferent arteriole

1. Cytoplasm full of granules

2. Renin: an enzyme that converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I, which when

converted to angiotensin II serves as a potent vasoconstrictor

VIII. Ureters : Drain the urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder

X. Urinary bladder

A. Bladder lined by transitional epithelium

B. Multiple layers of smooth muscle in bladder wall running in many directions


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==================================END=Urinary

system=CHAPTER=======================================

. Endocrine organs: produce hormones in small amounts (Chemical signals)-

1. Secrete into the bloodstream

2. Distributed throughout the body

3. Affects target cells/organs where ever they are in the bodya. What determines what the targets are?: if they have the receptors or no

I. Hypophysis : Pituitary gland

A. located: in the sella turcica

B. Derived from oral ectoderm (Rathkes pouch) and nervous tissue growing togeth

*A*. Actually composed of two glands

A. The anterior pituitary/lobe or the adenohypophysis or the pars distalis

1. Pars tuberalis and pars intermedia

B. The posterior pituitary/lobe or the neurohypophysis or the pars nervosa

1. Infundibulum/neural stalk


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V. Neurohypophysis : Composed of 100k neurons that arise in the paraventricular (oxytocin) &

upraoptic (vasopressin) nuclei

A. Cells end on a neurohemal organ: a structure where neurons end on blood vessels not

other neurons, muscles or glands

V. Actions of the hormones: The pituitary gland affects more organs and tissues than any other o

n the body, hence

The Master Gland


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VI. Other glands

A. Adrenals1. Medulla

2. Cortex

B. Islets of Langerhans

C. Thyroid

D. Parathyroids

*A*. Adrenals: besides the standard location of the adrenals (on top of the kidneys) adrenal tiss

s sometimes also found in

other locations in the abdomen.


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A. Adrenal medulla: essentially a sympathetic ganglion where the postganglionic cells have

heir axons and dendrites

1. They store epinephrine (80%) and norepinephrine: which is released upon

ympathetic stimulation


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*1*. Epi vs Norepi cells

1. Epinephrine secreting cells: have smaller granules that are less electron dense an

ill the vacuoles

2. Norepinephrine secreting cells have larger granules that are more electron

dense and are irregularly shaped.

*B*. Islets of Langerhans of Pancreas:The endocrine part of the pancreas

A. Alpha cells -> glucagons--

B. Beta cells -> insulin--

C. Delta cells -> somatostatin--


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*C*. Thyroid: Peculiar organ structurally

1. Composed of follicles:

a. Follicles filled with colloid: thyroglobulin

2. Parafollicular cells produce another hormone:

a. Calcitonin: increase blood calcium and stimulates osteogenesis

A. picture below: Colloid contains thyroglobulin which when needed for secretion is converte

to T3 and T4 forms of

thyroxin.

*D*. Parathyroid

A. Chief cells produce: Parathormone-(Raises blood calcium and stimulates osteoclastic

activity)


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=========================================END==OF==ENDOCRINE==S

EM================================

. Conpossed of:

A. Testis: which produce Spermatozoa and Hormones

B. Ducts:

C. Glands:

D. Penis:

*A*. Testis: surrounded by a dense CT layer called the tunica albuginea

1. This tunica continues into the testis and divides each testis into 250 lobules

a. Each lobule contains: 1-4 seminiferous tubules and interstitial (Leydig) cell


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A. Seminiferous tubules and interstitial cells:


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1. Seminiferous tubules: carrying, containing, or producing semen

a. Composed of two cell types

1. Sertoli (nurse/sustentacular) cells: a cell, found in large numbers

lining the semen-producing


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tubules of the testis, that provides support and nourishment for

developing sperm

2. Spermatogenic cells: which carry out spermatogenesis- Including

permiogenesis

a. Spermiogenesis: the stage of spermatogenesis during which a

permatid is

transformed into a spermatozoon

*a. Sertoli Cells for the blood-testis barrier (picture) below..


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C. Testes Infertility Maturation Arrest: Note the obvious spermatogonia and the rest are

Sertoli cells

II. Factors affecting spermatogenesis:

A. Androgen-binding protein: binds testosterone and carries it into the lumen of the tubule

timulate sperm development

B. Proper temperature:

1. Pampiniform plexus: The spermatic veins emerge from the back of the test

and receive tributaries from

the epididymis: they unite and form a convoluted plexus, the plexus

pampiniformis, which forms the

chief mass of the cord.

2. Cremaster muscles: Its function is to raise and lower the scrotum in order tregulate the temperature of the

testis and promote spermatogenesis.

3. Scrotal sweating: works just like any other sweating mechanism.


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V. Varicocele : a swelling of the veins in the spermatic cord of the scrotum. It may cause only sligh

discomfort but can affect

fertility, so that surgical correction is required.

V. Hydrocele : an accumulation of watery liquid in a body cavity, especially in the sac around the

estes. It is a painless condition

that can be treated surgically by draining the fluid.


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=============================END====MALE==REPRODUCTIVE==SYSTEM=

HAPTER=============================

. The Eye: Complex, highly developed photosensitive organ

1. Form 2. Light intensity 3. Color

A. External Layer: Tunica Fibrosa

1. Sclera: tough, white opaque layer of dense CT with few fibroblasts on five sixths of

eyeball exterior

2. Cornea: colorless, transparent multilayered structure that allows light to enter.

a. Fibers oriented differently then sclera: to allow light in and transparency

b. Notice the transition: btwn sclera and cornea.

B. Middle or Vascular Layer: actually contains the following structures

a. Choroid b. Ciliary body c. Iris

1. Choroid-(Nutrient Layer): highly vascularized loose CT filled layer containing

ibroblasts, macrophages, lymphocytes, mast cells, plasma cells,

collagen fibers and elastic fibers

a. Choroid houses the blood supply for the eye.

1*. Melanocytes: also present giving the layer its characteristic black coloration

2. Ciliary body: support the lens

a. Anterior extension of the choroid


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b. Contains several sets of muscles that function in visual accommodatio

*2*. Ciliary processes: Finger-like projections

1. Loose CT core

2. Fenestrated capillaries

3. Produces the aqueous humor: which is..

a. More on Aqueous Humor: similar to plasma but with 0.1 % protein

compared to 7% in plasma

*. A. Humor travels through: pupil to anterior chamber and drain

via canal of Schlemm

4. Anchors lens in place via Zonular Fibers: set of fibers attaching the ciliary

body in the eye to the lens

3. Iris: (the color part of the eye)

1. Extension of choroid

2.Contains the round opening called the Pupil

3. Loose CT, Fibroblasts and melanocytes

4. Dilator and sphincter pupillae muscles: papillae meaning-

a. Dilator: open the iris

b. Sphincter: closes iris


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4. Lens: consist of .

a. Lens capsule b. Subcapsular Epithelium c. Lens fibers

*^*. Picture below:

*. Capsule: secreted by subcapsalar e.t. ?

*. Lens fibers: in pic. the cells that are elongated and lost th

nucli.

*. Artifactual Damage: is the white streak in the lens fibers

1. Accommodation: (due to lens)

a. When looking at distant objects: Lens is stretched by elasticity ofciliary body

b. To focus closer in: the Ciliary muscles contract-(Zonular fiber tension

elieved and the lens

thickens)

I. Retina: the Innermost layer of the eye

1. Posterior photosensitive portion and

2. Anterior part covering ciliary body and iris

A. Layers of photosensitive portion: photoreceptors are not immediately behind the lens

herefore, retina stops before it reaches the lens.

1. Pigmented epithelium: a natural substance in plant or animal tissue that gives it it

color

2. Neural portion: where all the nerves are that innervate the eye.


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=====New Structure======

. The Ear.

A. Internal Ear: the hearing part.

B. Membranous labyrinth: vestibular-balance part..

1. Cochlea: a spiral structure in the inner ear that looks like a snail shell and contains t

hair cells whose

movement is interpreted by the brain as sound

2. Utricle: the larger of two fluid-filled sacs in the labyrinth of the inner ear, into which

emicircular canalsopen

3. Saccule: the smaller of two sacs in the vestibule of the inner ear

4. Semicircular canals: each of three tubes in the inner ear, semicircular in shape an

et at right angles to one

another, that help to maintain balance.


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*A*. Receptor hair cells: each has 40-80 rigid stereocilia (microvilli) and one cilium (kinocilium


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===================================END==Chapter on Special

Strucutures====================================

This System is Composed of the:

*2 ovaries *2 oviducts*The uterus *The vagina *External

genitalia

. The Ovaries :

1. Outermost germinal epithelium: Simple squamous or cuboidal epithelium

2. Tunica albuginea: dense CT

3. Cortical region: background stroma containing follicles with oocytes

4. Medullary region: rich blood supply in loose CTa. No clear separation from cortical region

I. Embryonic and Fetal development of the oocytes

A. One Month: primordial germ cells migrate to the ovaries and become oogonia.

B. Second month: population at 600,000 oogonia

C. Fifth month: 7 million oogonia that at the third month began the first meiotic division

arresting in prophase

*. These are the primary oocytes which become surrounded by follicular cells.


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*A*. Atresia: oocytes diing off.

1. Degenerative loss of oocytes

2. Throughout childhood and then at puberty only about 300,000 oocytes rem

3. At menopause only about 8,000 still remain

II. Follicular development :

1. Primordial follicles become

2. Unilaminar primary follicles become

3. Multilaminar primary follicles become

4. Secondary or antral follicles become mature, preovulatory or graafian follic


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V. Follicular atresia :

1. Follicles and their contained oocytes undergo atresia on an ongoing basis:

dead follicles are phagocytosed

A. While a continuous process, atresia is particularly intense during: just after birth,

during puberty and pregnancy

1. In short during Times of intense hormonal changes


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V. Ovulation : the releasing of the egg.

A. High LH in response to high estrogen from the follicle cells

B. Increased blood flow to ovaries

C. Local release of: PGs, histamine, vasopressin and collagenase,

D. Granulosa cells produce hylauronidase and loosen

E. Increased follicular fluid pressure and weakened follicle wall leads to ovulation

VI. Corpus luteum : the follicle that has just ovulated becomes a corpus luteum:pale/white body.

A. An endocrine gland that produces steroid to maintain early development of the

embryo

B. If fertilization does not occur, the corpus luteum collapses and becomes a corpus

albicans


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VII. Oviducts : wall composed of three layers

A. Inner mucosa: ciliated columnar cells and Non-ciliated columnar secretory cells

B. Middle muscularis of smooth muscle:

1. Inner circular or spiral

2. Outer longitudinal

C. Outer serosa of visceral peritoneum:


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VIII. Uterus : wall formed by three layers

A. Outer serosa or adventitia

B. Middle myometrium

1. Smooth muscle in 4 poorly defined layers

2. Shows hyperplastic and hypertrophic growth during pregnancy

a. Also, produce collagen at this time returning: to near normal afterpregnancy

C. Inner endometrium:

1. Deeper basalis: that remains unchanged through cycles

2. Apical functionalis: that changes drastically throughout the menstrual cycling

X. Mammary Glands :

1. 15-25 lobes separated from each other by Dense CT and adipose tissue

2. Each with own excretory lactiferous duct

3. Each nipple has from 15-25 duct openings

A. Picture of a Lactating Mamary Gland:


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===end====

gregory rodocker's study guide for test #3 histology @ nsu

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