LinkingLinkingCommunitiesCommunitiesto Country, andto Country, andPeople to NaturePeople to Nature

The Stewardship Series

...and a Way of ThinkingAs Places:Greenways are networks of green space creatingGreenways are networks of green space creatinglinkages for nature between public lands, like parkslinkages for nature between public lands, like parksand trails, together with private working landscapes,and trails, together with private working landscapes,like forests and farms.like forests and farms.

As a Way of Thinking:Greenways link ecosystems to local land useGreenways link ecosystems to local land useplanning.planning.

Greenways help maintain our watersheds to protectGreenways help maintain our watersheds to protectclean air, clean land, and clean water. These are theclean air, clean land, and clean water. These are thebasic needs of plants, of wildlife, of fish, ofbasic needs of plants, of wildlife, of fish, ofagriculture, of forest production, of us. agriculture, of forest production, of us.

Province ofBritish Columbia

Greenways are Places,

Community Greenways promises to be an excellent and highly practical addition to theemerging literature on greenways. We are impressed with the comprehensive treatment,persuasive arguments, pertinent quotes and useful examples integrated into thishandbook. It is well designed, with creative and helpful use of charts, maps and otherillustrations.The Honourable David Crombie, P.C.,Commissioner, Waterfront Regeneration Trust

Community Greenways serve many purposes: surely one of the most important will be toremind us of our growing alienation from a Nature on which we are totally dependent.The pressures of a technological world grow rapidly. Greenways are a release, whereperhaps we can jog, listen to a bird’s song or enjoy green leaves in the sunshine.Dr. Bert Brink, OC, OBC

Community Greenways is a solid document in concept and content; it is a treasure ofpractical information. For those working in any occupation dealing with land use, thesection Cutting Red Tape With Greenways Programs is rewarding reading.Tim Pringle, Executive Director of the Real Estate Foundation of B.C.

CreditsThe information presented in this document has beenrefined with the help and cooperation of many agenciesand individuals.The broad scope of the subject matter is represented ina steering committee which included federal, provincial,and local governments, as well as corporations, andnon-government organizations. Together these groupsand individuals have participated in this process withthe recognition that through cooperative effort theirindividual objectives can be enriched by the creation ofCommunity Greenways.

Eric BonhamGeoff ChislettPeter LawMinistry of Environment Landsand Parks

Emma ChildRoderick Bell-IrvingMelody FarrellOtto LangerBrian TuttyDepartment of Fisheries andOceans

Rick McKelveyPeggy WardCanadian Wildlife Service

Judith CullingtonErik KarlsenMinistry of Municipal Affairs

Jane Waters,Theresa SzymanisMinistry of Transportation andHighways

David MorrisProvincial Capital Commission

Cresswell WalkerHarriet RueggebergCity of NanaimoBob LaphamBonnie BlueRegional District of Nanaimo

John MaherBC Hydro

Rod SilverWildlife Habitat Canada

Bob PhillipsAndrew BalesStephen ConnellyJoel UsseryThe Federation of BritishColumbia Naturalists

In addition to these steeringcommittee members, the authors also wish to thank allthose who attended technical review workshops, partici-pated in the Millstone Pilot Project, and reviewed draftsof this document.Photographs used within this document are provided bythe authors and members of the steering committee,except as specifically noted otherwise.Writing, layout, and publishing of this document wasby: Lanarc Consultants Ltd.Landscape Architects and Planners, Nanaimo, BritishColumbiaLegal services: Lidstone, Young and Anderson,Vancouver, British Columbia

When land is developed, whether forsubdivisions, transportation, agricultureor forestry, there is an inevitable changeto the balance found in natural systems.Drainage patterns are changed, trees arecut down, soil ismoved andhabitat is lost.When thesechanges aresmall, naturalsystems canoften absorb theimpacts, andnormal ecologi-cal functionscan continue.As the size andrate of develop-ment accelerates, the ability of naturalsystems to accommodate change dimin-ishes and the evidence of damagebecomes more widespread.We must continue to look for new waysto minimize our impact on the underly-ing natural systems that support us,and take advantage of opportunities torepair past damage.Community Greenways: LinkingCommunities to Country, and People toNature provides forward looking toolsthat will help community leaders tounderstand the principles of the naturalsystems that support our lives.

FundingFinancial support for this project wasprovided by the following organizations:Ministry of Environment Lands andParks

Urban Salmon Habitat ProgramHabitat Conservation Fund

Department of Fisheries and OceansFraser River Action Plan

Canadian Wildlife ServiceMinistry of Municipal Affairs

Georgia Basin InitiativeMinistry of Transportation and HighwaysForest Renewal B.C.’s WatershedRestoration ProgramProvincial Capital CommissionCity of NanaimoRegional District of NanaimoBC HydroWildlife Habitat CanadaFederation of British ColumbiaNaturalists

Land for Nature Initiative

“We abuse land because we regard it as“We abuse land because we regard it as

a commodity belonging to us. Whena commodity belonging to us. When

we see land as a community to whichwe see land as a community to which

we belong, we may begin to use it withwe belong, we may begin to use it with

love and respect."love and respect."A Sand County AlmanacA Sand County Almanac

Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication DataMain entry under title:Community greenways

Writing by Lanarc Consultants Ltd. Cf. Colophon.Co-published by Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans.Includes bibliographical references: p.ISBN 0-7726-2678-2

1. Greenways - British Columbia. 2. Greenbelts - BritishColumbia. 3. Land use - British Columbia - Planning. 4.Urban ecology - British Columbia.I. British Columbia. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. II. Lanarc Consultants. III. Canada.Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans.HD319.B7C65 1995 333.7’16’09711 C95-960409-X

Printed on Recycled Paper

Community GreenwaysL i n k i n g C o m m u n i t i e s t o C o u n t r y , a n d P e o p l e t o N a t u r e

Community Greenways..............................................2What are Greenways? .......................................................................2Greenway Examples .........................................................................4Greenways: An Integrating Tool ........................................................6Greenways: Planning with Natural Systems......................................8

Practical Benefits of Community Greenways ............9Healthy Ecosystems........................................................................10Vibrant Communities......................................................................14Physical Infrastructure ...................................................................16Economic Values ............................................................................18Contributions of Greenways............................................................20

Planning for Community Greenways ........................21Introduction ...................................................................................22Vision Statement ............................................................................24Partnerships ...................................................................................26Issues and Inventory ......................................................................28Objectives .......................................................................................30Alternatives ....................................................................................32Strategic Plan .................................................................................36Detail Design ..................................................................................40

Greenway Implementation.......................................41Land Tenure Alternatives................................................................42Land Use Regulations .....................................................................44Ideas for Greenway Interfaces:

Urban Development ..................................................................46Recreation Development............................................................48Linear Development ..................................................................50Rural Residential ......................................................................52Agriculture................................................................................54Forest Lands.............................................................................56Floodplains ...............................................................................58Integrated Watershed Management ...........................................60

Greenway Management............................................61Healthy Ecosystem Maintenance.....................................................62Risk Management ...........................................................................64Enjoyment ......................................................................................70

For More Information......................................................................72

What are Greenways?Networks of green space in sustainable communitiesCommunity Greenways are linear green corridors that connect natural areas. Greenway Planningis a way of planning that creates linkages between human development and natural systems.

On the ground, greenways are corridors that link areas of greenspace to provide wildlife habitatand recreational opportunities. Greenways include trails in some areas and no public access inother areas. Greenways can include both public holdings and private working landscapes.

In practice, greenways are created as part of an integratedapproach to land planning - balancing the needs of human com-munities and natural systems.

On the ground ...Community Greenways are green space networks which aremanaged to help retain functioning ecological processes. Publicgreen spaces, like parks and trails, can be connected with pri-vate working landscapes like the Agricultural Land Reserve andthe Forest Land Reserve to create new green corridors. Togetheran integrated greenway system can be created.

Because many important ecological resources correspond toshoreline locations, additions to a greenway system are likely tofocus on all types of water edge. Rare or critical upland ecosys-tems must also be included. These environmentally sensitiveareas can be connected with recreation linkages including:parks, trails, ridgelines, rights of way, streets, lanes and unor-ganized green spaces to create a community greenway system.

As an integrated planning approach ...Community Greenways integrate ecosystem requirements intolocal land use planning.

For example, greenway planning recognizes the relationship ofland development to the loss of stream riparian vegetation, ofsoil erosion from urban sites to water quality, stormwater man-agement to water quantity and the effects of all these on fishhabitat. Lost fish habitat results in loss of fish production,resulting in lost jobs in the fishery and in tourism. Lost jobsindicate a breakdown of sustainable economies and difficultiesin supporting community growth and prosperity.

Community Greenways recognize that, in the long term, whatwe do to the ecosystem, we do to ourselves. Just as the BritishColumbia Forest Practices Code promotes sustainable forestryon provincial forest land for the sake of our long-term liveli-hood, greenway planning balances human needs and naturalsystems in urban areas to create sustainable communities.Community Greenways are an integrated management toolwhich can help to focus limited human resources on limitednatural resources.

Courtenay RiverwayThe City of Courtenay has worked toestablish a linear open space alongthe Courtenay River. This siteincludes a rehabilitation of adisused sewage lagoon to createwildlife habitat, public recreation,and trails.

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What makes up a greenway ...Many greenway segments already exist. Greenway systems are created by looking for everyopportunity to re-establish links between these segments, to create green space networks.

Greenways will be different in size and form in response to their biophysical values and land usecontext. See page 46-59 for examples of greenway approaches in various land use contexts.Greenways can include cooperative stewardship initiatives in:

n Private green spacesn Public green spaces

The location of Greenway Trailswill vary. A route separate fromenvironmentally sensitive areas,complete with fencing, may berequired in some places to ensureconservation objectives forsensitive habitats are met.

Private Green SpacesIn BC communities, much of the existing green space is farms or forests -working landscapes - often under the protection of the Agricultural LandReserve, Provincial Forest or Forest Land Reserve. These working landscapesplay an important role in the function of natural systems. Including theselands in a greenway reinforces their continued productive land use - at thesame time as recognizing their values as ecological and scenic resources tothe community at large.The riparian areas of waterways and wetlands are subject to the Fisheries Act.These corridors are prime candidates for greenways, whether in private orpublic ownership.Private lands which may be included as part of a greenway system include:4 agricultural land;4 private forest land;4 private golf courses or open space subdivision holdings;4 private railway or utility corridors;4 watercourse linkages and riparian corridors.

Respect for the concerns of private landholders must be a part of planning forGreenways. Changes to the way private lands are managed should be mini-mal, and will often be limited to co-operative responses to existing regulations.Public access should not be expected across private land, except where spe-cial agreements have been made with the landowner. Greenway planningstrikes a balance between encouraging stewardship of the sensitive areaswithin private green spaces and supporting appropriate land use and enjoy-ment of private property by the landowner.

Public Green Spaces Traditional parks, along with other public green spaces, will form a majorcomponent of greenways. Usually, all parts of a greenway which are open forpublic access will be owned or managed by public organizations. Public greenspaces in a greenway could include:

4 municipal parks;4 provincial and national parks;4 crown land and ecological reserves;4 public facilities such as schoolgrounds, playing fields, and golf courses;

The management of these lands could be reviewed to consider options for pro-viding a continuous recreational network, and to ensure that opportunities tomaintain environmental integrity are not lost.

Working Landscapes, such asfarms, provincial forests, orprivate forest land provideimportant ecological linkages andcontribute to greenways as part ofa network of scenic green space.

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The ecosystem planning approach recognizes thateconomic, social and environmental concerns areinterrelated - decisions in one area affect all others;like nature, it is all an integrated web.

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Community GreenwaysGreenway ExamplesSuccessful greenways are being enjoyed throughout Canada and in the U.S.Greenways can be developed in many different forms, including:4 greenways established by direct acquisition of public open space such as in Boulder, Colorado,4 greenways which provide recreational trails using old rail corridors such as the GallopingGoose Trail in Victoria,4 or greenways which provide opportunities for walking and cycling such as the River Walk inQuesnel.These projects are illustrated as examples only, and in fact greenway programs may take manydifferent forms depending on the circumstances.

Boulder, Colorado‘Boulder’s success is its quality of life’Denis Nock, President of the Boulder Chamber of Commerceattributes Boulder’s success to its quality of life - its trees, openspace, and livability. He states that businesses move to Boulderrather than locate elsewhere in the region, and pay higher taxesand land costs, to take advantage of the amenities in Boulder.’

A History of GreenwayPlanningBoulder has a progressive history ofopen space management dating backto the beginning of this century whenlands were purchased through abond issue to protect the town’smountain skyline.

Throughout the years Boulder hasmaintained an aggressive open spaceacquisition program producing alegacy of 24,000 acres of publiclyowned open space. This land contin-ues to provide an environmental andrecreational resource which hashelped maintain Boulder’s prosperityeven as the region generally has faceddifficult economic times.

A Powerful CommunityBuilding ToolBoulder’s success in greenway plan-ning has been a result of strong andcommitted community leadership,and the recognition of the inherentvalue of natural open space.

Community ActionBoulder’s open space program has resulted from a community commitmentboth in terms of money and time. A recent brochure acknowledges the help ofover 300 volunteers devoting thousands of hours for trail maintenance, plantand wildlife inventories, and interpretive projects.

The Value of Open SpaceAs a part of Boulder’s Open Space program efforts have been made to quanti-fy the value of open space. As the president of Boulder’s Chamber ofCommerce notes, ‘quality of life is an important aspect of a community’s eco-nomic success.’ The excerpts below quantify just two of these economic bene-fits.

‘Researchers evaluating the impacts of a greenbelt on neighborhood propertyvalues in Boulder, Colorado, found that the aggregate property value for oneneighborhood increased $5.4 million with proximity to the greenbelt.Resulting in $500,000 of additional annual property tax, the increase in prop-erty tax alone could recover the initial costs of the $1.5 million purchase pricein just three years.

In Boulder, Colorado, the value of homes adjacent to the greenbelt were 32%higher that those for similar residences 3,000 feet away. (Correll, Lillydahl,and Singell, 1978.)

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Capital GreenwaysVictoria, British Columbia

Quesnel River WalkQuesnel, British Columbia

The Quesnel Riverfront Trail encom-passes the city of Quesnel linkingparks, quiet streets, places of historicinterest, residential areas and thedowntown section.

The recreational trail system wasbuilt in two phases. The first phase,the north trail, was built in 1990 andis 5 km in length. The north trailruns along the Quesnel and FraserRivers providing a peaceful andscenic trail for hundreds of citizenswho walk, jog and bike along theriverfront. Along the greenway route,Ceal Tingly Park, commemorativetrees, interpretive plaques and arestored steam shovel are some of thepoints of interest.

The second phase of the trail, thewest side trail, is 4.3 km and mean-ders adjacent to the Fraser River andBaker Creek. Trail visitors are takenthrough residential areas, municipalparks and the north section of down-town Quesnel. Downtown is connect-ed to the trail system by the historicFraser River Footbridge. Other pointsof historical interest along the trailare marked with plaques telling thehistory of the city.

The Quesnel River Walk provides ascenic recreational tour of thecity, opportunities to enjoy andinterpret history, and analternative transportation route.

Many people have worked to build anetwork of parks, trails, and linearcorridors that create the frameworkfor a green infrastructure in theprovincial capital region.

In 1994 the Provincial CapitalCommission set aside one million dol-lars to further encourage greenwaysinitiatives in the region. The goals ofthe Greenways Program includedevelopment of a network of path-ways, bikeways, highway corridorsand waterways; preservation of signif-icant heritage resources; ecosystemsprotection; preservation of visual cor-ridors; and fostering of partnershipsfor stewardship.

One significant link in the capitalgreenways system is the GallopingGoose Trail which is built upon a 60km former rail line which stretchesfrom downtown Victoria to Leechtownoutside Sooke and is considered thefirst “rails-to-trails” conversion inCanada.

Rail service along the routeended in 1979. The rails wereremoved and a trail wasinaugurated for recreationaluse in 1989. The CapitalRegional District (CRD) andits partner municipalitieshold a recreational lease fromthe Ministry ofTransportation and Highwayson the urban portions of therights-of-way.

The trail has been proposedto form a component of the Trans-Canada Trail, a proposed 15,000 kmtrail for hikers, skiers, equestriansand non-motorized vehicles startingfrom Victoria and ending at St.John’s, Nfld.

Funding from the Provincial CapitalCommission Greenways Fund will beused to secure and promote a com-prehensive network of green spaces“that are physically and visuallylinked.” The trail and bikeways

included in this greenway initiative will beconsidered an important element in theprovincial government’s overall environ-mental strategy of reducing vehicle use andincreasing health and recreation in thegreater Victoria area.

Many more linkages and potential green-way corridors are now being identified andconsidered throughout the Capital Regionin efforts to realize the the greenwaysvision - “veins of green spreading naturalvitality throughout the region.”

Community GreenwaysGreenways: An Integrating ToolA tool for integrating natural systems and communitiesGreenway programs involve three sets of actions: Planning & Public Awareness, PubicInvestment, and Land Use Regulation. A well balanced Greenway program includes all threetypes of action.Greenways can integrate decisions about environmental management among all levels of govern-ment as well as with conservation organizations and landowner groups. Greenways are aboutputting the pieces of the environmental management puzzle back together in British Columbiacommunities.

Planning and PublicAwarenessExamples of integrationthrough greenways include:

n within a city, a greenwayproject can allow coopera-tion among planning, parksand engineering depart-ments to create a stormwa-ter management facilitywith recreation, neighbour-hood form, and aestheticbenefits.

n planning for a greenwaycan provide a way for atown, a regional district,regional offices of BCEnvironment, BCTransportation &Highways, Forests and fed-eral DFO and DOE to cometo a common strategy forenvironmental protection ina watershed or greenwayarea.

n public awareness pro-grams like those on sedi-mentation and water quali-ty can be coordinatedthrough a greenway strate-gy, so that overlap orredundancy in delivery iseliminated, and resourcesare pooled to maximumbenefit. A greenway strate-gy will also include a rolefor volunteer conservationorganizations and landown-ers in the delivery of publicawareness programs andgreenway planning.

Public InvestmentExamples of integrationthrough greenways include:

n a village, regional dis-trict, and utility companycan coordinate the align-ment of a trail which cross-es all of their jurisdictions.By this coordination theyare able to create a trailwhich follows the mostpopular route, with theleast overall cost.

n the BC Forest Service,BC Environment, forestlicense holders, a landtrust and a regional districtcan develop a coordinatedstrategy for protection of astream riparian corridor asa part of a greenway. Therequirements of the ForestPractices Code are matchedwith parks and open spacepurchase actions by theregional district, and hold-ing of conservationcovenants by the landtrust, so that all partiesreinforce the goal.

n to provide fencing andrevegetation along a dis-turbed riparian area inactive farmland, a commu-nity can provide equipmentand foreman services tosupport volunteer labour,with materials supplied bythe landowner or con-tributed by interestedsponsors.

Land Use RegulationExamples of integrationthrough greenways include:

n to effectively stop clear-ing of riparian zones, alocal government andsenior agencies can worktogether to develop a sec-tion of a tree protectionbylaw which defines ripari-an zones and restricts treeremoval. The two govern-ments can sign a memo-randum of understandingwhich defines in whatcases the local governmentwill issue tickets, and whenDFO may lay chargesunder the Fisheries Act.

n CWS, BC Environment,Ducks Unlimited Canada,MAFF, local ranchers and aregional district can worktogether to devise a localbylaw to regulate land useon a floodplain, includingpolicies on urban landdevelopment, water licens-ing, dyking, landfilling,amount of paved surface,vegetation disturbance,fencing of riparian andhabitat areas, and livestockdensity.

n a local government, withthe cooperation of thelandowner, can pass acomprehensive develop-ment bylaw which allowsfor increased density inexchange for protection of ahabitat area and installa-tion of a greenway trail.

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TheLandownersRole

The LocalGovernmentRole

The Federal& ProvincialGovernmentRole

The Role ofConservationOrganizations

Greenways integrate actions to maximize effectiveness.Through rigorous action in the most sensitive parts of the greenway, and through integration of actionsamong stakeholders, limited resources can be applied to a greenway project with substantial results.

Planning and PublicAwarenessIncluding greenway strategicplanning, detail design,public and landowner con-tact.

Public InvestmentIncluding volunteers work-ing in the public interest.

Land Use RegulationIncluding monitoring andenforcement.

Determine if there are environ-mentally significant areas on yourproperty. If in doubt, ask for anopinion from a conservation orga-nization or agency.

Consider how greenway valuescould benefit you and your com-munity - in good will, tax benefits,advertising, value added or busi-ness opportunities.

Look for ways to pool resourceswith your neighbours for mutualbenefit, e.g. in stormwater man-agement or by providing a recre-ational amenity.

Consider cost sharing with govern-ments and non-government orga-nizations.

Form a community action group.

Be involved in community plan-ning and in drafting of bylaws, tobe sure that they are well designedand fair.

Encourage your peers to be stew-ards of the greenway.

If a problem could be solved byregulation, or a change to regula-tion or zoning, any landowner cantrigger a review.

Lead greenway planning efforts.

Plan jointly with adjacent munici-palities or regional governmentswhere watersheds or greenwayscross boundaries. Integrate green-way strategies into local growthmanagement strategies, OCPs andneighbourhood plans.

Plan for greenway education andinterpretation programs.

Provide integrated design and con-struction of trail networks,stormwater detention, habitatareas and recreation sites.

In critical areas, gain ownership ofenvironmentally sensitive areas bydedication or purchase.

Consider use of Development CostCharges to partially fund green-ways.

Provide the local approving officerwith a mandate to procure trailright of way during subdivision.

Include strategies for protection ofgreenway areas in DevelopmentPermits, Zoning Bylaws, TreeProtection and Soil DepositionBylaws.

Press for better enabling legisla-tion under the Municipal Act.

Provide interagency managementteams, and information on loca-tion and extent of sensitive areas.

Provide scientific advice on green-way management.

Provide funding assistance forplanning and public awarenessprograms.

Provide capital assistance pro-grams for purchase and restora-tion of greenway lands, and fortrails development.

Manage crown lands and institu-tions in the greenway consistentwith the greenway strategy.

Cooperate with local governmentsto integrate environmental andland use regulations.

Provide sample regulations andguidelines. Sign memoranda ofunderstanding with local govern-ments to coordinate enforcementof regulations.

Consider law reform to supportgreenways.

Educate about the need for con-servation of Greenway areas.

Assist in identifying ESAs, and indetermining conservation priori-ties.

Assist in greenway planning.

Provide stewardship agreementsand advice to private land owners.

Sponsor covenants or voluntarystewardship programs to protectgreenway values of private lands.

Provide volunteer funding orlabour for greenway restoration,trail or interpretive projects.

Operate land trusts to managegreenway lands.

Provide regular inspection andenforcement of covenant provi-sions.

Report bylaw violations.

Monitor development applicationsfor consistency with greenwayobjectives.

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Community GreenwaysGreenways: Planning with Natural SystemsWorking carefully, to build within the limits of natural systemsWatersheds are a basic unit of natural systems. Heights of land cause water falling as rain orsnow to be collected by creeks and streams and deposited into lakes, rivers, and eventually intooceans at lower elevations.This movement of water, andthe heights of land which sepa-rate watersheds, have a funda-mental impact upon all aspectsof natural systems. For thesereasons, watersheds are logicalunits for considering naturalprocesses in community plan-ning.

These are common symptoms ofnatural systems under stress:

n floods occur more often, at higherlevels, and floodwaters run brownwith silt.

n streams are buried or dyked, athigh cost.

n fish populations disappear and thevalue of fisheries decline.

n remaining streams dry up in thesummer.

n wells fail, or are polluted, resultingin major water infrastructure costs.

n beaches and lakes are closed toswimming, caused by unacceptablebacteria levels.

n tourism declines - or is reorientedtowards major man-made attractions.

n people move out to more attractivesurroundings or greener cities.

n commuter traffic increases - withroad building costs and impacts onneighbourhoods.

n air pollution becomes a problem.

n most native vegetation is removed,or crowded by imported weedyspecies.

n native birds are rare - replaced bypigeons, starlings, crows.

n natural resource based jobs moveaway and the local economy changes- due to a loss of natural capital.

n major investment in environmentalrestoration is required.

Greenways: IntegratedWatershed PlanningIntegrated Watershed Planning isa planning process where hydrol-ogy and biology are consideredtogether to provide an under-standing of natural systems thatgives direction for planning anddevelopment decisions.

Community greenways are a firststep toward the goal of integratedwatershed planning. Greenwayshelp to create physical linksbetween natural open spaceswhich can make it easier for nat-ural systems to respond tochange. As well, greenways canhelp to build the network of link-ages so that the needs of humanand natural systems can beplanned for at the same time.Planning for community green-ways is about protecting naturalsystems so that we can protectourselves.

Why Greenways & IntegratedWatershed Planning?As the rate of change accelerates,natural systems are both fragileand unpredictable. The mediaoften reports on events which addto the evidence that the way weplan and implement developmentis putting stress on natural sys-tems.

Recognizing the Fragile andVariable Character of NaturalSystems Natural systems are resilient,with some ability to recover fromdamage. At the same time, evenminor changes may begin a chainof events causing great turmoil,or loss of productive capacity.

In 1993,the Mississippi Riveroverflowed its banks and sub-merged much of the great plains.This flood caused unprecedenteddamage throughout the Americanmidwest.

Arising out of this natural eventwas a renewed awareness thatthe natural world holds surprises,and that engineered dykes are notthe only defence against theextreme variability of nature.

Limits of Acceptable ChangeNatural systems adapt constantlyto changes. As developmentoccurs within a watershed, manythresholds are met and exceeded.As each threshold of developmentis crossed, investment in mitiga-tion should increase. However, atsome point, the changes in natur-al systems cannot be mitigated,and become unacceptable.Greenway planning helps definewhat the limits of acceptablechange may be for each water-shed.

Transpiration

Precipitation

Infiltration& RunoffEvaporationWatersheds are

fundamental units ofnatural systems. Planningfor human communities shouldcorrespond to these basic natural units

Practical Benefits ofCommunity GreenwaysIncluded in this section:

4 Healthy Ecosystems4 Vibrant Communities4 Physical Infrastructure4 Economic Values

Greenways provide many practical benefits forcommunities and for the natural ecosystemswhich underlay them. The next section of thisguide describes some of the ways that green-ways contribute to the quality of communitylife.

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Practical BenefitsHealthy EcosystemsGreenway planning supports naturally productive ecosystemsMaintaining the productivity of natural systems is essential to ensure our continued prosperity.Greenway planning recognizes the delicate structure of natural systems - as well as the absoluteimportance of clean land, clean air, and clean water. Greenways, as part of a coordinatedapproach to environmental planning, can help to ensure that these resources are protected, andthat the sustained viability of natural systems are considered in decisions about the form ofhuman settlement.

Greenways, Part ofEcosystemsGreenways can be important compo-nents of an ecosystem providing con-nections between urban areas andthe natural hinterland. To be effectivein this role, greenways should:

n conserve streams, lakes, and wet-lands along with their riparian areas.

n conserve key upland habitats andwildlife corridors.

n limit development on floodplainsand groundwater recharge areas.

n provide places for stormwaterdetention and constructed wetlands.

n provide vegetation filters for sedi-ment and pollutants.

n design trail systems with respectfor habitat objectives, to encouragealternatives to the motor car, and forpublic appreciation of the greenwayecology.

n maintain green space within cities,to encourage compact communitiesand allow greater urban densitieswhile maintaining the quality of nat-ural systems.

BiodiversityGenetic DiversityGreenways include wildlife corridorsand connections between habitats.These connections are crucial togenetic diversity, which is created bythe interbreeding among populations.

Genetic diversity improves diseaseresistance, and provides speciesresilience.

Species & Habitat DiversityThe protection of habitat is funda-mental to protecting fish and wildlife- and most importantly, rare, endan-gered, and threatened species.Greenways must include these impor-tant habitats if they are present.

By including a wide range of habitattype, greenways can encourage adiversity of species to coexist. Thisdiversity of habitats and species:

n provides balance among all speciesand elements of an ecosystem.

n is critical to the food web.Diversity of plant and animalspecies is an important factorcontributing to the stability ofnatural systems.

Changes to natural systems, suchas converting land for agriculturalproduction, will have effects onplant and animal communitiesthroughout an ecosystem.

Providing fish andwildlife habitat that isproductive andsustainable meansconserving completeecosystems. All levels inthe food web areinterdependent and mustbe conserved as part of awhole system.

Natural CyclesDeveloping productive and healthygreenway systems can contribute tothe needs of healthy ecosystems.

The cycling of water, nutrients andminerals through an ecosystem areinterconnected. Change in one partof the cycle will have impactsthroughout the ecosystem.

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Healthy ecosystems accommodatechange through the infinitely complexinteractions of many individual com-ponent parts. The result of all theseinteractions is a natural systemwhich is outwardly stable but whichis constantly changing to maintain itsdelicate internal balance.

The greenways concept recognizes theimportance of such natural complexi-ty and seeks to conserve critical ele-ments of the natural infrastructureso that the dynamic functioning ofecosystems can continue. Greenwaysare a tool which can help to integratehuman activity into a more sustain-able relationship with natural sys-tems.

Greenways do not recreate ‘naturalecosystems.’ All that they can do is toadd to the complexity and diversity ofthese systems and in doing so help tomaintain a healthy ecosystem.

In this way community greenwayscan help in providing many of thebenefits of natural systems, like:

❸✶more stable water cycles - withmoderate flood and drought.

❸✶better water quality.

❸✶healthier habitats, with morediverse flora and fauna.

❸✶corridors to connect flora andfauna with one another, to allow forseasonal movements in response tochange.

❸✶a meaningful connection to naturefor the people within a community.

Stability within Dynamic Systems

Community greenways do notrecreate natural systems. All thatthey can do is add to the diversityof these systems so that basicecological functions are supported.

Healthy productive habitat, withdiverse species of plants and animalscan be a significant benefit of wellimplemented community greenways.

In addition to benefits fornatural systems, greenwaysalso provide direct andmeaningful connectionsbetween nature and peoplewithin a community.

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Clean Air, Soil, and WaterAir QualityUrbanization has contributed to the prospect of globalwarming, which is a threat with serious ramifications forsome areas of British Columbia.

Rapid changes in temperature suggest that many ecosys-tems will not have time to adapt to new climactic condi-tions. If these rapid climate changes do occur, and natur-al ecosystems fail, how will human economies adapt?

Deteriorating air quality is a difficult problem to manageat a local level, because the sources of pollution may benearby, or far away. In spite of these global concerns,greenways can offer an important local contribution to airquality by:

n maintaining areas of natural vegetation near concen-trated sources of exhaust, to help absorb carbon emis-sions.

n providing windbreaks reducing the effects of wind.

n providing shade and cooling to reduce the unpleasantheat buildup associated with dense urban areas.

n providing corridors to allow movement of people, fish,and wildlife especially affected by changes to air quality.

Soil QualitySoil is created over time as a product of many mechanicaland biological processes. As the basis for the growth ofplants the quality of soil is a major determinant of natur-al productivity. Land development can potentially damagesoil in many ways including:

n erosion caused by the removal of vegetation, allowingsurface runoff to remove soil and carry it into streams.

n contamination of productive soils through the additionof toxins or pollutants.

n nutrient loading in areas of high agricultural use.

n compaction and breakdown of soil structure.

Water QualityManaging water quality in natural systems is a complexprocess involving not only rivers and lakes, but also thenatural storage and filtering capacities of soil and vegeta-tion. As water makes its way through these natural sys-tems many processes take place which provide opportuni-ties for the gradual cleansing and purification of watersupplies.

n Water which soaks into the ground as part of its trans-portation downstream is filtered and purified and emergesas springs flowing into streams during the summermonths, clean and cool.

n Many biological organisms living in streams and wet-lands help to break down physical and chemical impuri-ties in the water as part of their own life process.

Where human developments remove the opportunity forsuch natural filtration, alternative processes or construct-ed wetlands must be provided.

Urbanization has contributed to the prospect ofglobal warming. This trend may have seriousimplications for British Columbia.

Green space in urban areas should be managed aspart of a larger ecosystem with efforts to conservestreams, lakes, and wetlands, and protect waterquality.

Soil is created over time as aproduct of erosion and biologicalprocesses. As the basis for thegrowth of plants, the quality of soil is a majordeterminant of natural productivity.

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Aquatic HabitatFish, and all forms of aquatic life, have adapted to specif-ic habitat conditions which are created as part of the sea-sonal flow of water in watersheds. Water quality, tempera-ture and flows maintained in streams are essential to thepreservation of productive fish stocks.

n Water temperature is moderated by cool groundwaterrecharge, and by shade provided from streamside vegeta-tion.

n Groundwater recharged after heavy rains percolatesslowly into streams and rivers providing a supplement tobase stream flows during dry periods.

n Streams provide a variety of habitat types from swiftflowing water to still backwater channels. Habitat condi-tions are also varied as streams change from steeply slop-ing lands to relatively flat lowland areas.

n The character of stream banks, and bottom texture,influence species and habitat conditions.

Upland HabitatBeyond aquatic habitat edge, watersheds have impacts onthe habitats of many upland species. The availability ofwater has a major influence on vegetation, and thereforeon bird and animal habitat.

n Water stored in low lying wetlands supports waterfowlhabitat.

n Frequent flooding reduces tree cover and provides openareas of water tolerant vegetation.

n Drier areas in the interior provide an open forest covercreating habitat suitable for large mammals.

Wildlife CorridorsFragmentation of habitat is a common problem associatedwith development. As agriculture or urbanization separateand surround remnant habitat patches, species popula-tions within these patches become more isolated. Asspecies lose their ability to move between different habitatareas the biological safeguards offered by genetic diversityare reduced.

To mitigate against these problems, habitat corridorsneed to be protected to allow movement between habitatpatches.

Since threats to narrow corridors are common, whereverpossible more that one access corridor should be provid-ed.

Habitat BalanceIt is important to conserve a variety of habitat types as apart of a greenway system because animals are likely touse many different habitat areas as part of their daily orseasonal routines. For example:

n protecting nesting trees in wooded areas for hawks andeagles will be of little use if their hunting sites in openfields or wetlands are all converted to housing.

n providing fish ladders to upstream spawning areas willbe of little value if water quality has been degraded bysedimentation or increased temperatures such that fishare unable to survive.

HabitatWatercourses support an incredible variety oflifeforms. The same rivers and wetlands whichstore and transport water are rich in biodiversity- supporting fish, plant, animal, waterfowl andhuman species.

What Makes up Habitat?The habitat needs of fish and wildlife are comparable withthe needs of humans:

Clean land/water/air Healthy ecosystems dependon control of pollution.Polluting substances can beas common as sediment,manure, septic runoff, paintproducts, fertilizers, herbi-cides and pesticides, fuelspills, and car exhaust.

SpaceAll fish and wildlife need safespaces for feeding, reproduc-tion, rearing, and rest. Fishrequire good quality andquantity of water throughoutthe year.

FoodEnergy from the sun combined with nutrients in the soil,water, and air provide the basis of the food web.

CoverFor fish and wildlife, vegetation provides feeding sites,shade, shelter, hiding spaces, and camouflage.

Access/Escape RoutesTo survive in the long run, species need the ability to movein order to exchange genetic material with other popula-tions, to adjust to seasonal weather or global climatechange, to respond to habitat diminishment or otherthreats, to escape from predators, and to avoid crowding.

Clean land, air, andwater are the basicelements of wildlifehabitat.

Practical BenefitsVibrant CommunitiesGreenway planning creates direct and indirect lifestyle benefitsProtected green space has traditionally been provided in parks. As development progresses, theseparks become increasingly isolated in the modified landscape and separate from natural areas.Greenways seek to re-establish the links between parks and larger natural areas to create a net-work of green space.

Quality of LifeA green space network willcontribute greatly to thecharacter and livability ofurban areas. Greenwayswhich thread their waythrough urban areas pro-vide daily enjoyment ofnature for many people.Natural landscapes withinurban areas provide visualaccess to nature for every-one, and physical access togreenway trails and naturalareas for people with a spe-cial interest.

Greenways can provideopportunities to enjoy:

n Fish and wildlife closeby.

n Visual, spiritual and realconnection to nature.

n Appreciations of heritageand cultural resources,such as natural heritageresources, historic sites,cultural landscapes.

n Relief from urban pres-sures - noise, crowding,bustle.

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CommunityPlanningGreenways can help insocial planning for commu-nities, by:

n Environmental educa-tion, to bring the rewardsof appreciation of environ-mental quality across allsections of the community.Everyone has a right and aneed to be proud of thecommunity and its environ-ment.

n Separation of conflictingland use - greenways pro-vide a natural bufferbetween conflicting usessuch as housing, industryand farmland.

n Livability for low-costhousing - greenways canprovide open space besidehigher density housingsites, enhancing the qualityof life for the residents.

CommunityHealthGreenways play a role inpreventative health pro-grams in communities, byproviding:

n Places for recreation andexercise.

n Healthy transportationalternatives.

n Light, fresh air, and aclean environment.

Access to these basicamenities is important forall groups in the communi-ty, but is especially pre-cious for young familieswho may not have accessto other forms of recre-ation.

CommunitySpiritGreenways can contributeto the enhancement ofcommunity spirit by:

n Providing opportunitiesfor community volunteergroups like NaturalistsClubs, Rotary, Lions, etc. toparticipate in greenwayprograms.

n Providing focus for addi-tional community action onthe environment.

n Creating a natural legacyfor future generations, anda source of pride for ourcommunity.

n Neighborhood identity -by separating clusters ofdevelopment, greenwayscreate visible neighborhoodedges, and encourage com-munity spirit within neigh-borhoods.

n Community interaction -trails systems associatedwith greenways encourageneighbours to get outsideand meet.

Greenways provideopportunities to getoutside and participatein recreational activitiesor just enjoy nature.

Greenway trails provideenjoyment andtransportation alternatives.

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ActiveRecreationLinear greenway systemscan accommodate the fol-lowing activities:

n walking and jogging,

n fishing,

n cycling and mountainbiking,

n in-line skating,

n equestrian trails,

n nordic skiing,

n snowshoeing,

n water based recreationlike canoeing, kayaking,and swimming,

n linkages to intensiverecreation areas.

As well as linear recreation,greenways provide accessfor children and families tonature’s playground - thejoy of play and discovery innatural spaces.

Greenway managers shouldconsider noise and othernegative effects of motor-ized recreation. Motorboats, trail bikes, ATVs andsnowmobiles may be avalid use in some cases.These uses should be man-aged to minimize impactson habitat and passiverecreation uses.

PassiveRecreationGreenways provide a natur-al place for:

n bird watching

n wildlife viewing

n aesthetic appreciation

n nature interpretation

As part of a greenway pro-gram, space and soil maybe available for communitygarden plots.

TourismGreenways include manyattributes which can sup-port local or regionaltourism:

n things to see,

n things to do,

n things to learn.

The attractions thatGreenways offer can beeffective in encouragingtourists to stay that extranight.

A greenway can be a keypart of a tourism destina-tion marketing strategy.Having a greenway con-tributes to the image of ahealthy, active, and envi-ronmentally friendly com-munity.

Related business opportu-nities presented by green-ways include:

n equipment sales andrentals (bicycles, in-lineskates, cross country skis),

n guided and interpretivetours,

n concession and restau-rant opportunities,

n accommodation opportu-nities.

There is no quiet place in the white man’scities. No place to hear the unfurling ofleaves in the Spring, or the rustle ofinsects’ wings. . . And what is there to lifeif a man cannot hear the lonely cry of thewhippoorwill or the argument of the frogsaround the pond at night? . . . Whatever befalls the earth befalls the sonsof the earth. If men spit upon the ground,they spit on themselves. This we know -the earth does not belong to man, manbelongs to the earth.Man did not weave the web of life; he ismerely a strand in it. Whatever he does tothe web, he does to himself.attributed to Chief Seattle

Places where waterfowland fish are living arealso enjoyable places forchildren and families.

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Practical BenefitsPhysical InfrastructureIncorporate natural systems into infrastructure developmentAs communities grow, the potential for negativeimpacts on natural systems becomes muchmore acute. The construction of storm drainage,sewage treatment facilities, and roadways allaffect the way natural systems function. Thedesign of infrastructure projects undertakenwith a large measure of care and respect willhelp to create opportunities to maximize thebenefits from existing natural systems.

While individual changes to watersheds are minute, thecumulative effect of these changes in developed water-sheds can be very substantial, causing dramatic andexpensive flooding during wet periods, and droughts dur-ing the summer months. Infrastructure planning mustaccount for future development in a watershed, andaccommodate changes caused by:

❸✶Impervious surfaces such as rooftops, and parkinglots, that prevent rainwater from being absorbed by soilcausing more frequent and more severe flooding.

❸✶Increased stream flows which in turn create a need fordyking, channelization, streambank armouring, pipingand other expensive protection measures.

❸✶Stream modifications usually result in a loss of fishand wildlife habitat, and destruction of scenic resources.

Greenways canplay a significantrole in stormwa-ter managementby protectingstream corridorsand floodplains,and by providinga land base formore appropriateman-madestormwater man-agement facilities,like constructedwetlands andstormwaterdetention ponds.

Planning at a Watershed ScaleDevelopment has a major impact on the distribution ofwater through a natural system. Good development canreduce the impact of change, but ultimately the carryingcapacity of watersheds is finite. More people not onlymeans more infrastructure, but also much more expen-sive infrastructure, as the ability of the natural system toabsorb change is exhausted.

The impact of development on watersheds is difficult tomanage. Changes occur gradually over time and theincremental changes caused by increases in paved areas,rooftops, and stormwater piping mean that precipitationcan be collected quickly and routed into streams with vio-lent, often disruptive force.

Careful infrastructure planning will ensure thatfragile water supplies, habitats and recreationresources are not damaged during urban development.

In natural areas rainwater is absorbed and storedfor days or weeks, reducing the impact of a storm.Rain falling on a parking lot may arrive asfloodwaters in a stream within minutes.

Development can dramaticallychange hydrological cycles,creating alternating floods andlow base flows

Water SupplyAdequate supplies of potable watercan be an important limit for humandevelopment in some watersheds.Careful management is requiredthroughout the watershed to ensurethat the water supply is not dimin-ished. The supply of good water canbe affected by many factors:

n Loss of soil permeability duringdevelopment means that base flowduring dry periods will be lessbecause groundwater recharge forstreams is not possible.

n Efficient drainage systems createdfor recreation developments, agricul-ture, buildings, parking areas, androads, further reduce groundwaterretention and reduce base flows ofstreams in dry periods.

n The lack of summer water instreams can trap or kill fish, destroyfish habitat, and deprive licensedwater users of a water supply.Greenways can provide a means toprotect wetland and groundwaterrecharge areas in stream valleys, andwhen used in combination withstormwater management can provideadequate base flows for fish, wildlifeand human use.

Management of Non-Point-Source PollutionPoint sources of pollutants, like sani-tary sewer or industrial outfalls, areregulated by permits, and are noteasily mitigated by greenways.Greenways, however, can play aneffective role in mitigating non-pointsource pollutants like contaminatedrunoff from roads and parking areas,sediment, fertilizer, and chemicals.

Natural systems recycle their waste.Decaying organic matter (detritus) isthe base of the aquatic food web, andorganisms that decompose organicmatter are critical to ecosystems.

As well as allowing these naturalwaste management systems to func-tion, greenways provide filtration ofman-made pollutants. Natural vegeta-tion and soil organisms can be quiteeffective at absorbing or breakingdown some of these pollutants beforethey contaminate supplies of surfacewater or groundwater.

While land is being developed, and insome cases even after development,the disruption, removal of vegetation,and increased stormwater flows willcause erosion and stream washouts.The loss of soil from developmentsites, and the deposition of sedimentdownstream has significant biologicalimpacts, including destruction of fishhabitat.

A buffer of trees and vegetation main-tained as part of a greenway, betweendevelopment and streams, provides afilter for sediment. Streamside vegeta-tion also provides erosion control forstreambanks.

TransportationCorridorsGreenways can have several trans-portation functions:

n Trails & bikeways associated withgreenway systems provide an alterna-tive to cars. Greenway walking trailsand bikeways can provide shortcutsor alternative routes from home toschool, convenience store, office orfriends.

n Wide greenway corridors can runparallel to major transportation net-works. While transportation systemswill still have an impact, the noiseand fumes will be separated fromurban areas by the greenway, andthe greenway will provide visual andsafety advantages for the transporta-tion facility.

n As linear natural spaces, green-ways can operate as fish & wildlifecorridors - providing fish access upand down streams, and wildlife corri-dors for seasonal travel or escaperoutes.

Utility CorridorsHydro, underground pipeline andsewer utility corridors can form apart of a greenway system.

Utility alignments must be planned toavoid impacting fish and wildlifehabitat, and therefore adequate sepa-ration between habitat and utilitycorridors must be planned into green-ways.

Multiple use of rights of way are oftenused to good advantage. Whistler, forexample, has combined a major val-ley pedestrian/bicycle trail with anunderground sanitary sewer main.The trail provides a major recreation-al feature as well as maintenanceaccess to the sewage system.

Greenway buffers and trails, if prop-erly planned, can provide an inexpen-sive land base for future utility instal-lation or upgrading projects.

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Lack of summer water in streamscan trap or kill fish fry, destroyfish habitat, and deprive waterlicense holders of water supply.

Utility rights of way can easily bemanaged to encourage greenwayactivities. Conversely, greenwaysplanned in advance can provideopportunities for future utilityexpansion.

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Practical BenefitsEconomic ValuesGreenway planning is significant in the development of prosperous communitiesNatural systems have a major influence on what communities are like, and on the way decisionsare made about how they are created. Greenway planning can help to identify these naturalinfluences and to incorporate them into an effective development plan. Including greenways aspart of community plans helps to protect existing natural systems, and at the same time, createcommunities which are comfortable and sustainable.

Benefits of CommunityGreenwaysEstablishing greenways can be anadditional cost for developing com-munities. On the other hand, thereare many direct and indirect benefitswhich must also be accounted.

Economic DevelopmentGreenways can provide a tangibleadvantage to communities seeking toattract or keep corporate citizens. Forcorporations, quality of life is thethird most important factor in deci-sions to relocate.

The Chamber of Commerce inSacramento, California, for example,advertises their greenway to potentialcorporate citizens as ‘a 30 mile oasisin the heart of the city. ...at many loca -tions along the bicycle trail you canwade into the river, cast a line, andnot see a single sign of civilization.’

Particularly within British Columbia,where other factors may be equal, awell developed greenway can providesignificant advantage for economicdevelopment.

Much of the growth experienced inthe Okanagan, Lower Mainland, andVancouver Island has occurred aspeople migrate from out of Provincetowards more favorable lifestyles. Asa part of the BC way of life, all com-munities can benefit from a greenspace network which improves thequality of urban living.

Tourism PotentialIn promoting local tourism manycommunities have featured green-ways, park systems, and naturewalkways as part of a package oflocal attractions.

Real Value AddedThroughout Canada, and particularlyin the US, studies have consistentlydocumented that greenway acquisi-tion and maintenance costs are offsetby increased property taxes due toincreased value of adjacent proper-ties.

Increased Property TaxIncreased property tax revenue canbe used to offset greenbelt acquisitioncosts.

n In Boulder, Colorado a greenbeltacquisition of $1.5 million dollars cre-ated an increase in property valueswhich could have returned an annualincrease in property tax revenue of$500,000.

Many additional examples of costeffective green space acquisition havebeen documented. (Brabec 1992).

Growth ManagementGreenways can reinforce growth man-agement initiatives in a positive way.By defining the edges of developingareas with an attractive resource - aCommunity Greenway - plannerscreate a positive reason to avoidexpensive development sprawl.Substantial savings in public expen-ditures can be achieved by avoidingservicing costs for distant, low densi-ty subdivisions.

n Where greenway systems areestablished to embrace developmentclusters, the monotony of strip devel-opment can be avoided.

n Where linear greenways have beendeveloped to provide natural connec-tions into the centre of urban areas,improved quality of life reduces theneed for people to move to the edgesof cities to find a closeness to nature.

n Access to natural areas providesopportunity to encourage higher den-sity development because of the pres-ence of natural amenity.

Property values near Greenwaysincrease. More valuable propertiesmean increased tax revenue whichcan be used to offset open spaceacquisition costs.

For corporations, quality oflife is the third mostimportant factor indecisions to relocate.(Cushman and Wakefield 1989)

A greenway program can help private landowners interested inmaintaining their land in a natural condition. For example, acovenant arranged with conservation organizations can provide taxrelief, as well as maintenance help and expertise.

Minimizing the Cost of Open SpaceCommitments for protection of new greenway areas canbe made with least cost to public or private interests by:

Advance PlanningIdentify proposed greenways to be compatible with bothenvironmental values and zoning or subdivision patterns:

n Plan greenway implementation and land use changesin concert - to minimize conflicts in land use and acquisi-tion.

n Large scale greenway corridors outside the ALR or FLRwill be more easily protected in association with largescale development, or in rural areas, or will need to bepurchased as parkland;

n Existing zoning commitments should be respected -plan greenway linkages with fairness to landowners, e.g.might a candidate greenway site be gained by clusterdevelopment in co-operation with the landowner? Avoidraising expectations for large scale greenways where exist-ing small-lot subdivision or zoning patterns make cooper-ative measures or purchase unrealistic.

Strategic Purchases & AcquisitionThe earlier in the development process land can beacquired, usually the lower the cost:

n Identify greenway linkages in advance of development,and purchase strategic greenway properties in advance ofrezoning or adjacent development;

n Consider advance purchase using general revenue.Target subsequent development cost charges for openspace towards greenway improvements, or extension ofthe greenway system into other undeveloped areas.

n Coordinate greenways with other land needs, e.g. utili-ty right of way or parkway alignments, transit corridors,fisheries setbacks, floodplain areas.

Tax Incentives

n Donate ESAs to conservation to trigger an income taxcredit worth 50 cents per dollar donated, under proposedchanges to the Federal Income Tax Act included in the1995 budget;

n Relieve municipal land taxes in exchange for land stew-ardship. The Public Benefit Rating System developed inWashington State uses such local tax incentives.

Dedications and CovenantsSubdivision triggers statutory dedications of land forparks, schools and public ways, and often involves theregistration of covenants to reflect negotiated restrictions.

n Plan the location of lands donated under the 5% parksand 5% schools requirements to complement greenways;

n At the OCP stage, plan for trail routings - both to pro-vide certainty to developers and to encourage dedicationof trails as public ways at the time of subdivision;

n Consider the use of covenants, without outright pur-chase, to limit development on environmentally sensitiveparts of properties. However, at the same time, considerthe rights of the property owner for use under the zoning,for the need to limit liability, and the need to enforce thecovenant for it to be effective.

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VolunteersVolunteerism should be encouraged in an organizedgreenway system.

n Encourage Non-Government Organizations to holdcovenants, manage and maintain greenway lands as vol-unteers.

n Use landowner contact to promote volunteer steward-ship.

Integrated Public StewardshipIn the presence of comprehensive green space planning,large public landholders can be encouraged to manageland to support the objectives of greenways.

n Integrate greenway planning with development plansfor local forests and other resource developments;

n Work with schools, colleges, universities, hospitals, andother institutional landholders to realize greenway objec-tives on their holdings;

n Remember that the public street and highway systemcan provide key linkages as a part of a greenway system.

Integrated Private StewardshipA cooperative private sector is a key to the affordabilityand acceptance of a greenway system.

n Maximize incentives - like density bonus or densityaveraging, or flexibility in application of regulations inresponse to site conditions;

n Use regulations with restraint, and with an eye to sim-plicity of administration. Watch for effects of proposedregulations on small or existing parcels - recognize thatexisting parcels should be allowed to develop or maintaina use under the zoning bylaw. Either provide relief fromthe regulatory requirements, or purchase land where it isunduly affected;

n Make regulations of all government levels consistent,provide certainty and fairness in administration, and rec-ognize developments which meet greenway objectives withexpeditious approvals.

Private land, or land held publicly for other uses,may have conservation agreements or covenantsregistered against the land title, which allow non-government organizations to manage lands in wayscompatible with greenway objectives.

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... Contributions of GreenwaysGreenways can be a helpful component in the management of change in developing areas. Thegreenway concept provides for connections between natural and developed areas, and providesfor streamlined environmental regulation and protection.

... Limitations of GreenwaysSuccess of ecosystem based planning, including greenways, will be founded on public support,financial and political, for effective conservation of critical ecosystem resources.

Well managed greenways can help toretain areas of viable natural vegetationwhich can adapt to changing conditions.

Greenways can provide habitat whichsupports a wide variety of bird andanimal species.

Floodplains protected within greenwayswill help reduce flood damage andsedimentation of streams.

Interpretive facilities can be designedprovide a educational function,explaining greenway concepts.

Without cooperation, and broad basedcommunity support, the success of agreenway program will be limited.

Ecosystems have a finite carryingcapacity. Greenways are only helpful inmanaging growth within these naturallimits.

Included in this section:❊Introduction❊Vision Statement❊Partnerships❊Issues and Inventory❊Objectives❊Alternatives❊Strategic Plan❊Detail Design

From planning and design through to implementationand management, greenways require a specialized processwhich can incorporate the expertise of many people. Thissection of the guide illustrates a planning process andsuggests interdisciplinary partnerships which can refinegreenway ideas and create greenway action.

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Planning for CommunityGreenways

InventoryIdentify issues,based on a combi-nation of localknowledge andresearch. Collectcurrent informa-tion and analyze

to refine theissues.

Greenway PlanningIntroductionManaging complexityEstablishing a greenway program involves many issues and many people. The associated com-plexity can be daunting. To keep focussed and move the greenway program forward, it is neces-sary to have a clear understanding of a planning process and a structured approach to partner-ships.

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Planning in Three CyclesThe adjacent diagram illustratesthree planning cycles:

VisionAt the outset of a greenway pro-gram, a vision of the purpose, loca-tion, and likely partners will benecessary. Create this vision state-ment based on a cursory runthrough the four planning steps.

The ‘Vision’ will evolve and becomerefined as Cycle 2: Strategic Plan iscompleted.

Strategic PlanOnce some funding and partner-ships are in place based on theVision Statement, complete astrategic planning exercise by fol-lowing the four planning steps indetail. The extensive public involve-ment and planning studies associ-ated with the strategic plan willlead to decisions on what actionsshould be taken, the location ofactions, and detailed priorities andassignments of responsibilities.Produce maps, tables, reports andother communication tools to mar-ket the plan.

Detail DesignThe Strategic Plan may identifyindividual projects to be undertak-en as funds and resources allow.For example, one project might be alinear park, another an erosioncontrol bylaw, a third a habitatrestoration. Complete detail designfor each of these projects using thefour planning steps, this time con-centrating on fine details of word-ing, administration or design, quali-ty and cost control, and operationsor maintenance considerations.

ObjectivesCreate writtenobjectives to statewhat the greenwayprogram wants toaccomplish, andwhen.

AlternativesReview alternativesto go through a‘trial and error’ ofsolutions on paper,prior to decidingon any onesolution.

DecisionsBased on anevaluation ofalternatives, makechoices on actionsand priorities.

Four Planning StepsEach planning cycle follows fourbasic planning steps. The level ofdetail increases with each cycle.

The Millstone GreenwayThe Millstone River watershed near Nanaimo on Vancouver Island hasbeen the site of a pilot project for planning Community Greenways.

It is a typical near-urban BC watershed:❸✶near 100 sq.km. in size;

❸✶about 50% working forest, 50% various rural and urban land usesunder rapid development;

❸✶with a wide variety of terrain - mountains, foothills, valleys, floodplain;

❸✶including several lakes, wetlands, different sizes of watercourse, and asmall estuary at the river mouth;

❸✶rich with wildlife, and with fishery values both for salmon and trout;

❸✶under many jurisdictions, including a City, Regional District, variousprovincial and federal agencies, as well as private, corporate and utilityinterests;

❸✶undergoing rapid growth and development, with new initiatives inplanning, practices and attitudes towards stewardship in all parts of thewatershed.

The objective of the Millstone Greenway pilot project was to integrate aGreenway approach into the Official Community Plans of both the Cityand the Regional District.

Illustrations from the preliminary planning for the Millstone Greenwayare used as an example in this publication.

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Vision Strategic Plan

Linear Park

Erosion Control

Habitat Restoration

Habitat AreaConservation

TrailConstruction

InterpretivePrograms

Erosion ControlBylaw

ConstructionGuidelines

WorkerTraining

LandownerContact

CooperativeFunding

HabitatConstruction

Public ProcessWatch for this icon if you are a mem-ber of a community group, or respon-sible for public involvement in green-way planning.

Greenways should effectively involvethe general public. Be respectful ofpublic needs for quick and conciseinformation. Communicate through:❸✶Articles in newspapers❸✶Direct Mailing❸✶Individual Contacts ❸✶Public Forums and Meetings

An information program will stimu-late those who are interested enoughto participate in a greenway program.Find ways for people to becomeinvolved at all levels of the process.

Greenway PhasingEstablishing a greenway may only happen over the long term. Plan a greenway programas a series of manageable projects.

For example, after the Vision and Strategic Plan are completed as coordinating docu-ments, many individual projects might be undertaken concurrently, or one at a time.

By careful organization, a small group can maintain thefocus of the greenway program while still involving manyorganizations throughout the planning and implementa-tion stages. A small group which helps to prepare theVision Statement may grow to include many partnersworking together at the Strategic Plan stage. Later stagesof Detail Design and Implementation may involve evenmore partners, but many may act in small groups orindependently under the general direction of the StrategicPlan and a Greenway Steering Group.

Priorize projects based on benefits, opportunities, andavailable financial and human resources. To maintainmomentum, be sure to celebrate success at the end ofeach project.

Detail Design Implementation

Starting with a VisionA Greenway process starts with a few individu-als with a vision - a practical dream of how alocal area can be made more sustainable.

The initial vision statement and map will bebased on preliminary information. Be preparedto update the vision periodically during thegreenway planning process, in response to newinformation. Page 37 shows how the visionillustrated here evolved.

What are the issues?Identify green space assets which are impor-tant for environmental, cultural, or recreationreasons. Analyze the related opportunities andthreats to identify issues. Talk to people, findout what is important to the community. Arethe issues important enough to require action?

OpportunitiesLook at possibilities for linking protected areas.Identify strategies and allies which might sup-port a greenway program. Find ways to balanceother land uses with greenway objectives.

ThreatsBe aware of current or planned actions whichmight threaten greenway assets. Rapid devel-opment or permissive zoning may be damagingriparian habitat. Informal trail networks maybe threatened by new roads or developmentprojects.

A Better Way of Doing BusinessFind out what environmental agencies andplanners are doing about threats and opportu-nities. Are the issues being well addressed?Would a greenway program help to coordinatethe agencies and landowners involved?Consider the possibility of creating a greenwayalliance made up of stakeholders and membersof interested agencies.

Be prepared to discuss the costs and benefitsof greenways. Consider the environment, socialand economic development, recreation andtourism, land values, and tax revenue.

The map and legends at the right show how asimple sketch can illustrate opportunities toconnect existing green spaces into a completegreenway system by focusing on key linkages -for watercourses, habitat or trails.

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Greenway PlanningVision Statement“A vision without a task is but a dream; A task without a vision is drudgery;A vision with a task is the hope of the world.” Church inscription, Sussex, England 1730

Prepare a vision statement toencapsulate the underlyingpurpose of the greenway project.This vision should become theengine that drives the process.

ExistingParks &InstitutionalHoldings

ExistingWorkingLandscapes

Agricultural Land ReserveForest Land ReserveProvincial Forest

Provincial/National ParksCommunity ParksEcological ReservesSchool/Hospital CampusesOther Public Reserves

Existing Greenway Components

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Achievable DreamsDescribe the Vision in simple terms thatare widely supported and practical, e.g.❊❊✶✶We want to be able to hike and bikefrom downtown to the edge of the city.❊❊✶✶We want to protect fish in our streams.❊❊✶✶We want a trail system which allowsviews to working landscapes.❊❊✶✶We want a project that builds communi-ty spirit.❊❊✶✶We want to cut red tape, and reduce thecost of environmental stewardship.

Approaching Funding PartnersSome greenway programs will fall under existing man-dates. Others will require fund raising. To get financialsupport:❸✶Prepare a written and graphic summary of the Vision.This submission should be concise and professional.❸✶Describe the Vision in physical terms.Describe the Vision in terms of benefits, costs, andadministrative implications.❸✶Provide a work plan including a detailed budget for thetasks, and a workable schedule. Design the work plan tocorrespond with the mandate of the funding agencies.Suggest how the greenway could be funded by poolingtogether funding from existing programs.❸✶Be specific about how much money is required, andwho the funding partners are expected to be.❸✶Be persistent, polite and patient.

Building Support❸✶Let the politicians know about your project.Build on local issues to start a community greenwaygroup. Structure your group - keep a small working core,but let everyone participate - see page 27 for organiza-tional approaches.❸✶Let the funding bodies know about the level of yoursupport in the community.❸✶Avoid planning the greenway in detail as a part of thesupport-building process. Your objective is to raise fundsfor planning, not to do the planning in the absence oftechnical help.

Keeping Momentum❸✶Talk to everyone about pooling money and resources.Encourage a meeting among the potential funding part-ners.❸✶When you are turned down for funding from onesource, try another. Once you have some funding, trythose who initially refused.❸✶Keep trying - fund raising can take many months.Consider your timing - would this be more successful in afew months or in a year or two?❸✶Recognize when you have raised enough money to getstarted. Don’t waittoo long, or yourfunding sourcesmay lose theirinterest or abilityto participate.

Public ProcessA greenway may start with anyone - aconcerned individual, a communitygroup, an environmental organiza-tion, or a planner. In the beginning,funding may be limited, so the energyof volunteers is essential to carry anidea forward until seed money can befound for in-depth planning and pub-lic participation.

Water-courses

MajorPotentialHabitatLinkages

PotentialMajor TrailLinkages

Potential trail types:WalkwayBikewayEquestrian TrailNordic Ski TrailMulti-purpose Trail

Other potential ESA link-ages not shown:Riparian CorridorsMinor Upland CorridorsSensitive AreasHabitat Restoration Areas

Watershed BoundaryRivers and StreamsLakesWetlandsFloodplains

Potential Greenway Components

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Greenway PlanningPartnershipsCan anybody remember when the times were not hard and money was not scarce?Ralph Waldo Emerson

Greenways are integrating projects. One of their strengths is the ability to integrate the energiesand resources of many parties. A greenway provides benefits for many users, but also impactsupon the decisions taken by many organizations. Because of this, greenways need to be broadlybased and cooperative.

Government of CanadaSeveral federal government agen-cies have programs which areaimed at encouraging partner-ships for Greenways and otherstewardship initiatives. Partnersmay include:

Department of Fisheries andOceans (DFO)

Environment Canada: CanadianWildlife Service (CWS)

Parks Canada

Public Works Canada

Province of BritishColumbiaThe Province provides environ-mental information, and directfunding. Partners may include:

Ministry of Environment, Landsand Parks (MELP)

Ministry of Forests (MOF)

Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheriesand Food (MAFF)

Ministry of Municipal Affairs(MMA)

Ministry of Transportation andHighways (MOTH)

Regional DistrictsRegional Districts administerland use regulation for unorga-nized areas, and growth man-agement strategies. Greenwaysare a natural part of growthmanagement strategies forRegional Districts. Partners mayinclude:

Planning Departments

Parks & Recreation Departments

Engineering Departments

Administration

Municipalities

Municipal partners may include:

Planning Departments

Parks & Recreation Departments

Engineering Departments

Heritage, Environment, or SocialPlanning staff

Administration

First Nations may also be valu-able greenway partners.

Greenway LeadershipA spontaneously formed group withenthusiasm for a particular issue isan ideal organization to start green-ways. Such a group can rally supportand draw together the resources forsubsequent stages of greenway devel-opment.

To sustain enthusiasm over thelonger term, a greenway programneeds to find a more permanentstructure - a formalized group, likelyincluding many of the original sup-porters, that can assume responsibil-ity to carry the idea forward. Thisgroup should have resources to pro-vide ongoing coordination, keepingother participants and the publicaware of the process as it unfolds.

Community Groups asGreenway PartnersGreenway programs rely on the moti-vation of the public for their success.There is a vital, and continuing, lead-ership role for community groups toplay in seeing a greenway programfrom vision to reality.

Greenway programs are most power-ful if they are supported by many,not just one, community group, e.g.conservation organizations, Rotary,Kinsmen, Lions or other serviceclubs, professional or industry asso-ciations, neighbourhood associations,recreation groups, etc. GreenwayAlliances can focus the resources ofthese various groups to commonobjectives.

Getting the Word OutAs the issues relating to a particulargreenway program are established itwill be possible to develop a list ofstakeholders with vested interests inthe greenway, including adjacentlandowners, government agencies,conservation organizations and inter-ested individuals. These peopleshould be consulted throughout theplanning process and encouraged toparticipate in planning decisions.

Effective greenways can only be builtout of this inclusive approach to landmanagement.

Public participation costs money. Besure that organizations are adequate-ly funded to facilitate this publicinterest.

Potential Funding PartnersGreenways can help to establish efficient relationships between organizations. Given this joint benefit,funding may arrive from many unexpected sources. All levels of government and many corporations mayhave specific responsibilities to cooperate in a greenway program if the issues addressed by the program fallunder their jurisdiction.

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ConservationOrganizationsConservation organization part-ners may include:

The Federation of BritishColumbia Naturalists

The Nature Trust of BritishColumbia

Ducks Unlimited Canada

Trout Unlimited

The Pacific Salmon Foundation

The BC Wildlife Federation

Wildlife Habitat Canada

Georgia Strait Alliance

ServiceOrganizationsGreenways can attract fundingfrom foundations and servicegroups whose interests arebroader than conservation.Partners may include:

Foundations like the VancouverFoundation, the Real EstateFoundation

Rotary International

Lions Clubs

Kinsmen Clubs

InstitutionsSchools, colleges and universi-ties will be a source of energy,expertise and support.Campuses of all types can forma part of a greenway system.Partners may include:

Schools and School Districts

Colleges and Universities

Hospitals

Correctional Centres

Military Establishments

Business & CorporationsPrivate ventures with insightinto the values of greenways maycontribute. Crown corporationsand utilities also recognize thevalue of environmental steward-ship. Partners may include:

BC Hydro

Forest Renewal BC

Gas & Pipeline Utilities

Railways

Developers

Tourism Businesses

For more informationThis chart introduces the major groups who may have an interest in funding a greenway program in yourcommunity. ‘Community Stewardship: A Guide to Establishing Your Own Group’ is a Stewardship Seriesguide providing detailed information on organizing and funding for community stewardship groups.

Greenway AlliancesA Greenway Alliance may be estab-lished to oversee greenway planningactivities. This group could include:conservation organization, landown-ers, politicians, interested individu-als, staff from local, provincial, andfederal governments and FirstNations.

The Greenway Alliance shouldinclude representation from majorfunding partners.

Multi-agency partnerships will nor-mally require that a Memorandum ofUnderstanding (MOU) will be drawnup. Keep it simple and straightfor-ward, and ensure that it is doneexpeditiously.

Structure of a GreenwayAllianceEstablish a structure for theGreenway Alliance which allows forefficient operations. Three separate,related groups might be includedunder the Greenway Alliance banner:

Greenway Steering Groupincluding key representatives fromthe supporting groups, both govern-ment and non-government. TheSteering Group would act like aBoard of Directors, providing direc-tion and decisions for the Alliance.

Greenway Technical GroupA subset of the Steering Group wouldprovide technical expertise. Thismight be from dedicated professionalsvolunteering their time, by second-ment from government agencies, orby consultants.

Greenway PartnersAll funding members of the compo-nent organizations of the GreenwayAlliance, and other interested agen-cies or organizations, would beinvolved as Greenway Partners.Newsletters, public forums, well orga-nized meetings, special projects andother events may be held periodicallyto keep the memberships of the part-ner organizations informed and sup-portive. In between these specialevents, the representative in thesteering group would be responsiblefor communication with the sponsor-ing organization.

Staffing for a GreenwayAllianceDon’t create another layer of govern-ment. Avoid creating long-termbureaucracies.

Be task oriented. Bring together theminimum number of people that canaccomplish the task. When its done,disband or move to the next task.

Consider use of consultants for plan-ning, design and management. Theywill be very task oriented.

Consider secondments from existingagencies. This allows supportive staffto come together from many agencies,work together on a task, and returnto their agency.

Respect that agencies have limitedstaff, limited time, and enormousdemands. Use staff time efficiently,and if a major task is involved, con-sider a secondment.

Ensure that the Greenway Alliance isgiven resources for professional plan-ning - either staff or consultants. Theconsiderable work required for aGreenway is too much for volunteersto do alone.

Public ProcessStart a greenway process with a fewkey local non-government organiza-tions. Form an ad-hoc steering group.

After raising funding for planning andcompleting basic organization,expand into a Greenway Alliance,including other organizations and thegeneral public.

Be StrategicCollect general data at overviewscales - use it to identify areas wheremore data is needed. Collect morespecific data only in the areas whereit is needed.

Collect detailed data only whereabsolutely necessary. Deferdata collection where possibleto later stages in the greenwayprocess.

ConsultantsUse consultants to providespecific information which isaccurate and reliable. Be spe-cific about terms of reference,as this information may berelatively expensive.

VolunteersVolunteer data collection canprovide a great deal of infor-mation at low cost. This pro-vide opportunities for directpublic involvement in green-ways.

University ResearchEstablish cooperative fundingfor research. Consider jobtraining programs.

Organization &FundingIt is very likely that the dataneeded for Greenways is need-ed for other projects as well.Strategic partnerships canmake the data collection a sharedresponsibility, and a shared cost.

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Greenway PlanningIssues and InventoryCollecting information for the greenway processData collection can be an expensive part of the greenway process. The costs in time and moneyof collecting unnecessary data means that it is especially important to be very clear and preciseabout information gathering priorities.

Starting with Key Issues The Vision Statement and initial con-tacts will have identified key issueswhich the greenway program wantsto address. Design an inventoryprocess to get the critical informationto address these key issues.

Getting a Clear Picture Existing information will providemost of the basic informationrequired for a greenway strategicplan. However, much of the informa-tion may not be mapped, or may beat incompatible scales. Key themes tolook for are:❸✶Land Status - what is the patternof property boundaries? Zoning?Public Ownership? Check with localgovernments.

❸✶Fish - are they present, or is therepotential for re-establishment? Whatis the extent of riparian habitat infor-mation? Is there enough data tomake initial decisions? How can fur-ther data be collected as land adja-cent to streams develops?

❸✶Wildlife - are extents of habitatadequately established? Is additionalbiological survey work required? Canbiological survey be deferred untillater in the planning process?

❸✶Migratory Birds and EndangeredSpecies - contact EnvironmentCanada, BC Environment, DucksUnlimited Canada, and others.

❸✶B.C. Conservation Data Centre -Sensitive Ecosystems Inventory. Thisinformation is being prepared insome parts of the Province to identifyrare or sensitive habitat.

Defining the IssuesOnce data is assembled, review of thecompiled information will determinethe issues.

The results of this synthesis can bepresented in a Summary of Issuesflyer which can be reviewed by fund-ing agencies and the public.

The issues defined will provide abasis for determining objectives -what actions should be taken toaddress the issues?

Data Collection should be strategicand phased, so that delays due tocollection of unnecessary data areavoided at the start of the process.Detailed information is gathered, whenneeded, in later planning cycles.

Inventory

Public ProcessPublic groups can collect informationon local values, and local knowledgeof sensitive areas, historical or recre-ation features, through:❸✶Public meetings❸✶Focus groups❸✶Conservation organizations❸✶Direct contact with longtime resi-dents.❸✶Public opinion surveys.

As well, public review of data andmaps collected by agencies or consul-tants will help to reveal missing orinaccurate information.

Map SourcesBase mapping may be available asdigital computer files or hard copy.Sources to consider include:Satellite ImageryLandSat ImagesSPOT ImagesAirphotosMaps BCPrivate ContractorsTerrain Resource InventoryMapping (TRIM)Maps BCEnvironmental MappingMELP-FloodplainsMELP/CWS-WildlifeMELP/DFO-Fisheries SensitiveZonesCDC-Sensitive EcosystemsInventoryMOF-Vegetation CoverLocal Government MappingCadastral (Legal Boundaries)Zoning & UtilitiesParks & Open Space MappingPublic Surveys

Low Tech OptionsMost mapping and data collectionnow is prepared digitally. This pro-vides great flexibility for manipulationand viewing at different scales.

However, greenway planning can stillbe undertaken effectively with handdrawn map sheets and overlays.These may be registered over a basemap for analysis of information.Different layers of information can bedisplayed for different purposes.

Greenway PlanningObjectivesSetting out what a greenway must accomplishEstablishing meaningful and attainable objectives is an important part of the greenway planningprocess. Common greenway objectives, established in response to existing opportunities, andshaped by input from many people, may be the glue that keeps a greenway alliance intact, andthe fuel for greenway progress.

Finding Common ObjectivesTo have objectives in common is to have a common purpose.

A greenway program can provide a means for divergent organizations to poolresources, expertise, and mandate towards common stewardship objectives.

Trying to find objectives that many people can agree on can be difficult.People tend to think of exceptions, possible consequences, or worst case sce-narios. Different interpretations of the same words can lead to misunder-standings.

It is often easier to agree on specific actions at a specific location than it is toagree on a broad objective. This is because every objective must be applied inlight of extenuating circumstances, context and hardship.

Therefore this chapter outlines how to define objectives thoroughly - toanswer the questions what? when? how? and where?. By answering thesequestions, stakeholders are more likely to gain mutual understanding andtrust, and to find common purpose.

For Example...To provide a trail system which connects the waterfront to the ridge oflocal foothills by the year 2005.

For Example... To protect the riparian zone of all streams, lakes and wetlands in thecommunity, whether fish-bearing or not, by the year 2000.

Objectives, Desired Actions? When?Objectives should have required actions and time para-meters.

Define trail system components:❸ Multipurpose trail - 3.0 metre or greater width, paved, for walkers,

cyclists, roller blades, disabled, limited to areas of gentle topographyand limited environmental sensitivity.

❸ Hiking/Equestrian trail - soft surface trail, concentrated in agricul-tural areas.

❸ Hiking/Biking trail - soft surface trail, designed for mountain bikingand ambitious hikers.

❸ Walking trail - soft surface trail, skirting environmentally sensitiveareas and in more urban areas.

❸ Shared streets - walking, hiking and cycling will be combined withlocal vehicle traffic on minor roads.

❸ Shared riparian zones - trails in riparian zones will be limited towalking trails, unless a wider riparian zone is provided.

Define riparian zone:In working forests - as defined in the Forest Practices CodeIn urban settlement areas - generally as defined in the LandDevelopment Guidelines as leave areas. This definition will be givenmore specific wording in local bylaws. For example, riparian leaveareas might be:❸ 30 to 50 metres from top of bank for major rivers and lakes, and for

all industrial or commercial zoned lands.❸ 20 metres from the top of bank where trail or utility alignments

enter the riparian zone.❸ 15 metres from top of bank for all other watercourses.

Criteria, Action Details?Criteria provide measurable definition of how objectiveswill be met. These allow a clear understanding of whatthe objectives mean.

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Public ProcessPublic groups can play a major rolein defining goals and objectives, inparticular to help measure the will ofthe majority of the public.

Discuss candidate objectives clearlywith an indication of costs and impli-cations. Encourage meaningful feed-back. Meet directly with affected par-ties to ensure mutual understanding.Consolidate input and publish arevised statement of objectives until abroad acceptance can be achieved.

A greenway objective might be:‘to protect the riparian zone of allstreams in the community,whether the streams are fishbearing or not, by the year 2000.’

In the City and Regional District:❸ On large development sites, incentive will be given to dedicate and

construct trails through Comprehensive Development and DensityBonus designations.

❸ On small development sites, the trail right of way will gained bydedication as a ‘highway’, with construction of the trail by volunteeror public funding.

❸ On non-development sites, trail r.o.w. will be purchased.❸ On ALR lands, trails will be fenced, and closed dawn to dusk.❸ In working forests, trails will be planned in partnership with the

landholder, and constructed by volunteer funding.

In the City:❸ Tree Protection Bylaw ❸ Soil Removal and Deposition Bylaws❸ Watercourse Bylaw, or integrated equivalents of the aboveIn the Regional District:❸ Development PermitsIn both the City and the Regional District: ❸ Comprehensive Development Permits and Density Bonus Zones❸ Setback Clauses in the Zoning Bylaw❸ Direct purchase in some cases where existing small lots are unduly

affected by regulations.

Implementation Strategy, How?To provide a clear understanding of the ramifications ofobjectives and criteria, the table encourages the listingof potential implementation actions. This describes thetools, whether by specific land use regulation, purchase,education or incentive, the objective will be met.

This approach encourages both the design of achievableobjectives, as well as identifying potential barriers whichmay be worth challenging.

Map Units 3,5,10.❸ Trails will be outside riparian zones except along the river valley,

east side.❸ On lands covered by the Forest Practices Code, FPC standards con-

cerning recreation and related planning apply to determining finaltrail location.

❸ In the ALR - trails will be located, where possible, to buffer urbandevelopment from active agricultural operations.

Map Units 1, 2, 5, 8.❸ All riparian zones on private development property.❸ On lands covered by the Forest Practices Code, FPC standards

apply.❸ In the ALR - development permit wording will exclude existing agri-

cultural operations, including those existing in the riparian zonewhich meet the BCMAFF ‘Environmental Guidelines’, from requiringa permit. New agricultural operations in riparian zones wouldrequire a development permit.

Management Areas, Where?A close study of objectives, criteria and implementationactions will reveal that solutions will vary in differentparts of the greenway system.

Using a general map of the potential greenway, definedifferent Management Areas. Each Management Areamight have the same general conditions of biophysicalassets, land use, ownership, etc. Identifying theseManagement Areas, and correlating objectives andimplementation actions to them, allows objectives tobecome more focused.

This process also allows for exceptions to the applicationof objectives.

Objectives should berefined at each cycle inthe planning process -vision statement,strategic plan, anddetail design.

Objectives

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Greenway PlanningAlternativesConcentrating limited human resources on limited natural resourcesThe Alternatives section of Greenway planning will study in detail the questions ‘What, Where?,How? Who?’. Alternatives for policies, physical plans, implementation strategies, and rolesshould be reviewed.

Alternative policies and physicallayouts should be reviewed ateach cycle in the planningprocess - vision statement,strategic plan, and detail design.

Alternatives

PolicyAlternativesWhat actions should betaken?

Once objectives are known,decisions need to be madeon the actions required toimplement the objectives.The chart at the rightshows a sample of issues,and two alternative lists ofpolicy actions.

Review the two alternatives.Each has a philosophicalbent - Alt. 1 is a cautious,minimal greenwayapproach, and Alt. 2 addsmore comprehensiveactions.

Each local government willdevelop policies which suitits circumstances - politi-cally, environmentally andeconomically. A consciousreview of policy alternativesshould include an assess-ment including the two fol-lowing questions:

What impact will this policyalternative have on people?

What impact will this policyhave on other species?

A policy alternative thatprovides benefits for bothpeople and other species, atan acceptable cost, will bethe most sustainable.

Often policy discussionswill focus on ‘how far to go’towards an objective. Eachgreenway program will havea customized set of policies.

Life Support for Fish &Wildlife❸ aquatic/upland leave areas.❸ water quality and quantity.❸ instream works/fish passage❸ wildlife corridors.❸ backyard wildlife.

Protecting WaterResources❸ sedimentation/water quality.❸ adequate base flows.❸ water use/water licenses.❸ floodplain management.❸ stormwater detention.

Recreation Opportunities❸✶ manicured vs. natur-

al parks.❸ linear open space system.❸ trails system design and

users.❸ trails vs. habitat areas.

Heritage & AestheticResources❸ protecting scenic areas.❸ protecting historic sites.❸ promoting cultural sites.❸ managing views and vistas.❸ buffering unsightly uses.

Growth Management❸ avoiding sprawl.❸ minimizing automobile use.❸ mixed use urban villages.❸ densification where desirable❸ natural areas close by.

Economic Vitality❸ maintain agricultural lands.❸ maintain forestry lands.❸ maintain fish production.❸ economic diversification.❸ sustainable development.

Moderate local role❸✶identify ESAs in OCP/zoning.❸ encourage ESA dedication to

senior agencies.

Mitigation❸ open streams policy.❸ stormwater management

required of developer.❸ promote use of Land

Development Guidelines.

Traditional Parks System❸ some parks drive-to only.❸ trails in parks only.❸ limited linear park acquisi-

tion.❸ existing habitat areas in parks

conserved.

Encourage Conservation❸ inventory key heritage/aes-

thetic resources in OCP.❸ include density bonus or

other incentives for resourceconservation.

Basic Growth Management❸ avoid premature zoning/ser-

vicing.❸ natural areas as 5% park.❸ support senior agency require-

ments for developers to miti-gate against impacts.

Limited Local Role❸ leave senior agencies to man-

age resource lands.❸ encourage moderate, continu-

ous growth and communitydevelopment.

Strong local role❸ public education / NGO part-

nerships.❸ stewardship bylaws.❸ some direct purchase and

restoration.

Watershed Management❸ limit floodplain development.❸ community stormwater deten-

tion.❸ promote water quality/conser-

vation awareness.

Integrated System❸ habitat areas encouraged for

parks & covenants.❸ integrated loop trails/green

space network.❸ interpretive program.❸ walk or bike to all parks.

Making It a Priority❸ link scenic/cultural sites to

trails system.❸ regulate for aesthetics and

heritage conservation.❸ awareness campaign.❸ some public investment.

Active Growth Management❸ set urban containment

boundaries.❸ promote mixed use villages/

densification where planned.❸ avoid rezonings outside densi-

fication areas.

Promote Local Involvement❸ protect resource lands by zon-

ing.❸ promote jobs attracted by

quality of life.❸ promote economic diversifica-

tion.

Issues Policy Alternative 1 Policy Alternative 2includes Alt. 1 Actions, plus:

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Plan AlternativesWhere should actions be taken?

The maps at the right show two alter-native physical plans for a part of agreenway system. The plans illustratephysical variables, such as:❸✶Conservation Corridor boundaries.What lands are sensitive enough towarrant conservation status? Whatare the criteria for this status? Howwill conservation be gained?

❸✶Sensitive Area boundaries. Thesewould be areas where land use issupported, with special managementencouraged by public awareness orbylaw. How large should these areasbe? How much intervention with pri-vate landowners is appropriate?

❸✶Trail alignments and use cate-gories, or seasonal use variations.

Analysis of physical plan alternativeswill reveal a need to determine howmuch land area should be includedin a greenway system, and how itshould be categorized. This assess-ment must account for prior land useand zoning commitments.

Many alternatives may be sketchedquickly, to refine criteria for greenwayclassifications, and to allow creativesolutions to be found.

Only the most realistic alternativesshould be documented for furtherassessment.

These two illustrations are taken from the Millstone Pilot and showalternative trail alignments, conservation corridors and sensitive areamanagement boundaries. By evaluating many alternatives, the mostappropriate and productive solutions can be developed.

Mapping LimitationsA key point in a greenway program is an understanding that mapping cannotshow all required actions in a greenway program.

Some impacts of land development or resource use, such as erosion, sedi-mentation, water quality, and water quantity as related to impervious sur-face and stormwater management, must be addressed outside of the mappedareas of the greenway. For these issues, efforts should extend beyond thephysical boundary of the greenway corridor, for the sake of the long termenvironmental health of not only the greenway, but the community at large.

Greenway programs must managenot only a mapped greenwaycorridor, but also threats - likeerosion, changes to flow regimesdue to impervious surfaces, orpollutants - which may originateoutside the greenway corridor buthave a dramatic impact onstreams which form the backboneof a greenway system.

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Implementation Alternatives, How can actions be accomplished?Implementation alternatives should consider what relative emphasis should be placed onplanning and public awareness, land use regulation, and public investment.

To be effective, stewardship must occur before, during and after development. The developer isnot the only agent of damage to sensitive areas - tree cutting, erosion, and other incrementallyharmful actions can occur without any formal development taking place.

The implementation program should also include strategies to minimize environmentalimpacts from development outside of the greenway corridor.

GreenwayStewardshipProgram

Before Development DuringDevelopment

AfterDevelopment

Planning and PublicAwareness

❸ awareness campaigns includingmedia communications, counterinformation, community events,public and interagency meetings.

❸ incorporate stewardship policiesinto the OCP.

❸ prepare best management practicesinformation materials, with relatedstakeholder training.

❸ plan review.❸ staff/landowner contact.❸ advisory review panels.❸ public review meetings.❸ negotiation of approvals.

❸ neighbourhood meetings.❸ strata council contact.

Land Use Regulation Update land use regulationsto implement stewardshippolicies, including:

❸ zoning bylaw use setbacks.❸ tree cutting bylaw.❸ erosion control bylaw.❸ watercourse bylaw.

Bylaw requirements areimplemented, including:

❸ leave area conservation.❸ trails dedication.❸ stormwater management.❸ erosion control.❸ habitat restoration.❸ development cost charges.❸ referrals if necessary.

Land use regulations con-tinue to effect land use,including:

❸ zoning bylaw use setbacks.❸ tree cutting bylaw.❸ erosion control bylaw.❸ watercourse bylaw.

Public CapitalInvestment(including volunteers work-ing in the public interest)

❸ community stormwater detention.❸ advance purchase or land trust

arrangements for key ESAs.

❸ purchase trail right of way ifrequired.

❸ develop main trails.❸ purchase or land trust

arrangements for key ESAs.

❸ upgrade main trails.❸ upgrade habitat.❸ interpretive programs.❸ develop minor trails.❸ maintenance.

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Alternative Roles, Who can implement the actions?Given the multi-stakeholder nature of greenways, there are many alternatives for who does what. One of the strengthsof the greenway approach is the ability of the stakeholders to define for themselves what role they can best play. TheRoles table below can be expanded and adjusted to try several alternatives.

Greenway Roles

Planning and PublicAwareness

Proposed Action Action Leader Action Assistant

Land UseRegulation

Public Investment(including volunteersworking in the publicinterest)

❸ identify ESAs.❸ greenway strategic plan.❸ update OCP.❸ detail designs.❸ key landowner contact.❸ water quality awareness pro-

gram.

❸ BC Environment❸ Greenway Alliance (joint)❸ City & Region Planning❸ City & Region Parks❸ Conservation Org. 1❸ City Engineering

❸ DFO & CWS❸ Consultant❸ City & Region Parks❸ City Engineering❸ Conservation Org. 2❸ Region Engineering, BC

Environment

❸ development permits❸ stewardship bylaws.❸ update zoning bylaw.❸ update subdivision standards.

❸ apply Forest Practices Code.

❸ Region Planning❸ City Planning❸ City Planning❸ City Engineering and

Approving Officer❸ BC Forest Service and Forest

Land Commission

❸ Municipal Affairs❸ Municipal Affairs❸ BC Environment❸ Local trust (to hold and enforce

covenants)❸ Local Trail Club (to assist in

route identification)

❸ purchase ESA.❸ purchase trail r.o.w.❸ restore riparian habitat.❸ construct valley trails.❸ construct ridge trails.❸ install detention ponds and

constructed wetlands.

❸ The Nature Trust of BC❸ City & Region Parks❸ Trout Unlimited❸ City Parks❸ BC Forest Service❸ City Engineering

❸ Habitat Conserv. Fund❸ Rotary Club❸ Action 21❸ City Engineering❸ Correctional Centre❸ Developers through Development

Cost Charges

Evaluation ofAlternativesDecisions on which alternatives topursue should be based on severalevaluations.

ConsensusMost greenway decisions can bemade by consensus techniques.Favorable alternatives will likely besupported by all parts of theGreenway Alliance, including theGreenway Steering Group, theGreenway Technical Group, andGreenway Partners.

Public and Interest GroupReviewPublic review meetings and work-shops will allow interested individualsand groups to gain information andexpress their opinion first hand.

Mailouts and brochures whichencourage public response can gaugepublic opinion.

For an indication of the opinion of the‘silent majority’, a statistically validquestionnaire is one of the few toolsavailable.

Direct contact with key landownerscan also be an important step to bothaccurately convey greenway plans,and to assess landowner support.

Project FeasibilityBringing a greenway to realityrequires an awareness of the threatsto the project, and steering the green-way plan to manage those threats.

To be implemented, greenway bud-gets and expectations of governmentand non-government financial sup-port must be realistic.

In the final analysis, greenways willproceed if they receive the support ofpoliticians - at both local and seniorgovernment levels. Their support willbe reliant upon broad public interest,which is generated by an inclusiveapproach to greenway planning.

Public ProcessPublic groups and public meetingscan refine evaluation of alternatives.Non-government organizations canundertake public opinion surveys togauge the resistance to greenwayideas and management actions, andalso to gauge support.

Review of alternatives by the publicmay lead to new, better alternativescoming forward.

As a member of the public, be activein review of alternatives.

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Greenway PlanningStrategic PlanDefining the Vision and an Action Plan to focus future effortsGreenway Programs are not static - like the ecology they work with, they evolve. GreenwayStrategic Plans refine the Greenway Vision, and identify management areas and related actionplans. Each greenway system will have its own mix of priorities and solutions.

A strategic plan should provide astructure for the greenwayoverall, and identify criticalareas for immediate action.

Focusing the VisionAt the end of the strategic planningcycle, update the Greenway Vision toreflect the information generated. Usesimple maps, photographs, drawingsand graphics to make the plan asunderstandable as possible. Clearlyidentify what the Greenway Visionwill change, and what it will leave asexists.

The maps shown below are a refine-ment of the initial Greenway Visionon page 24, based on the Inventory,Objectives and Alternatives reviewedduring the planning process.

Greenway Strategic Plan maps should beschematic in nature, showing the general

location only of existing and proposedgreenways. The exact location of theseelements should be the subject of future

detailed designs for each greenway phase.

Existing GreenwaysExisting ALR, FLR and public greenspace holdings are not physically oradministratively altered by a green-

way designation. However, they forma backdrop to greenway functions,and should be recognized as a pre-cious part of the greenway system.

Proposed GreenwaysThe maps below show the two maincomponents of a Greenway system -sensitive area networks, and recre-ation networks.

The existing and proposed greenwaymaps, read together, illustrate a coor-dinated greenway plan.

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Public ProcessPublic groups and individuals canmake the Strategic Plan reality by:❸✶Contact with decision makers tosupport the program.

❸✶Providing positive press stories.

❸✶Assisting in landowner contactprograms and fundraising.

❸✶Volunteering to act as a contractorfor implementation projects.

Proposed Greenway ComponentsSensitive Area Networks❸✶Conservation Corridors are areaswhere natural habitat is maintained,generally in riparian areas alongwatercourses. The width of conserva-tion corridors would vary with adja-cent land use and terrain.

❸✶Biodiversity Corridors are majorlinkages between natural areas in thewatershed, to avoid the fragmentationof habitat by urbanization.Biodiversity corridors allow for move-ment of species - large and small,plant and animal - for escape or forspecies renewal. These areas willinclude land uses such as forestry,agriculture, and utility right of ways,and can also include cluster or open-space subdivisions if habitat links aremaintained.

❸✶Other Sensitive Areas includefloodplains, areas of steep or haz-ardous terrain, other ESAs, visuallysensitive areas such as shorelines or

ridges, areas of high recreationalvalue, and linkages among these.Special care in land managementapplies to use in these areas.

❸✶Habitat Restoration Areas are loca-tions where revegetation, erosion con-trol, fencing, or similar projectswould restore the function of dam-aged ESAs.

Recreation Networks❸✶Proposed Trails link major recre-ation destinations in the watershedbut skirt or avoid sensitive areas orincompatible land uses.

❸✶Potential Trail Alignment illus-trates routes where further study orland use decisions are required priorto a decision on an alignment.

❸✶Recreation or Interpretive Featuresinclude facilities like benches, wash-rooms, limited parking, viewpoints,and interpretive kiosks or signageand similar public amenities.

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Management Areas MapThe Management Area Map identifiesgeographic units along the greenwaycorridor for special attention.

The map shows separate series ofmanagement areas for the City (CG1,CG2, etc.) and for the RegionalDistrict (RG1, RG2, etc.), to recognizeadministrative differences.

Actions are assigned to these man-agement areas in the Action Chart onthe facing page.

Note:In addition to action within thesemanagement areas, some impacts(e.g. erosion, stormwater quality andquantity) must be addressed byactions outside the greenway corri-dors, and throughout the communi-ty. For these reasons the ActionChart includes actions for the CityOverall and Region Overall.

Changing Attitudes - Creating ActionGreenway Planning will create a new way of seeing - an ecological approach toplanning. Allow this change in attitude to gradually take hold.

But to help the attitude shift, proceed with action as soon as possible.

The planning process will have created momentum. Maintain the momentumand move quickly into implementation.

Greenways, as integrating projects, may not be subject to approvals as awhole. Approvals for individual implementing projects can be sought one at atime.

Identify immediate projects, and proceed with detail design and implementa-tion while funding and approvals for other projects are being negotiated.

Strategic Action PlanThe Greenway Strategic Plan shouldanswer five key questions:❸✶What action is required?

❸✶Where does the action apply?

❸✶How will the action be implement-ed?

❸✶Who will fund, manage and com-plete the action?

❸✶When will the action occur?

This section show the use of a mapand chart to summarize the chosenactions.

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Action Development ChartAction locations, priorities and action leaders and shownon the Action Chart.

Action LocationsCommunity Overall:Several actions must be applied throughout the commu-nity to support both the greenway corridor and the gener-al community ecosystem.

All Management Areas:Many actions will apply to all management areas in thegreenway corridor.

Specific Management Areas (1, 2, 3, etc.)Some actions will apply only to specific managementareas. This is a good way to deal with special circum-stances, or exceptions to general policies.

Action PrioritiesWithin the table, actions are priorized, with 1 being high-est priority and 5 lowest. A blank cell means that theaction does not apply to that management area.

Action LeadersAn Action Leader is designated for each action. Althoughthe Action Leader may be assisted by others, it is theirresponsibility to see that the task is done, and to coordi-nate with others.

Management ActionsThe categories of Management Actions can vary with cir-cumstances. The chart shows three general areas:

Planning & Public AwarenessPlanning tools include producing the Greenway StrategicPlan and more detailed neighbourhood plans, and relatedinteragency agreements.

Public awareness programs can lead to a major improve-ment in treatment of ESAs in all areas, and particularlyin areas where land use regulation is not politicallyacceptable.

Public InvestmentPublic investment can include both government and vol-unteer investment, both in time and in money, for trailand habitat improvements. The land and constructionrequired might affect only a small part of the greenway.

Land Use Regulation There are many regulatory tools available to local andsenior governments to assist in implementing steward-ship. See Stream Stewardship: A Guide for Planners andDevelopers for an introduction to these tools.

Public InvestmentProcure ESA tenure 4 2Purchase trail right of way 1 3 2 4Restore riparian habitat 2 5Install community detention ponds 1 4 3Etc.

Planning and Public AwarenessIdentify ESA study area boundaries 1Prepare Greenway Strategic Plan 1 1Complete Neighbourhood Plan 3 1 4 3Perform water quality awareness program 2 2 2Provide landowner contact regarding riparian management 3 1 2 5 2 2Etc.

Land Use RegulationEstablish Development Permit areas for riparian areas 1 1Require trail right of way dedication at subdivision 2Adopt stewardship Bylaws to regulate erosion/water quality 2Etc.

Actions CG

0 C

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CG

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As

CG

2 Pa

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CG

3 R

edev

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CG

4 W

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rea

CG

5 AL

R

CG

7 B

luffs

CG

9 La

ke P

ark

Etc

.

RG

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RG

1 R

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n Al

l MAs

RG

2 R

ipar

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Area

RG

3 Fl

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13 F

LR

Etc

.

B.C. EnvironmentCity PlanningCity PlanningCity EngineeringVolunteer Org.

CityActionLeader

City Land AgentCity ParksVolunteer Org.City Engineering

City PlanningApproving OfficerCity Environ. Officer

DFO/DOE/CWSReg. PlanningReg. PlanningCity EngineeringVolunteer Org.

RegionalDistrictActionLeader

Reg. AdministrationReg. ParksVolunteer Org.Reg. Engineering

Reg. PlanningApproving OfficerReg. Planning

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Greenway PlanningDetail DesignMaximizing greenway benefits by careful designCompleting a greenway strategic plan is a major first step for implementing greenways. The planwill have answered many, but not all questions about the greenway. For the natural areas of agreenway, minimal additional planning may be required beyond securing conservation statusand preparing a management plan. However, for greenway projects that involve construction, acritical step between planning and implementation is the detail design of proposed improve-ments. Many problems can be minimized by good design and by quality control during construc-tion.

Detail DesignEach greenway improvement project must be the subjectof detail design prior to construction. This will be truewhether the project is to be built by agency staff, contrac-tors or volunteers. To make certain that the design issafe, appropriate, maintainable and practical, the designwork should be completed by a registered profession, andfinanced as a public investment.

Construction ManagementNo matter how carefully planning and design work is pre-pared, the success of greenways depends upon how wellthe sites are built and maintained. Quality control duringconstruction is of critical importance.

Many greenway projects will be located adjacent to fragilenatural systems. Standard construction practices willneed to be modified and carefully enforced to ensure thatno damage is done to natural systems.

Use of bonding, professional supervision and environmen-tal monitors during construction is recommended. Toensure quality control, we suggest that volunteer groupswishing to be involved in construction sign a formal con-tracting agreement with the greenway manager.

MaintenanceMaintenance specifications will be required to ensure thatgreenway objectives are understood and respected bymaintenance personnel. These specifications shouldinclude schedules for maintenance practices, and specialrequirements to ensure that maintenance practices arecompatible with the natural systems surrounding green-way projects. The natural components of greenways willrequire only minimal maintenance. Just as best practicaltechnologies for construction projects are evolving, main-tenance practices for greenway areas will also need toevolve as our knowledge of environmental managementincreases.

Complete all four steps - inventory,objectives, alternatives, decisions -at a very fine level of detail at thedesign stage.

Greenway Strategic Plan

PlanningPublic Awareness

Design publicawareness program

Capital WorksProjects

Land UseRegulationWrite clauses

Preliminary DesignSite Analysis

Schematic LayoutCost Estimating

Review and ApprovalsLand Acquisition

Working DrawingsEnvironmental Protection Plan

Layout, Grading, and Planting PlansInfrastructure PlansConstruction Details

Specifications

Construction ManagementTender/Contract or Labour Force Selection

Field reviews during constructionChange Order and payment processing

Review of deficiency rectificationCoordinate maintenance handover

Post Construction EvaluationAgencies and Design Team

Greenway ImplementationIncluded in this section:4Land Tenure Alternatives

Reviewing strategies for land ownership in a greenway system.4Land Use Regulations

Introducing regulatory approaches to promoting stewardship.4 Ideas for Greenway Interfaces

with Urban Developmentwith Recreation Developmentwith Linear Developmentwith Rural Residential Developmentwith Agriculturewith Forest Landswith Floodplainswith Integrated Watershed Management

Greenway ImplementationLand Tenure AlternativesBuilding a greenway system through land ownership alternativesTo create a greenway network which links green space remnants invarious parts of a community, look for cost effective alternatives,including a mix of fee simple land ownership and more innovative landtenure. Many options for ownership and management exist which maybe combined or tailored to suit specific requirements.

Public GreenwaysThe options identified inthe chart on the facingpage may be used separate-ly or in combination toachieve an appropriateblend of land use and cost.

Private GreenwaysPrivate stewardship is anessential part of an effec-tive greenway program.Adjacent land ownersshould be consulted as partof the greenway planningprocess.

Landowner ContactIdentify and providedetailed information foradjacent landowners aboutthe progress of the green-way program.n Provide informationabout overall greenwayobjectives.

n Encourage input into thegreenway planning process.

Programs for PrivateStewardshipSupport voluntary activitieswhich minimize impacts onenvironmentally sensitiveareas.n Streamkeepers programs.

n Naturescape BritishColumbia, caring for wildlifehabitat at home.

n Environmental programsthrough schools.

n Local CommunityProgram e.g. GreenfieldsProject.

Funding for PrivateStewardshipn Develop alternative fund-ing sources for stewardshipprograms.

n Service clubs can supportstewardship activitiesthrough direct funding andcommunity interaction.

n Develop business spon-sorships.

The Greenfields Projectshares the cost of covercrops with farmers forsoil conservation andwildlife habitat.

Land PurchasesIncludes land acquired for publicuses such as parks, open spaces,and owned fee simple by government.Such lands may be acquired throughdirect purchase or from 5% parksand 5% schools dedication providedduring subdivision.

Gifts, Donations, andExchangesLocal governments have manyoptions for land acquisition beyonddirect purchase.

Conservation Covenantscan be registered against a land titleand held by governments or regis -tered conservation organizations.

EasementsCan be negotiated with land ownersto ensure access for maintenance orrecreation purposes.

Leases and ContractAgreementsAgreements can be negotiated withlandowners to provide for a variety ofactivities on private land.

Parklandpurchased forRecreationalUse

Riparian Corridor isowned as part ofthe park butmanaged forecological integrity.Access is providedat specificlocationsonly

Floodplain is protected as part of ALR. Specificmanagement program is required to ensure thatagricultural practices do not impact nearby streams

Agricultural land isprotected as an openspace, part of a workinglandscape

Landscape bufferbetween agriculture andresidential areas

Residential subdivision isplanned to ensure that openspace links aremaintained

n Provides direct control over land use.

n Suitable where greenway uses arethe primary function of the land.

n May be required where environmen -tal regulations effect land such thatno economic use is possible.

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n Can be negotiated for specific condi -tions.

n The terms and length of these con -tracts can be varied to suit condi -tions.

n Conservation covenants can be pro -vided to allow registered conservationorganizations to manage land to pre -serve environmental heritage for allCanadians.

n Easements can be obtained, with theowner’s permission, to provide recre -ational or maintenance access.

n All of these options provide control ofland without direct capital expendi -ture

n Donations of land for environmentalconservation are encouraged byrecent amendments to the IncomeTax Act allowing deductions based onthe value of donated land.

n Capital costs for acquisitionare reduced.

n Terms of agreement can benegotiated to match local gov -ernment budgets.

n Capital costs for acquisitionare reduced or eliminated.

n Where local government can -not manage environmentalassets, consider a covenant toa registered conservationorganization.

n Capital costs for acquisitionare eliminated.

n Purchase may be too expen -sive where land is required inurban areas.

n Where greenways are estab -lished in undeveloped areasland acquisition may providemaximum flexibility for futuredevelopment with a minimuminvestment.

n Security of arrangement isrelated to the terms of thecontract or lease.

n Contractual arrangementsmay be affected by sale ortransfer of property.

n Tenure via the covenant isheld by either a level of gov -ernment or a conservationorganization.

n For enforcement of covenantterms, a conservation organi -zation may be a more effec -tive covenant holder.

n Tenure is secure if local gov -ernments hold title.

n Provides long term stabilityfor planning because owner -ship of all land rights issecure.

n Direct purchase provides longterm stability for planningbecause ownership of all landrights is secure.

n Can be varied by the terms ofthe agreement.

n Leased land can be main -tained by the local govern -ment or by the owner.

n In covenanted areas, allissues of maintenance andliability will reside with theunderlying owner, Specialagreements may be necessaryfor public access.

n Maintenance responsibilitycan be transferred to the con -servation organization.

n All issues of maintenance andliability will reside with thelocal government where landis owned for greenways.

n All issues of maintenance andliability will reside with thelocal government where landis purchased for greenways.

n In addition to acquisitioncosts local governments mustplan for maintenance andadministration.

Purpose Cost Tenure Responsibility

Steeply slopingarea retained asopen space and toprovideconnections toother habitat areas

Residentialdevelopment

Conservation covenantprotecting wetlandriparian zone ismanaged byconservationorganization.

Wetland purchasedand managed byconservationorganization.

Forest landsmanaged as RiparianManagement Zone asrequired under theForest PracticesCode

Trail access provided in ajoint use agreement with BCHydro and the landowner

Greenway ImplementationLand Use RegulationsStreamlining approvals and enforcement of laws affecting land useGreenway planning is a process which can help to coordinate environmental land use regula-tions. By integrating environmental regulations required by all levels of government, greenwayscan help to move closer to a one window approval for environmental concerns.

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Green Space &the LawMajor Acts and Land UseRegulations which applyto greenways and theirinterface with environ-mentally sensitive areasinclude:

Integrated RegulationsOne of the major benefits of Greenway Programs is the focus of regulatory powers on acoordinated action plan.Greenway planning cannot ignore the jurisdictional lines set out in law. But the estab-lishment of a Greenway Alliance can work towards identifying inconsistencies in regula-tions and practices of enforcement, and can strike an agreement among governments onhow to manage around the inconsistencies.A careful review of regulations, policies and procedures of all parties in a GreenwayAlliance can result in approaches which streamline administration of law for both theadministrators and the applicants.Integrated Local Government BylawsVillages, Towns, Cities and Regional Districts aslocal government are bound by senior govern-ment statutes. Local governments, however,have the most discretion and management con-trol about the scope and content of land useregulation bylaws, and are closest to the peopleand the problems. The Stewardship Series ofpublications lays out ways that local govern-ment bylaws can be written to complement thepowers of senior governments. For example, theFisheries Act (Canada) prohibits the harmfulalteration of fish habitat, which includes ripari-an zones. This act is only enforceable by courtcharges after damage is done. Local govern-ments have the power to enact tree protectionor permit bylaws which restrict the removal oftrees from riparian zones, and to enforce thesebylaws by ticketing. Together, the two levels ofgovernment can buttress each other’s regula-tions for protecting riparian zones. Memoranda of UnderstandingTo be effective in the above example, enforce-ment is key. Enforcement is often limited bystaff time available, and the costs of court enforcement. Local and senior governmentscan draft Memoranda of Understanding to structure their responses to enforcement. Forexample, such an MOU might strike an agreement whereby local governments will regu-late tree protection in riparian zones under a bylaw. The parties may agree that thelocal government will issue tickets for minor infractions under its bylaw, and inform thesenior government of the tickets issued. The senior government may lay charges formajor infractions under the Fisheries Act or other senior government statutes, but willnot act on minor offences. Both parties could agree on what constitutes a major and aminor offence.Law ReformIn some cases, during the drafting of an MOU, levels of government will find that thereis a legislated impediment to a better way of doing business. The Greenway Allianceshould have the ability to record those problems, and notify the policy making level ofthe appropriate agency, so that a process of review and reform can be considered.

Greenway AllianceA Greenway Alliance can becreated as an interdiscipli-nary coordinating body tooversee regulations affect-ing lands managed within aGreenway. This alliancewill include members ofinterested parties and willbe responsible for coordi-nating policy and regula-tion issues.

FederalFisheries ActMigratory Birds ConventionActNavigable Waters ProtectionAct

ProvincialForest Practices Code ActForest Land Reserve ActAgricultural Land Reserve ActMunicipal ActGrowth Strategies ActLand Titles ActHealth ActWater ActEnvironmental Assessment ActSoil Conservation ActWildlife ActFisheries (B.C.) ActHighways ActHeritage Conservation ActWaste Management Act

Local GovernmentOfficial Community PlansDevelopment PermitsZoning BylawsSubdivision BylawsBuilding BylawsEngineering StandardsWorks and Services BylawsDevelopment Cost ChargeBylawsTree Protection BylawsEnvironmental Bylaws

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Cutting Red Tape withGreenway ProgramsThe following are some of the majorobstacles to streamlining the admin-istration of government.- Overlapping jurisdictions.- Fragmented bureaucracies.- Incompatible or opposing policies.Greenway Planning provides a vehicleto resolve these difficulties in admin-istration.n Establish a Greenway Alliance foropen communications among agen-cies.

n Review administration of existinglaws, determine inconsistencies.

n Change existing bylaws to elimi-nate inconsistency or improve effi-ciency.

n Enact new bylaws only when spe-cific gaps are identified. Use volun-tary measures, or private agreementswhenever possible.

n Establish Memoranda ofUnderstanding among agencies toreduce overlapping effort, andencourage complementary effort.Include ‘filters’ to screen referrals,and a dispute resolution mechanism.

n Set up a ‘one-window’ approach toGreenway questions and approvals.

Signs of Cooperation -Joint GuidelinesFederal and provincial governmentagencies are working together to bemore effective at less cost.Local governments and non-govern-ment organizations are also beingencouraged to join the initiatives.The Stewardship Series of publica-tions, including: Stream Stewardship:A Guide for Planners and Developersand Community Stewardship: A GuideTo Establishing Your Own Group arejust some of the products of thiscooperative effort. A more detailedlisting of these resources is providedon page 72. Please refer to these pub-lications for additional information.Related to these publications areefforts at designing a new way ofdoing business among governments,NGOs, corporations and the public.Greenways is one of these newapproaches.

The Role for LocalGovernmentWhile there is a great deal of existingenvironmental regulation, there isstill an important role in greenwayplanning for local governments!n The federal government targets onissues of national or internationalsignificance.

n The provincial government isfocussed on issues of provincial sig-nificance.

n Given these priorities, ecologicaland open space issues can often onlybe addressed at a local scale by localgovernments.

n Local governments have controlover zoning and most land develop-ment. It is land development that hasthe primary impact on ecosystems inurbanizing communities.

n Local governments, using a combi-nation of ‘ticketing’ and ‘permitting’can deal efficiently with minor infrac-tions.

n Major expenditure involving morecomplex legal remedies can bereserved for major infractions.

Local governments have effectivetools for regulating environmentalissues at a local scale.

Streamlining environmental regulations, to be fair,efficient and easy to administer, is one of the mostimportant objectives of greenway planning. Changesmade within the greenway can serve as a model forenvironmental regulations beyond the greenway as well.

FisheriesAct Permits

Water ActPermits

LocalGovernment

PermitsTree

RemovalPermits

CombinedPermits

CLOSED CLOSED OPEN CLOSED CLOSED

Naturescape documents, a part ofthe Stewardship Series, describeways to provide wildlife habitat inyour own back yard.

Greenway InterfacesUrban DevelopmentMaximizing effectiveness of green space in urban areasGreenways improve the livability of urban areas. An urban greenway, because of land use inten-sity and the cost of land acquisition, is likely to be very different from a greenway in a rural area.

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Within urban areas, different types of greenway will befeasible depending on the land use context.

In older redeveloping urban areas, typified by existingsmall lot sizes (up to 2 Ha), high density zoning andhigh land values:n New greenways in existing high density areas willneed to maximize benefits to justify the expense. Newgreenways will be smaller, included only where key link-ages are worthy of protection, and will require a highstandard of design and maintenance.

n Location of greenways will be balanced with landdevelopment planning, so that both the developmentand the greenway may be located to optimize economicand environmental benefits.n Many public access linkages within highly urban set-tings will use the street system, malls and plazas, orcombine with other utility or transportation rights ofway to make connections.

In developing urban areas, typified by existing moder-ate sized lots (2 Ha to 10 Ha), with little previous devel-opment, and single family or low density multiple familyzoning and moderate land values:n Design and management of greenways should pro-vide a marketing advantage to the development - e.g.,by addressing aesthetic and privacy considerations.n New greenways will typically be limited to riparianareas of watercourses or other high value environmen-tal feature, combined with key trail linkages.n Some flexibility in riparian leave strips should beaccommodated, based on site specific biophysical condi-tions. Fish habitat should always be conserved, but ifsome flexibility in leave area boundaries accommodatessignificantly greater development yield with little effecton fish habitat, it should be considered. Provision ofdetailed biophysical data paid for by the developercould provide a basis for discussion of a reasonablecompromise and expedite the approval process.

n Some flexibility in zon-ing requirements shouldalso be considered incases where the pro-posed greenway or leavearea is a significant partof the development.n Care in design ofgreenways will be neces-sary to ensure that useof small existing lots isnot prohibited. In somecases purchase of smalllots for greenways, orother compensation, willbe the fairest option.

In new comprehensive development areas, typified byexisting large sized or assembled lots (over 10 Ha) on landwith limited previous development, under extensive plannedrezoning and low to moderate existing land values:n Options for the size and location for greenways will begreater.n Limitations on greenways provided without public sub-sidy will be the number of units and market price for thedevelopment. The more land and improvements are dedicat-ed, the higher the likely costs and sale price of the develop-ment. There must be a viable market for the higher pricedunits to support the creation of the greenway by the devel-oper. If the market will not bear the cost, the greenway willrequire public investment to become reality.

It is clear that greater opportunities for greenway imple-mentation exist in rural areas, or larger comprehensivedevelopments, than in older redeveloping urban areas. Insome cases, public demand may warrant production ofextensive greenways as a part of urban redevelopment, andthese would typically be funded by public expenditure orvoluntarily as a part of a major private redevelopmentscheme.

Compact CommunitiesThe negative impact of low density, sprawling suburbandevelopment on natural systems can be dramatic, through:

n Large per capita landrequirements.n Increased use ofcars, with resultingreduced air quality andincreased energy use.n Incremental habitatloss due to fragmenta-tion of habitat areas.Compact, higher densi-ty urban developmentalso has impacts, butthey are relatively lesson a per unit basis.The urban village con-cept, with smaller cen-tres of mixed use: n Encourages walking,cycling and transit use.n Brings back thecharm of pedestrianoriented spaces.n Reduces servicing costsper unit.The urban village concept, and greenways, are complemen-tary ingredients in the development of more compact andsustainable communities. A blend of densities - high rise tosingle family - is appropriate in compact communities.Increased density can be more acceptable in communitiesthat develop greenways.

Vegetable plots, shownhere in the Arbutus ROWin Vancouver, provideecological links betweenGreenways and people

Greenway trails can exist evenin very small spaces.

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Restoring HabitatsIn many cases, streams may havebeen piped, or riparian habitatsmay have been altered by suburbanresidential, agriculture or otheruses.Greenway programs should identifywhere habitats could be restored.For example, the lower reaches of avaluable stream may have lostriparian vegetation, or may beencroached upon by landfill.Greenway strategies should consid-er what actions could be taken torestore some habitat function tothese sites. Densification of adja-cent development sometimes pro-vides opportunities. In other cases,government or volunteer restorationand planting programs can make adifference.

Tools for Conserving Scarce Habitat in Urban AreasStrategies for conserving scarceurban habitat include:

Direct Purchase by:n advance purchase, prior to granti-ng higher zoning, to keep land acqui-sition costs as low as possible;n negotiation of purchase at time ofsubdivision, by creating a lot for agreenway in a desired configuration;n land assembly of several parcels,with subsequent reparceling, rezon-ing and resale of the developmentparcels, with the greenway retainedin public ownership;n purchase and improvements fund-ed by Development Cost Charges foropen space, provided that thesecharges are affordable.

Incentives and Tax Reliefby:n Official Community Plans whichestablish policies and outline expec-tations for community development.n Density Bonus zones which allowgreater density in exchange for dedi-cation or improvement of aGreenway.n Comprehensive Development zoneswhich allow the negotiation of a cus-tomized zoning bylaw for a site, andcan include the creation of a green-way.

n Income tax relief equivalent to 50cents per dollar for the value of

donated lands which are environmen-tally sensitive.n Property tax relief, either by chang-ing the assessment category ofcovenanted lands, or by direct relieffrom local governments.

Regulatory Requirementsby:n Development Permits for protectionof the natural environment, whichrequire that all natural watercoursesbe conserved and dedicated;n Dedication at subdivision of 5% ofthe parcel for parks and 5% forschools, or cash in lieu;n Tree Management or Tree CuttingPermit Bylaws to regulate tree cut-ting;n Soil Removal and DepositionBylaws to regulate the movement ofsoil, which can address erosion andsedimentation concerns;n Other Environmental Bylaws e.g.creek protection bylaws, drainagebylaws, water quality bylaws, com-prehensive equivalents combining theabove, and provisions of engineeringstandards.n Regulatory enforcement measures,coordinated among levels of govern-ment.

For More Detailed Information:See Stream Stewardship: A Guide forPlanners and Developers, one of theStewardship Series publications.

Stormwater Management Functions in GreenwaysKeeping streams alive means control-ling the quantity and quality of waterthat reaches the stream. Stormwatermanagement functions can be com-plementary to a greenway in urbanareas.n Natural open spaces will allow pre-cipitation to infiltrate reducing theamount of water entering streamsafter storms.

n Constructed wetlands built tomanage rainwater can also providean amenity for urban wildlife, naturelovers, and increased water quality.

n Detention ponds can be publicopen space amenities in the green-way, if properly designed and main-tained.

n Many communities have an openstreams policy, and some havereplaced sections of storm sewer withrecreated open streams.

n Floodplain areas can function asboth passive green space and floodstorage;

n Existing dykes provide trail link-ages;

n Many communities in NorthAmerica have removed developmentfrom floodplains where structuralflood protection was uneconomic orenvironmentally undesirable, andhave turned a problem into a green-way amenity.

In Courtenay, an out of usesewage lagoon is rehabilitatedto create fish and waterfowlhabitat.

In this habitat restorationproject, root wads and rockshave been placed to simulatenatural conditions. In this way,it is hoped that fish may be ableto re-use the stream.

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Greenway InterfacesRecreation DevelopmentDesign greenways carefully to find balance between recreation and conservation.Open space included in a greenway is protected from development as roads and buildings. Inspite of this general protection however, there are still threats to environmentally sensitive areas.The recreational uses of a greenway must be designed, managed, and maintained to ensure thatecological viability is not diminished.

A Problem ofOverusePeople love open space.Frequently, however, peoplearen’t aware of how theiruse of open space candiminish natural assets. Habitat can simply be over-run by too many feet. Soilcompacts, vegetation dies,erosion begins, and ulti-mately birds and wildlifemust move away or perish.Nesting, breeding and rear-ing sites for young wildlifeare particularly vulnerableto human disturbance.

Designed UseGreenways should beplanned to allow adequatespace to separate intensiverecreation uses from criti-cal habitat areas. In prac-tice, there will be grada-tions of use, from areaswhich are so sensitive thathuman use must berestricted, to areas whereintensive human use haslittle adverse impact.

At a minimum, detailedgreenway plans shouldmap proposed use classes,e.g.:n Trail arean Trail buffern Natural Areas for conser-vationn Intensive RecreationAreaTrail alignments and recre-ation areas should be locat-ed so as not to compromiseimportant habitat.Approaches to achieve thisinclude:n Providing extra width inthe greenway to accommo-date a trail.

n Providing a barrierbetween the trail and thehabitat.n Considering alternatetrail alignments outside ofthe greenway and awayfrom sensitive habitatwhere space is limited.n Consider the impacts ofdifferent use groups onconservation areas, e.g.motorized or equestriantrails near sensitive habi-tat.

To manage recreation uses,consider:n Posted or published trailuse rules.

n Involving a conservationorganization to provide vol-

Designed FacilitiesTrail location design shouldconsider:

n setbacks from conserva-tion areas. Generally, trailalignments should stay asfar away from protectedhabitats as possible whilemeeting recreation objec-tives.n shortcuts - people willalways walk the shortestpossible distance. Trail sys-tems should be aware ofand respond to these desirelines.

n trail viewpoints and restareas should be locatedwhere their negativeimpacts are minimized.n trail information shouldbe provided, clearly indicat-ing reasons for restrictedaccess to habitat.n trail design and surfac-ing can play a role - peoplewill avoid muddy surfacesand seek paved ones.n maintenance access isoften a consideration.Usually this can be com-bined with major pedestri-an trails or bicycle access.n where trail alignmentand design cannot avoidcrowding habitat, then bar-riers must be designed.

n physical barriers caninclude fences, hedges,thickets, steep slopes,walls, handrails, water,mud.n mental barriers caninclude signs, obvious pri-vate land, tickets foroffending persons, and lackof night lighting - most peo-ple will not go into thewoods in the dark.

n trail management shouldrecognize seasonal varia-tions in habitat e.g. sometrail sections could beclosed or restricted forwaterfowl nesting season.Some trails also may bedesigned to flood if in flood-plains or foreshore areas.n trail erosion control isimportant. Control the flowof water along the trial withinterceptor drains, draininlets, water bars, or shoul-der planting.n where damage hasoccurred, revegetationshould be undertakenquickly. Native species withhabitat values should begiven thoughtful considera-tion.n greenways should pro-mote a new aesthetic of lowmaintenance - where mownlawns are reserved forareas of intensive recre-ation, and meadow, woodsor other more natural habi-tat type is plannedthroughout most of thegreenway.

Open space can be usedby everyone.

This boardwalk allowspeople to use thewaterfront withoutcausing erosion orcompaction.

Fragile ecologicalresources may requirecareful protection fromoveruse.

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Trail location must consider not onlywildlife habitat, but also the needs ofworking landscapes like agriculture.and privacy of adjacent residents.Residents also worry about security -this is addressed on Page 65.Where greenways were not planned inadvance, widths are commonly toonarrow to comfortably allow habitatconservation and trail access withoutcrowding adjacent residents or agri-culture. Proactive greenway planningshould avoid this problem by:n Planning for an adequate width ofthe greenway at the time of settingboundaries, with conflicts betweentrails, neighbours and habitat inmind.n Making clear decisions on whichparts of the greenway should accom-modate a trail. Not all sections of thegreenway must have a trail. Othersections of constraint can bebypassed with public access by usinga street system or alternative servicecorridor route.

Design treatments to avoid privacyconflicts include:Trail Alignment - Horizontal n Locate the trail in an area which isscreened from both adjacent resi-dences and habitat areas.n Consider the screening capabilityof the vegetation - widen buffers inareas of low screening.n Consider the type of adjacent landuse - single family sites with childrenwill be more sensitive to disturbancethan areas of older residents or mul-tiple family dwellings.

n Consider trail use - low volumetrails will be more acceptable thanmajor routes.n In many open space subdivisions,the house is moved very close to thestreet, creating a more urban street,and semi-private space overlooking agreenway is created in the rear.Trail Alignment - Vertical n Provide grade separation, with theresident above, overlooking the trailwhere possible.

Financing GreenwayRecreation Sources of funds for constructingGreenway Trails systems include:

n the 5% parks dedication at thetime of subdivision.n Development Cost Charges forOpen Space, to purchase land and forfacility development.n Provincial cost sharing programslike BC21, or the Urban SalmonHabitat Program may help.n Retraining and college programsare often targeted at developing basicconstruction or environmentalrestoration skills. Greenways are aprime candidates for training.n Volunteer efforts by local NGOsand service clubs can be very effec-tive.n Direct local government investmentis also usually required.

Public Ways and Private Wishes

In areas of heavy use trailsurfaces must be upgraded andmaintained to minimize erosion.

Maintenance practices should bemodified to ensure that riparianhabitat is retained alongwatercourses.

Public education is an importantaspect of establishing a workablebalance between ecological andrecreational objectives.

Through careful designrecreational activities can occurwithout diminishing the ecologicalvalue of the resource.

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Greenway InterfacesLinear DevelopmentUsing existing corridors to create linkages in a Greenway SystemIn urbanizing areas, a primary function of greenways will be to re-establish linkages betweenopen space fragments. In support of this goal, linear systems provide great opportunity as part ofa greenway system. Jurisdictional corridors such as sewer or hydro rights of way, or physicalcorridors such as rail and highways can all be managed to advance greenway objectives.

Habitat CorridorsLinear developments canbe an important compo-nent of greenways, byproviding connectionsbetween fragmentedhabitats. Linking individ-ual habitats together cre-ates an overall system.Providing habitat link-ages allows:n Seasonal movementbetween habitat areas.n Greater aggregatehabitat area.n Access to hinterlandswhere habitat is notrestricted by develop-ment.n Genetic diversity aspopulations move andmix between habitatareas.Opposing the benefits ofincorporating linear sys-tems into greenways,there are a number ofoffsetting difficultieswhich can be created bylinear developments.

n Providing access tonative habitat areas forexotic species which mayexist within urban areasopens the potential forcompetition which maybe harmful to naturalspecies.n Some poorly designedlinear developments cutacross desired Greenwayconnections and there-fore limit opportunitiesfor open space continu-ity.n Linear open space sys-tems are difficult tomaintain in their naturalcondition because of thepredominant influence ofexternal forces.

RecreationCorridorsRecreation corridors areanother greenway function.Linear developments whichalready exist within urbanareas provide many oppor-tunities for greenway devel-opment by:n Providing recreationalaccess alternatives, such ashiking or cycling, which donot adversely impact thehabitat functions of ripari-an corridors.n Allowing joint use of cor-ridors creating opportuni-ties for cost efficient man-agement.

n Creating direct accessfor pedestrians and otherrecreational users.

InnovativeConnectionsAs part of the greenway plan-ning process, all opportuni-ties for linkages should bereviewed. To explore theseoptions:n Map existing linear devel-opment such as transporta-tion corridors, rights of way,and utility corridors.n Look for connections usingthese corridors betweenmajor greenway elements.n Consider the greenwayfunction of the linkage - isthe corridor to be used forrecreation, as a habitat corri-dor, or both?n Identify appropriate agen-cies - look for contact peopleand begin to develop multipleuse strategies.

n Recognize that in manysituations, the opportunityfor greenway connectionsmay not have been previouslyrecognized. Opportunities will becomeapparent as part of this plan-ning process. Dependingupon the agency, differentopportunities for cooperationbetween greenway and exist-ing management objectiveswill be available. n Some agencies, such asthe Ministry ofTransportation andHighways, have a direct man-date to provide for alternativetransportation corridors,including pedestrian andbikeway linkages. n Other groups such as BCHydro have no direct man-date but are committed toconsidering managementstructures which allow multi-ple uses.

Transportation corridorsestablished for cars andrapid transit may also bedesigned and managed toencourage pedestrianand bicycle circulation.

Wildlife corridors, like the stream riparianvegetation shown in this photograph, can provideimportant habitat connections. Connecting remnantvegetation blocks together helps to create moresustainable habitat.

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Cooperative ManagementMultiple use agreements are, by theirnature, more complex to administer.In order to persuade agencies of thevalue of such agreements, greenwayorganizers must be prepared to com-municate the merits of the overallgreenway system. A greenway is valu-able because of the connections itcreates. By illustrating for agencieshow a corridor, or right of way, cancomplete a greenway system, organiz-ers can show how a relatively minorcommitment can be leveraged to cre-ate a more comprehensive greenspace system.

n Identifying opportunity by itself isoften not enough to create the sup-port for a joint use agreement.Greenway planners must be realisticabout the increased costs of multipleuse, and be prepared to justifyincreased management costs.n Identify public relations benefitsavailable from scenic or recreationamenities provided.

n Identify public relations benefitsthrough substantial contributions toenvironmental stewardship.n Suggest cost savings arising fromalternative maintenance practices.Inclusion within a habitat area mayprovide direction for less intrusivemaintenance practices.n Consider transfer of some mainte-nance functions to a Greenway man-agement organization.

n Pay the costs of creating the jointuse agreement.n Cost share increased managementcosts.

Formal AgreementsWhere joint use of corridors are to beundertaken, a formal recognition ofland use should be established.Several options exist which can beapplied to meet a range of circum-stances.n A covenant can be registered onthe land title which recognizes thesecondary use.n Where a covenant is not appropri-ate, the terms of the agreement canbe laid out in a written contract.n Where a large number of partiesare involved, a Memorandum ofUnderstanding can be prepared.

Innovative PartnershipsMinistry of Transportation andHighwaysThe Ministry of Transportation andHighways has a number of policyobjectives which are compatible withgreenways.

Highway Environment BranchThe Roadside Development Sectiondevelops policies and programsaffecting the landscape developmentand maintenance of highway road-sides.Ongoing vegetation managementplanning takes into considerationaesthetics and plant ecology, such aswildflower programs, native plantregeneration, and streambank ero-sion control.A scenic highway program is underdevelopment and greenway plannersshould consider integration of scenichighway routes with local and region-al greenway implementation plans.Bicycle Connectionsn Bicycle routes in greenways shouldinclude linkages to roadway bicycleroutes.n Consider possibilities for joint con-struction and bikeway maintenanceprograms within highway rights ofway. Highway Safety Rest Areasn Coordinate recreation walkwayswith highway safety rest areas aspathway starting and ending points.n Use safety rest area interpretivesign programs to describe greenwayprograms to visiting and local trav-ellers.

BC HydroBC Hydro recognizes the need andbenefits of multiple use agreementsfor their transmission corridors andhave published guidelines for sec-ondary use applications.BC Hydro owns very little of the landon which transmission corridors arebuilt. Discussion about joint useagreements must also include thelandowner and other parties withinterests registered on title.BC Hydro reviews applications on anindividual basis, approving applica-tions which:n Are safe.n Respect the security of hydroworks, property rights, and hydro’sability to serve customers.n Will not compromise hydro’s futurerequirements for additions, modifica-tions, and maintenance of the electri-cal transmission system.

Underground PipelinesTransmission corridors and landholdings for pipelines could be treat-ed in a similar way to hydro corri-dors.Active Rail CorridorsRail lines are usually developed with-in 100 ft. rights of way on landowned by the rail companies.Agreements for recreational accessare considered on these corridorsprovided that they do not interferewith rail operations, and are safe.

Typically recreational pathways areconsidered where:n Pathways can be located at theedge of the right of way, 40 to 50 ft.from the track.n A physical separation, fence orbarrier, between pedestrians and railtraffic can be provided.Joint use is allowed in the form of acontractual agreement, but accesscovenants registered against the landtitle are not allowed.Inactive Rail CorridorsIn many situations around BritishColumbia, rail lines have been aban-doned. These abandoned rail corri-dors provide ideal opportunities forrail to trail conversions. Municipal CorridorsMany options exist for cooperationwithin local government departments.n Initiate discussions with engineer-ing departments about joint use ofsewer rights of way.n Encourage revision of street stan-dards for special circumstanceswhere environmental values are high.

n Encourage multiple use ofstormwater management areas forhabitat in the form of constructedwetlands.

Recreation and conservation needscan be coordinated within utilityrights of way.

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Greenway InterfacesRural ResidentialMaintaining a rural character at the fringes of urban areasRural residential development, because of its low density, frequently has impacts for natural sys-tems far out of proportion to the numbers of people or investment involved. Using the ideas forprotection of natural areas as illustrated, as much as 50% of open space can be protected forev-er without diminishing development rights and opportunities.

The Problem of Incremental LossTypically in rural British Columbia, subdivision bylawsrequire that residential lots be a minimum of 2 hectaresin area. This limit is set to ensure very low density.

As subdivision occurs over time, more and more land istransformed into 2 hectare residential lots. As this hap-pens, rural agricultural or forested areas are transformedto residential areas at this very low density. The impact ofthis gradual change is to fragment natural areas so thatecosystems can no longer function properly. Fish andwildlife habitat is lost, and the natural character of thelandscape is diminished. For people living in these areas,the loss of natural character is frustrating - for many,being close to nature was the attraction of the rurallifestyle in the first place.

Rural by DesignIn his books, Rural by Design and Open SpaceSubdivision, Randall Arendt illustrates the potential tochange local government bylaws to encourage a muchmore ‘rural’ design character.

His open space subdivision ordinance mandates thatbasic environmental qualities are considered in low densi-ty subdivisions.

For example, where lots may have been 2 hectare mini-mum, open space subdivisions may average the density tocreate clusters of homes on 1 hectare lots, with the bal-ance of the site in open space. This approach allows up to50% of the site to be maintained as natural open spacewhich can be jointly held, and legallyprotected.

Open Space SubdivisionThe following example illustrates a typical develop-ment scenario for rural residential land. The proper-ties are located adjacent to an urban centre but arebeyond the city’s limits. The land is zoned for ruraluses and much of the surrounding land is within theALR. The traditional subdivision maximizes yieldusing the minimum lot area of 2 hectares. In theOpen Space subdivision plan, the overall density ismaintained, but lot size is reduced to 1 hectare. Theresult of this process is that all of the environmentallysensitive lands are maintained in their natural statewithout further possibility of subdivision.

‘let us build many more “golf course devel-opments”, but for the most part without thegolf courses themselves - substituting com-munity greens for putting greens and green-ways for Fairways.’Randall ArendtDesigning Open Space Subdivisions

Rural residentialsubdivision fragmentsnatural open space andcauses great damage tonatural systems

NaturescapeOpen Space Subdivisions provide anideal vehicle for strata corporations toget involved with Naturescapeapproaches.

Naturescape British Columbia is a newprovince wide initiative which encour-ages homeowners to care for wildlifehabitat on their property. Detailed infor-mation on how to maintain privateproperty for wildlife is available for:

❸✶conservation of existing habitats.

❸✶restoration or recreation of new habi-tats.

❸✶provision of watering facilities forwildlife.

❸✶feeding stations for wildlife.

❸✶control of pets, who act as predators.

See Naturescape B.C., a publication inthe Stewardship Series for more infor-mation.

Pre-developmentstormwater flows aremaintained by providingstormwater retentiononsite. The stormwaterpond is also anaesthetic amenity forresidents.

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Encouraging Open SpaceDesignIn British Columbia, creating rural bydesign can be encouraged by refine-ments to rural zoning.

❸✶add a density bonus arrangementto the zoning category. This wouldidentify the increased density thatwould be allowed on part of the prop-erty in exchange for conservation ofthe remainder of the property in openspace as an amenity.

❸✶stipulate in the density bonuswording how much of the land shouldbe dedicated to public ownership,and how much could remain private‘in common’ ownership by the resi-dents purchasing the development.

❸✶mandate an environmental designapproach in the density bonus,requiring a basic inventory of envi-ronmental resources as a basis forsubdivision planning.

❸✶check with Ministry of Health onsewage considerations. Soil condi-tions will need to be suitable. Note,however, that the open space subdivi-sion approach will provide abundantchoice for septic disposal sites.

❸✶require a conservation covenant onthe open space area. Consider usingan NGO to hold the covenant.

❸✶consider bare land strata arrange-ments for the land.

❸✶alternatively, use a homeownerassociation or a contract approach,using a corporation to hold the landfor the residents.

Recreational walkwaysare provided within thesubdivision, but alsoconnect to the greenwayrecreation network toprovide access toregional amenities.

Homes are clustered toprovide aneighbourhood context.Homes view onto acommon green and notto neighbouringbuildings.

Smaller lot sizes allowthe stream, its ripariancorridor, and agenerous setback bufferprotecting fish andhabitat to be retained.

Total numbers ofbuilding units aremaintained in bothdevelopment scenarios.Open space is legallyprotected to ensure thatnatural values aremaintained forever.

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Greenway InterfacesAgricultureManaging for Ecosystem Values on Agricultural LandAgricultural working landscapes can be an important component of a continuous green spacenetwork. Agricultural producers manage much of the land on the urban fringe and many of theirneeds are compatible with good stewardship.Being aware of the potential for friction betweengreenway uses and agricultural production, andplanning to avoid conflicts will build coopera-tion. The information below introduces some ofthe potential issues and suggests managementtechniques and additional resources which canhelp to make these adjacent uses more compat-ible.

Protecting Land for AgricultureLand which is suitable for agriculture is a finite resource,and in most cases productive lands are included as partof the Agricultural Land Reserve in B.C. The FarmPractices Protection (Right to Farm) Act provides additionallegislative support to ensure that productive agriculturalland is not converted to, or impacted by, non-agriculturaluses.Greenway managers must be aware of ALR designationsadjacent to or affecting greenways. Greenway land,whether it is maintained for conservation or recreation,should be managed to minimize impacts on adjacent agri-cultural land.

Managing Public AccessDirect or indirect public access onto agricultural land cancreate land use conflicts. Farmers frequently experiencemalicious and/or accidental damage to animals, cropsand equipment. To reduce this problem greenwaysshould:n Restrict uncontrolled access to agricultural land bykeeping trails away from farm land.n Where necessary, purchase or negotiate access ease-ments on agricultural land and provide fencing, hedging,or other controls to limit further access beyond the ease-ment.n Refer to the Landscaped Buffer Specifications preparedby the British Columbia Agricultural Land Commissionfor detailed planting and fencing requirements to controlaccess where direct proximity with recreational uses can-not be avoided.

Vegetation ManagementGreenway land which is maintained for conservation pur-poses can create a conflict if the impacts of vegetationcontrol practices on adjacent land are not managed care-fully.Greenway managers should:n Control weedy species so as not to interfere with cropproduction on adjacent agricultural land. This is of par-ticular importance in areas left to regenerate naturally, asweedy species are common in the first stages of succes-sion.Farmers should:

n Use a program of integrated pest management whichminimizes the use of chemical pesticides and is compati-ble with good farm stewardship and the conservation ofnatural systems.n Maintain a 10 metre wide pesticide free zone next toany natural watercourse, and avoid pesticide drift intothis zone.n Apply pesticides sparingly and with particular careadjacent to natural areas to avoid drift.n Refer to the Handbook for Pesticide Applicators andDispensers from BC Environment for more information.n Manage range and pasture lands to maintain ecosys-tem health. Refer to Environmental Guidelines for BeefProducers in British Columbia for detailed stocking infor-mation.

Natural greenways can provideeffective buffers between adjacentland uses. Consider using nativeplant species and incorporatingstormwater management ponds tocreate a variety of habitatopportunities.

Residential Greenway Agriculture

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Air QualityBurning, manure spreading, and pes-ticide spraying can create conflictbetween agriculture and non farmuses. Greenways, which are lessaffected by this type of disturbance,can provide an important bufferingfunction.Greenways should identify potentialconflicts between residential and agri-cultural use and consider the follow-ing:n Purchase land, or negotiate conser-vation easements, for buffering stripsbetween incompatible land uses.n Develop management plans whichensure existing vegetation is retainedover the long term.n Limit recreation uses close to agri-cultural land to reduce exposure tofarm smells and dust.

Soil QualityGreenways which can include agri-culture and other private workinglandscapes, can use landowner con-tact, peer agrologist review, and pub-lic awareness to promote solutions topotential soil quality problems by:n Promoting good manure manage-ment practices which maintain soilquality and minimize the potential forcontaminated runoff and nutrientloading to aquatic habitats.

n Encouraging the use of soil man-agement practices to control soil ero-sion.n Educating about the costs andnegative impacts of over reliance onpesticides and irrigation.The Environmental Guidelines seriesprepared by the Ministry ofAgriculture, Fisheries and Food iden-tify specific methods to help all agri-cultural operators mitigate potentiallynegative effects. Greenway managersshould be familiar with these guide-lines.

Water QualityGreenways should encourage prac-tices to maintain good water quality,which can benefit agricultural pro-ducers and natural systems.n Install drainage controls to ensurethat contaminated runoff does notpollute watercourses.n Support the use of livestock water-ers so that cattle do not have directaccess to streams where water qualityimpacts would result.n Watch for adverse effects of irriga-tion including reductions to streamflow, and salt buildup in agriculturalsoils.

Supporting FarmStewardshipGreenway programs should look forways to encourage ecologicalresponsibility by producers. Land -owner contact programs are veryeffective.Producers generally have a highappreciation for biology and theneeds of living things. Caring fornatural systems is part of theirongoing business.Greenway landowner contact pro-grams should:n Provide information on the bio-logical and recreational values ofthe farmer’s land.n Encourage voluntary conserva-tion of sensitive habitats, throughpublic recognition of these actions.A sign posted at the farm gate canrecognize stewardship behavior.n Encourage fencing of riparianareas, and restoration of naturalvegetation by arranging for volun-teer labour or work crews from ser-vice clubs.n Establish an annual subsidy forhabitat protection measures (e.g.fence maintenance, off-streamwatering devices, or wildlife cropdamage). Local service clubs mayprovide support for these activities.n Assist in efforts to trigger exist-ing provincial cost sharing pro-grams for farm environmentalimprovements.n Determine if a conservationcovenant to protect and managenatural areas is possible. Considerif there is a tax credit trigger. Orconsider a trust arrangement withthe land owner to place thecovenant when ownership of theland is transferred.

Fencing riparian areas allowseasier management and protectsagainst incremental damage toenvironmentally sensitive areas.

Grazing practices should bemanaged to ensure that naturalsystems are not damaged as aresult of overgrazing, trampling ofriparian areas, or nutrient runofffrom manure into waterways.

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Greenway InterfacesForest LandsGreenways and forest lands can be managed with similar objectivesForest lands may account for large areas of natural green spacewithin urban or near-urban watersheds. Although this land ispart of a working landscape, in many situations greenway man-agement objectives are compatible with forest land managementobjectives. The Forest Practices Code describes many of the toolswhich are to be used to protect visually sensitive areas, recre-ational uses and environmentally sensitive areas.

Sensitive AreasThe Forest Practices Code states thatspecial management areas should becreated where special circumstancesrequire that areas are to be treateddifferently from the surrounding area.This mandate provides a opportuni-ties for greenway managers to workin cooperation with forest land man-agers to plan for and protect signifi-cant recreational resources, visualresources, and biological diversity.

Recreational AmenitiesNatural forested areas can support awide range of recreational opportuni-ties and the recreational value ofthese lands should be considered asan integral component of theresource base of forest lands.Forest land with recreational valueshould be managed according to:n public recreation needs;n the capability of features to attractand sustain use;n the recreation experience;n the uniqueness and quality of fea-tures; and,

n the sensitivity of features.

As described in the Forest PracticesCode biological, physical, cultural, orvisual features that have an ability toattract and sustain recreational useshould be managed so that their rec-ognized inherent values are protect-ed, maintained, or enhanced accord-ing to the principles of integratedresource management.Greenway managers should providerecreational use data so that forestlands, which are identified as part ofa greenway network, can be managedto provide a broad range of recreationexperiences.Priority for recreational classificationin forest land will be given to thoseareas where public demand for a spe-cific recreation experience is increas-ing and the opportunities for thatexperience are decreasing.Recreational use of forest lands bythe public can be facilitated by forestland managers through the provisionand maintenance of roads, recreationsites, recreation trails, and interpre-tive forest sites that are safe, sani-tary, socially acceptable, and environ-mentally sound.

Where forest recreation areas areincluded as part of greenway,interpretive signage can be used toexplain environmental objectives.

Under the Forest Practices Code,management of forest land mustconsider ecological, recreational,and visual factors.

Are Forests Greenways?The working forest can be a signifi-cant part of a Greenway system. InBC, working forest can be eithercrown land under forest tenure, orprivate forest land under the ForestLand Reserve.

Greenway approaches will vary:n On crown land, the application ofthe Forest Practices Code will incor-porate most Greenway values.Coordination of trail alignments maybe all that is necessary.n On private land, the principles ofthe Forest Practices Code provide aguide to responsible management.

The Forest Practices Code‘The purpose of the Forest PracticesCode is to ensure that a high level offorest and range stewardship isestablished and maintained in BritishColumbia’‘The Forest Practices Code recognizesthe need to manage forest lands tomaintain visual, recreational, andbiological diversity resources.Included within the Code areguidelines enabling the establishmentof special management areas for theprotection of: visually sensitiveareas, areas containing significantrecreational resources, and specificareas ... for the management ofbiological diversity.

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Ecological ResourcesForest land must be managed to pro-tect ecological resources, and to keepnatural systems intact. In thisrespect forest land management andgreenways are compatible. To protectspecific ecological resources, theForest Practice Code identifies the fol-lowing special management areas.Riparian Management Areas Are required along all streams andaround all lakes and wetlands to:n Maintain water quality, streamchannel function, and aquatic ecosys-tem diversity.n Sustain the diversity and produc-tivity of wildlife and vegetation withinforest land.

The sizes of Riparian ManagementAreas are identified in the Code.Wildlife Habitat Areas Are created to maintain, enhance, orrestore habitats and populations ofwildlife including:n Threatened or endangered species(Red List)n Vulnerable species (Blue List)

n and regionally important species.Habitat mapping of red-listed speciesand regionally important species isthe responsibility of the tree farmlicense holder.Lakeshore ManagementAreasThe purpose of the lakeshore classifi-cation system is to recognize and pro-tect the unique combination of fish,wildlife, water, and recreation valuesthat occur on and around lakes. Noharvesting is permitted within thelakeshore management zone exceptas required for the management ofwindthrow, pest, disease, or fire, oras specified in approved lake man-agement objectives.

Visual Quality ObjectivesVisual quality objectives are estab-lished for forest landscapes that pro-vide the scenic backdrop so highlyvalued by the public and tourismindustry in British Columbia.Operational plans should ensure thatforest operations are harmonized withthe natural visual character of areas,according to the established visualquality objectives and principles ofintegrated resource management.

Range LandLeased range land must be managedin accordance with the guiding prin-ciples set out in the Forest PracticesCode, including:

n Protect and conserve healthy,diverse, and self sustaining ecosys-tems.n Ensure the long term health andproductivity of plant communities.n Provide range enhancements asrequired to meet the objectivesdescribed above.Greenway managers and agriculturalproducers can look to theEnvironmental Guidelines series fromthe BC Ministry of Agriculture,Fisheries and Food for more detailedrange management information.

Range Use Plans must becompleted under the authority ofthe Range Act and must be renewedevery five years. Greenwaymanagers should cooperate withproducers during the preparationof these plans to ensure thatgreenway objectives are met.

Forest Renewal BC’sWatershed RestorationProgramThe Watershed RestorationProgram has been established torestore environmental values, andto enhance the productive capacityof forest lands.In watersheds where forest land isto be managed as part of a green-way program there are manyopportunities for joint cooperationbetween greenway projects andWatershed Restoration projects.RestorationOne of the main objectives of theWatershed Restoration Program isto repair past environmental dam-age, by restoring logging roads andenhancing habitat for fish andwildlife. In many watersheds pro-jects have already begun whichhave focussed on clearing blockedstreams, restoring river channels,and improving fish habitat.

ProtectionIn addition to restoration works,Forest Renewal BC is helping topromote good forest practiceswhich can help to sustain theintegrity of ecosystems and protecthabitat.The common purpose of theWatershed Restoration Programand greenways will provide manyopportunities for cooperativeaction.

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Greenway InterfacesFloodplainsEncouraging land use decisions compatible with the natural processes of rivers.Floodplain management balances compatible uses with the realities of floods. Appropriate useincludes activities which are compatible with the many other environmental functions of flood-plains such as - groundwater recharge, water quality, wetland and riparian habitat, and biodi-versity. There are many opportunities for cooperation between floodplain management andgreenways.

The Value of FloodplainsIn British Columbia, floodplains are asmall proportion of the land base. Inspite of this limited land area, theeconomic importance of floodplains issubstantial. For example, the LowerFraser Valley, most of which is afloodplain, now contains over half ofthe population of British Columbia.n Gentle slopes mean that land iseasily serviced and therefore undergreat pressure for land development.n Floodplains are valuable agricul-ture resources because of their nat-ural fertility and productivity.n Many transportation and commu-nication links are located in flood-plains. When these flood, there canbe consequences for areas much larg-er than the immediate floodplain.n Floodplains serve an importantenvironmental function providingmany links in natural biological andhydrological systems.

Flood ProtectionFlood protection has been a processof identifying risk areas, and imple-menting strategies which can mini-mize exposure to risk, for example:n Allowing development within flood-plain areas, but requiring that struc-tures be raised to an elevation whichis safe from flooding.

n Developing storm sewers anddrainage channels to reduce localflood risk by transporting floodwatersmore quickly downstream.n Building dykes which effectivelyseparate developed areas from flooddangers.The application of flood protectiontechnology to deal with localizedproblems, without adequately consid-ering downstream or cumulativeeffects, has caused many unexpectedresults.In light of this experience, floodplainmanagement is now much more likelyto restrict development in high riskareas, and to accommodate a greatrange of flows providing a safety valvefor severe storms.

Managing Natural SystemsRecent efforts in floodplain manage-ment have focused on integratedmanagement. This not only reducesflood loss, but also protects flood-plains as environmental resourcesand provides room for flood flows tospread out and dissipate with areduced amount of erosive force.HabitatFloodplains are critical as wildlifehabitat including marshes and wet-lands, but also as the aquatic habitatnecessary to maintain fish produc-tion. Water QualityBecause floodplains play such animportant role in the hydrologicalcycle, they have significant impactson water quality.

What are Floodplains?Floodplains are the relativelylow and periodically inundatedareas adjacent to rivers, lakes,and oceans. Floodplain landsand adjacent waters combineto form a complex, dynamic,physical and biological systemthat supports a multitude ofwater resources, livingresources and societalresources. Floodplains provide... natural flood and erosioncontrol, water filteringprocesses, a wide variety ofhabitats for flora and fauna,places for recreation and scientific study, and historic andarcheological sites. They are also the locus of a variety of humanactivities, including commerce, agriculture, residence, andinfrastructure.Unified National Program for Floodplain Management

Erosion and SedimentationDevelopment in floodplains can leadto increased damage to soils andwater quality as a result of inade-quate protection against sedimenta-tion. Erosion control practices whichreduce sedimentation under nonflood conditions may become com-pletely overwhelmed during floodevents.PermeabilityDevelopment in any watershed usual-ly includes reductions to soil perme-ability through paving for parking,roads and building rooftops. Reducedpermeability increases the frequencyand severity of flooding.

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Integrated FloodplainManagementWith a change in emphasis, flood-plain management objectives arecompatible with the environmentalobjectives of a greenway program.There are many opportunities toincorporate flood protection as part ofa suite of environmental objectiveswhich are overlapping and cost effec-tive.As part of an integrated managementprocess, it will be possible to achievemultiple environmental goals moreeffectively. Innovative flood loss pro-tection techniques, which may nothave been practical outside of aCommunity Greenways program, willbe more appropriate as part of anintegrated management approach.

n Development in riparian corridors,which are most sensitive to flooding,will be restricted.n More elaborate comprehensivedevelopment tools which may not beappropriate to manage against flood-ing alone will be supportable to pro-tect the combined values of ecologicalintegrity and flood loss reduction.n Environmental organizationsaccepting conservation covenants canmanage jointly for the compatiblegoals of habitat production and floodloss reduction.n Floodplain covenants under s. 82of the Land Title Act could be coordi-nated with Conservation Covenantsunder s. 215, so that covenant areasand conditions match.n Land set aside for stormwaterdetention areas may be dry exceptduring periods of peak flow and maybe managed to maximize the benefitsof this land for habitat and conserva-tion uses.n Detention ponds and constructedwetlands may provide stormwaterdetention to reduce the occurrence ofminor floods, while at the same timeproviding habitat functions.

New Initiatives inFloodplain ManagementChanges to legislation and provincialpolicy are helping to make the goalsof integrated floodplain managementmore attainable.Changes to the Municipal Act (s. 963)allow zoning to specify different regu-lations for different locations within azone. This power would allow for spe-cial clauses specific to the parts of azone that are within a floodplain. For example, a maximum allowablearea of buildings, structures andpaving could be established for useswith the floodplain. The remainingland would remain suitable for flood-plain storage. This approach, ifenforced, could have dramatic advan-tages for floodwater storage and sig-nificant savings on downstream floodprevention works.Using the soil removal and depositionsection of the Municipal Act, a regu-lation could be created to limit theamount of fill within a floodplainarea.The Fraser Basin ManagementProgram is facilitating the establish-ment of a task force of federal,provincial, and local government rep-resentatives to define potential agree-ments to support the goals of inte-grated floodplain management.

Integrated Floodplain Manage-ment on the Vedder RiverThe Vedder River is located among someof the most valuable farmland in BritishColumbia. As agriculture expanded alongthe river, the threat to the physical andeconomic well-being from flooding alsogrew.The Flood Management ProblemThe Vedder River channel receives largeamounts of glacial sediment and debris.As the river enters the valley bottom, thesurrounding terrain becomes flatter, thewater in the river slows and the deposi-tion creates an alluvial fan or delta. Asthe sediment accumulates the channelsize is reduced and flooding occurs.The SolutionAs it was not practical to dyke the riverchannel an alternative was implementedwhich allowed the river to behave in amore natural fashion. The project wasimplemented in three phases. First, the river bed and bars were scalpedand the channel banks were raised andrepaired. This work was necessary as aflood in December 1975 had filled thechannel with gravel.The second phase of the project wasundertaken from July to August of 1976.The river channel was excavated whichincreased the capacity of the channel tohandle moderate winter flows.In the final phase, private land was pur-chased to allow for a wider floodway.Setback dykes were built to increase thecarrying capacity in the existing channelto handle flows in excess of the 200 yearflood.Using this technique, reliable flood con-trol is provided. In addition, the river sidechannels provide opportunities toenhance fisheries and an environment fora variety of recreational activities.

Using the Municipal Act to createspecific regulations for floodplainareas it will be possible to allowdevelopment which does notrestrict the natural functioning offloodplains.

A River is water in itsloveliest form; Rivers have life and soundand movement and infinityof variation; Rivers are veins of theearth through which thelife blood returns to theheart.

Roderick Haig-BrownA River Never Sleeps

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Greenway InterfacesIntegrated Watershed ManagementManaging our common future.Water is a unifying medium. Its flow through natural systems touches us all and connects us aspart of a single natural system. Photosynthesis powered by the energy of the sun, along withclean water, land, and air are the basic building blocks of life.

Each of the preceding sections deals with individual aspects of land use planning. The integra-tion of these processes is the objective of integrated watershed management and should be thecommon theme of all planning agencies within a watershed. Our collective ability to manage theecological functions of a watershed will be an indicator of success in managing our commonfuture.

Assembling the PiecesPlanning to incorporate rapid humandevelopment into complex naturalsystems means that agencies whichhave been established to deal withone resource must begin to look forinnovative and cooperative alterna-tives.This process is already at work withmany agencies. For example:n Constructed wetlands which pro-vide wildlife habitat are becomingmore common as a solution forstormwater management.

n Fisheries managers concerned withmaintaining fish stock are active inguiding development so that habitatis not lost.n Parks planners recognize and planfor the multiple use of open space asrecreational amenity and conserva-tion areas.The process of greenway planning isone of looking for common purposebetween ecological functions andtechnical solutions. Common solu-tions are required which include themultidisciplinary expertise of manyparticipants.

Realizing CommonObjectivesTo advance the process of integratedwatershed management, people mustcontinue to search for common objec-tives. As development within water-sheds increases, the solutions to spe-cific problems begin to overlap juris-dictions. In response, new partner-ships form to find solutions to morecomplex problems.

A pond built and paid for as astormwater protection measurealso provides habitat, visual, andrecreational amenity. This kind ofintegrated solution combines theexperience and resources of manypeople to create a more completeand lasting solution.

Cooperative FundingCreating mechanisms of integratedmanagement means that fundingpartnerships will also be required.The necessity for such partnershipsis forced by:n Reduced overall spending for plan-ning, design, and management.n More populated watersheds whichrequire solutions for specific prob-lems that can affect many more peo-ple.n Solutions to more complex devel-opment problems require that agreater number of individual criteriamust be satisfied.n Advanced technical expertise pro-vide opportunities for effective solu-tions, but these may be more elabo-rate and expensive than in the past.All of these separate constraints sug-gests that integrated funding solu-tions are imperative - as a way todraw the individual pieces of a solu-tion together into an affordable andbroadly supportable action plan.

Moving ForwardMoving along the path toward inte-grated watershed management will bedifficult. Coordination among largeagency partnerships requires a largeeffort and on-going maintenance ofcommunication.

On the other hand, the fundamentalneed to search for the creative solu-tions implied by this process is com-pelling. Failure to manage develop-ment within fragile watersheds in anintegrated and ecologically responsi-ble manner will destroy our naturallegacy for future generations.

Building ConsensusThe gradual overlapping of interestswhich occur as watersheds becomemore populated creates the need toact in ways which are acceptable tolarger groups of people.Creating the environment for actionmeans that agencies must show lead-ership in finding consensus andestablishing integrated processes.

Greenway ManagementIncluded in this section:

4 Maintaining Healthy Ecosystems4 Risk Management4 Enjoyment

Like any major undertaking, greenways requireon-going management. This section addressesgreenway issues that may be faced by opera-tions administrators, including a checklist ofmaintenance considerations, risk managementstrategies, and operating principles to maxi-mize pubic enjoyment of the greenway system.

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Greenway ManagementMaintaining Healthy EcosystemsManaging use within Limits of Acceptable Change

Creating a greenway programwill raise the level of under-standing about healthy ecosys-tem functions in the commu-nity. People will understandthat if the quality of water, air,and habitat decline soinevitably will their own quali-ty of life.

With this public awarenesswill come a new challenge togreenway operations managersand maintenance personnel -to adapt their practices tomethods that maintain healthyecosystems.

Natural systems embrace theongoing process of change aspart of their natural function.Through their rich diversitythey provide many alternatesolutions to accommodate newand diverse circumstances.The ability to change is whatecologists refer to as ‘adapta-tion’ or ‘auto-poesis’. Simply,this means that healthy natur-al systems have a built-in abil-ity to renew themselves inresponse to changing situa-tions.

When development andhuman use within watershedsis relatively limited, the natur-al system can adapt. As devel-opment and use grows, howev-er, and if the diversity whichdefines healthy natural sys-tems is reduced, then the abil-ity of ecosystems to respond tochanges is also very rapidlyreduced.

These checklists provide astarting point to maintainingdiverse and healthy ecosys-tems in greenways . . .

Limit Human Disturbance❊Identify and protect areas

which are extremely sensitiveto disturbance.

❊Identify the seasonal varia-tions in sensitivity.

❊Design recreational facilitiesto avoid disturbance in sensi-tive areas.

❊Restrict access when seasonaldisturbance is a factor.

❊Install barriers to publicaccess when risks of distur-bance are critical.

❊Use innovative barrier designe.g. mud, water, steep slopes,thickets, hedges, handrails.

❊Inform the public about sensi-tive sites or species.

❊Monitor for incrementalchanges or disturbance.

❊Limit necessary constructionor repairs to periods whenworks can be undertaken withthe lowest risk.

Air Quality Management❊Use land use regulations to

encourage compact communi-ties.

❊Provide opportunities formass transit where feasible.

❊Incorporate principles oftransportation demand man-agement into communityplanning decisions.

❊Provide alternate transporta-tion facilities - cycling andwalking trails - from home towork or school.

❊Discourage the use of carswhere possible.

❊Minimize energy inputs togreenway maintenance.

❊Educate people on the role ofplants in filtering air pollu-tion.

❊Support greenway revegeta-tion projects.

❊Support community forestry.

❊Support urban street treeplanting.

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Vegetation Management❊Encourage conservation of

native vegetation where feasi-ble, in particular in ESA areasand where larger woodlandscan be conserved.

❊Restore damaged habitatswith native species whichhave a habitat function.

❊Encourage a Naturescape pro-gram for backyard wildlifehabitat.

❊Review open space and parksmaintenance levels to increasethe areas left as backgroundor service maintenance stan-dards, or allowed to regener-ate naturally.

❊Review pesticide and herbi-cide practices, to minimizeuse and to encourage inte-grated pest management witha high tolerance to minordamage.

❊Design new landscapes withlow level maintenanceschemes in mind, and relyheavily on retention of naturalsettings to avoid pressure forhighly manicured solutions.

❊Devise a program to stop thespread of escaped exoticplants like broom, brambleand purple loosestrife, or nox-ious weeds.

Stormwater Management❊Minimize the overall area of

impermeable surfaces so thatrainfall runoff can movethrough the watershed inrates and patterns generallysimilar to natural conditions.

❊Promote infiltration on-siteand reduce the overall quanti-ty of water entering the stormdrainage system.

❊Control development withinthe floodplain so that the nat-ural cycle of flooding can con-tinue without expensive floodprotection measures.

❊Maintain natural watercours-es, including aquatic andadjacent riparian vegetation.

❊Plan stormwater managementat a watershed scale.

❊Include opportunities for size-able detention areas through-out the watershed.

❊Encourage the development ofponds which can providehabitat, visual and recreation-al amenity, and stormwaterdetention functions.

❊Design water channels withenough capacity so that nat-ural vegetation can regeneratewithout adversely affecting thehydraulic capacity of thechannel.

Water Quality Management❊Plan for and maintain vegetat-

ed riparian corridors adjacentto all natural watercourses.

❊Install sediment traps toassist in removing waterbornesediments before they enterstreams.

❊Design water inlet and outletstructures which are stableand erosion resistant.

❊Control development on areaswith poor soil and steepslopes to minimize the poten-tial for erosion.

❊Provide erosion protectionduring new construction andfor sites which are susceptibleto erosion.

❊Restrict the development ofactivities which may pollutewithin floodplain areas.

❊Protect natural watercoursesand wetlands so that theirnatural cleansing processesmight be maintained.

❊Use vegetated swales to pro-vide water filtration.

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Greenway ManagementRisk ManagementManaging to reduce the potential for injury or property damage.Creating a greenway, whether for conservation of recreational use, will involve a greater degree ofpublic liability than for unidentified natural areas. In particular, built facilities such as stormwa-ter detention ponds, trails, bridges and similar structures are likely to attract more public use,and therefore liability. The design of these facilities should recognize the responsibility for publicsafety and ensure that care is taken to incorporate protective measures.

Water FacilitiesMany factors can be incor-porated into the design ofponds and stormwaterdetention facilities toensure that they are assafe as possible and thatthe ‘duty of care’ to protectthe public has beendemonstrated.

n Provide shallow water atpond edges, in particular inareas close to trails.

n Create a gradual slopeon the public side of apond to offer a ‘beach’ styleof water entry.

n Control access by pro-viding a barrier of mud andemergent plants in heaviersoils.

n Locate the deepest partsof the pond toward the cen-tre or closer to parts of theshoreline which haverestricted public access.

n Provide signage whichwarns people of the poten-tial water hazard risk.Identifying risk in a publicway can significantlyreduce liability.

n Install fencing aroundwater features only inextreme cases. Design nec-essary fencing to be lowand unobtrusive.Illustrating a clear demar-cation of the hazard zone isall that is necessary toshow duty of care.

RecreationalTrailsTrail design and mainte-nance should incorporatethe principle of voluntaryassumption of risk.

n Design and publish atrail guide which ratestrails according to their dif-ficulty.

n Develop policies on trailusage - identifying whichgroups of people are to beallowed to use which trails.

n Design and constructtrail alignments, width,grading and surfacing tomeet basic standards forthe recommended users.

n Install trail route signsat all major entry points,with both the allowed trailusers and trail ratingnoted, and recommendedrules of trail etiquette post-ed.

n Identify known perma-nent hazards along trailsand mark them with signson posts (signs on pave-ment may not be read).

n Identify temporary haz-ards, including areasawaiting maintenance, withsigns or markers.

n Provide handrails to pro-tect against vertical dropsdue to retaining walls over600mm high, or very steepslopes, which are close to

Barrier planting canprovide a recognizablebut unobtrusiveseparation between waterfeatures and publicaccess, and demonstratesa ‘duty of care’ to protectthe public.

The design of waterfeatures should provideshallow access adjacentto pathways. Publicaccess should berestricted adjacent todeeper water.

Provide handrails alongpublic pathwayswherever steep slopes orsharp changes in gradeoccur.

Signage identifyinghazards allows people tomake their own decisionsabout accepting the riskof using particularfacilities.

Shallow

Deep

Handrail

Steep TerrainAhead

Use CautionExperiencedHikers Only

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areas of public access.

Natural HazardsThe risk posed by natural hazardswill be less than for built hazards dis-cussed in the previous section. Partof the reason for this reduced liabilitystems from the recognition that acci-dents from natural hazards occur asthe result of an “Act of God.” Further,responsibility to greenway users doesnot extend to acts of irrational orextreme behavior. However, a duty ofcare exists to protect the public whouse the greenway in a ‘reasonable’manner. To protect greenway usersfrom natural hazards:

n Avoid routing trails close to natur-al hazard areas like the top of verticalcliffs or undercut banks.

n Provide alternate seasonal routes -e.g. to avoid avalanche slopes in win-ter, or to route via a street systemaround a floodplain during highwater events.

n Mark natural hazards prominentlyto identify hazards and reduce liabili-ty.

In cases where public access mustcome close to natural hazards, barri-er design solutions should be soughtwhich balance aesthetics and costagainst risk. The reason for a barrierdesign on challenging trails is to pro-vide notice to a reasonable adult thata risk is present.

The duty of care to children is greaterthan that to adults, and therefore, onmore urban trails where a significantnumber of unsupervised childrenmay be present, the barrier designshould effectively deter access bychildren.

There are many alternatives to barri-er design other than chainlink fence.Many barriers can have the appear-ance of handrails, farm fences,hedges, thickets, wetlands or can beintegrated with other structures

(decks, buildings, noise walls, etc.).

Theft and VandalismPublic concern about trail establish-ment often focuses on fears ofincreased crime. The potential forassault, theft and vandalism are oftenissues during the establishment ofnew trail systems.

Surveys of constructed trails do notsupport this fear.

For example, in Evaluation of theBurke-Gilman Trail’s Effect onProperty Values and Crime by SeattleEngineering:

n “none of the (110 surveyed) resi-dents felt the trail should be closed,

n less than 3% thought problemsserious enough to cause them to con-sider moving (all due to less privacy,not more crime)”

n “Almost two thirds (63%) of theresidents felt the trail increased thequality of life in the neighbourhood(only 5% felt it had decreased).”

In general, experienced trail man-agers suggest that theft is a muchgreater issue from streets and drive-ways (where access to getaway vehi-cles is easy) than from trails wherevehicles are not allowed.

Surveillance of the trail can alleviaterisks of assault, and minimize van-dalism.

n Passive surveillance can be provid-

ed by trail routings which can beviewed from roads or housing, or byavoiding long stretches of trailthrough areas of heavy undergrowth.

n Active surveillance of trails can beprovided by volunteer organizations,such as Citizens on Patrol (COPs) andVolunteers in Parks (VIPs). In highuse areas, bicycle police or horsemounted police have been very effec-tive in enforcement of trail regula-tions.

Where problems do occur on green-way trails, they are often no moresevere than similar problems onstreets, in public buildings, and inautomobiles and houses, and yetthese problems are used as reasonsnot to have public green space.

Rather than banning the green space,problems can be reduced by closingproblem areas e.g. by fencing offareas of thick woods which have beenthe site of vandalism, assaults orrowdyism. Often the closing of theseareas need only be as long as a cer-tain condition prevails e.g. until agroup of neighbourhood vandals growup.

Some trail systems might includealternate routes for day and night -an unlit route for day use, and analternate lighted street alignment fornight use. Both alignments wouldconnect to the same location at eachend.

For natural hazards it issufficient to provide protectiondesigned for a reasonable adultuser. In urban areas where morechildren are present it may benecessary to effectively restrictaccess to natural hazard areas.

Passive surveillance from nearbyhouses and streets can provide astrong deterrent to theft andvandalism.

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Windthrow HazardsWindthrow occurs when trees are overturned or brokenfrom the force of the wind.

Catastrophic windthrow occurs when exceptionally strongwinds flatten large areas of forest. Events of this type area rare occurrence of weather, and because they cannot beplanned for they are not discussed here.

Endemic windthrow, however, generally occurs on asmaller scale and windthrow sites can be identified ashigh hazard areas even in normal seasonal winds.

These pages introduce the windthrow topic. For morecomplete guidance refer to the Windthrow Handbook forBritish Columbia Forests available through BC Forests.

Windthrow Hazard EvaluationWindthrow hazard can be evaluated by examining severalvariables.

In general, large trees withstand many storms over thecourse of their lives. As a result, most are windfirm forthe natural conditions which surround them. It is whenthe growing conditions change due to adjacent clearing,thinning or disturbance that risk of windthrow for largetrees increases.

The table on the facing page suggests how site character-istics, tree variables, and proximity of nearby trees canhave a major impact on windfirmness.

Clearing and ThinningDensely growing, even aged stands of timber provide a‘damping’ effect on sway caused by wind, and the naturaledges of dense stands will have greater windfirmnessthan the interior, due to historic exposure to winds.

n Thinning of dense stands can eliminate the dampingeffect, and can expose individual trees grown in the standto windthrow.

n Clearcutting can open new edges of dense stands, andthe windward side of the clearing will be subject to newwind exposures, especially at corners which funnel winds.

Cutting or thinning can create a high risk of windthrow inhigh hazard sites for several years after the change. Overtime those trees that survive will grow reaction wood tocounter the newly felt wind forces.

Other Construction ActivitiesWindthrow hazard can also be increased by constructionactivities, such as:

n Grubbing activities which disturb roots within the dripline of trees.

n Trenching within the root zone, for utilities, drains, etc.

n Grading activities within the root zone, especially cut.

n Physical damage to the tree by falling of other trees,and disturbance by equipment or yarding operations.

Windthrow Management PracticesWindthrow management in developing areas is often asso-ciated with vegetation which is left to buffer environmen-tally sensitive areas. Strategies to minimize risk include:

n Setting back buildings from the leave area. For exam-ple, by providing deeper rear yards at lots adjacent toleave strips.

n Allowing natural windfirmness to develop prior to con-struction. For example, by clearing the proposed develop-ment site 3 or more years in advance of building con-struction, and allowing natural windthrow to occur and anew windfirm edge to develop.

n Varying the location of the leave area boundary. Forexample:

-widening the leave area to provide additional bufferingto areas of high risk of windthrow.

-selecting an area of low risk for leave area boundaries,such as deciduous trees, natural edges, low watertable.

-minimizing edges of leave areas which are perpendicu-lar to storm winds.

-where leave area boundaries run generally parallelwith storm winds, avoiding narrow protrusions whichjut out from these boundaries.

n Treating the vegetation in the leave area by:

-controlling boundary clearing and grading practices toavoid damage to anchor roots of trees to remain.

-pruning to reduce the crown by 20-30% can be effec-tive. This should be by limbing - not topping - of trees.

-feathering of the forest edge would remove high riskindividual trees, but should not exceed 15-20% of thetrees in a strip 20-30m in from the edge of the stand.Feathering is not recommended in even aged, densestands.

-in very high hazard areas where other approaches arenot feasible, localized clearing and replanting could beconsidered. The localized clearing could be either patchclearcut or selection cut depending on the stand char-acteristics. Stumps in ESA areas should be closecut,not grubbed. Understorey vegetation should be left forshade and cover.

n Replanting disturbed areas on high risk sites will gen-erally avoid future windthrow problems since trees will beopen grown in most developing areas. If replanted areasare large enough to create forest interior conditions, thenplanting at wider spacings, or early thinning to createwider spacings, will increase windfirmness at maturity.

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Wind Force Factors:after Windthrow Handbook for British Columbia Forests

High Hazard Moderate Hazard Low Hazard

High Hazard Moderate Hazard Low Hazard

High Hazard Moderate Hazard Low Hazard

❸topographically exposed loca-tions: crests, saddles, upperslopes, etc.

❸boundaries on the windwardedge of a stand

❸tall trees

❸large dense crowns

❸trees with low taper and nobutt flare

❸shallow rooting (<0.4m)

❸root rot areas

❸shallow soils (<0.4m)

❸poorly drained soils

❸trees with moderate taperand moderate butt flare

❸moderate deep rooting (0.4 -0.8m)

❸moderate deep soils (0.4 -0.8m)

❸imperfectly to moderatelywell-drained soils

❸boundaries parallel to thestorm wind direction

❸trees of intermediate height

❸moderately dense crowns

❸topographically protectedlocations

❸boundaries on the lee edge ofa stand

❸short trees

❸small open crowns

❸trees with high taper andlarge butt flare

❸deep rooting (>0.8m)

❸no evidence of root rot

❸deep soils (>0.8m)

❸well-drained soils

❸moderate to extensive naturalwindthrow present

❸extensive windthrow presenton similar adjacent cuttingboundaries

❸pit and mound micro-topog-raphy

❸minor natural windthrow pre-sent

❸minor to moderate windthrowpresent on similar adjacentcutting boundaries

❸no natural windthrow

❸no windthrow on similaradjacent cutting boundaries

❸no evidence of pit and moundmicro-topography

Windthrow in PerspectiveThere is no substitute for local observation of windthrow. In somecommunities the risk of windthrow is very low because of favorable soil,groundwater, exposure and climate conditions. In all communities therisk of damage can be reduced to negligible by a combination of thestrategies outlined above. Windthrow can cause damage, but it is not a significant factor insetting the rates of either the Insurance Corporation of British Columbiaor the Municipal Insurance Association.

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Resolving Use Conflicts Another class of risk is associatedwith conflicts or collisions among dif-ferent user groups on a trail. Riskmanagement strategies can include:

n Trail designation and marketing, tomake it clear what user groups areallowed. For example, compatibleuses on narrow trails are walking,hiking, jogging, birdwatching, andnature studies.

n On wider, flatter trails additionaluses might include: bicycling, rollerblades, wheelchair access, farmaccess.

n Where manure is not a problem,and use by other classes is light,equestrian use can be mixed with theabove uses.

n Winter uses can include crosscountry skiing and snowshoeing.Allowing motorized uses such assnowmobiling or trail bikes should bedone only with caution (see Liabilityand Insurance on Page 69).

Conflicts in multiuse trails can beminimized by establishing codes oftrail etiquette and advertising themon signs and published trail guides.e.g.

n Stay right.

n Pass on the left, with an audiblewarning.

n Groups of users should not spanmore than half the width of the trail.

n Yield to slower moving traffic, andadjust your speed to suit conditions.Alberta’s Cycling Safety Handbooksays “when encountering horses andriders, dismount, move off to the lowside of the trail allowing them topass, and speak in a moderate vol-ume. When overtaking horses, slowdown, signal your approach, and askthe riders how best to pass.”

n Do not trespass on neighbouringproperty.

n Respect nature - do not litter, pickflowers or feed wildlife or livestock.

n Cross intersections with caution.

Trail design - width, surfacing,grades, and barriers - should beappropriate to the use classification.

User conflicts can be reduced by edu-cation - at special events, through themedia, by advertising, by trainingsessions in user group clubs, and bypeer pressure.

Regulation and enforcement is notoften necessary, and is a last resort.Enforcement will likely rely on a mixof police action and voluntary patrols.

Pathways should be designedto accommodate differentlevels of use. Urbanpathways with many users,including cyclists and in-lineskaters should be wide, anddurable.

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Liability ConsiderationsLiability for trails in British Columbiais regulated under the OccupiersLiability Act.

Assessment of liability will be madeby the courts on the basis of thestandard of care set out in theOccupiers Liability Act, based on theprinciple that the occupier of premis-es owes a duty of care to all personswho enter on the property, includinginvitees and trespassers.

Under the Act, an occupier is definedto include a person who has respon-sibility for and control over the condi-tion of premises; the definition is notlimited to those physically occupyingpremises. Occupiers owe a duty totake the care that is reasonable in allcircumstances to see that a personentering on the premises will be rea-sonably safe in using the premises.An occupier has no duty of care asregards risks willingly accepted by aperson entering the occupier’s lands,except a duty not to act with recklessdisregard or create a danger withintent to harm the person.

In applying these principles, thecourts have been guided by the prin-ciples of negligence law. Occupiersliability law is quite complex, andlegal counsel and insurers should beconsulted on a risk managementstrategy specific to your greenwayproject. General strategies for avoid-ing liability include:

n mark potential hazards with signs.

n establish a trail rating and allowedusers, and design and maintain thetrail consistent with the use and rat-ing class.

n a key principle in defense againstnegligence is the voluntary assump-tion of risk. Encourage the public tomake a conscious choice when usinga trail, and to be aware of the inher-ent risks by entrance signage, trailmaps, etc.

n managers should be aware thattheir liability is reduced by contribu-tory negligence by the user and byActs of God.

n trails which allow motorized usersare a greater risk due to the poten-tially more severe injuries associatedwith such use. Liability can bereduced by restricting use to thoseallowed by contractual arrangementwith an organized club which pro-vides insurance and requires itsmembers to sign a waiver.

n trails which cross private propertywill be rare, but in such cases a con-tractual agreement which sets out therights and duties of the parties isadvisable.

n do not charge a fee for trail use, asthis increases the duty of care inBritish Columbia

Insurance CostsInsurance for mostlocal government inBritish Columbia isprovided by theMunicipal InsuranceAssociation.

Insurance premiumsare based on a percapita formula, and assuch the presence orabsence of greenwaysand trails will nothave an impact on theinsurance rate struc-tures to individualmunicipalities.

Municipalities mayreceive a 30% premi-um discount for noclaims, and up to a30% surcharge for apoor claims history.

The MunicipalInsurance Associationwill advise their mem-bers on issues of spe-cific liability once theyembark on a greenwayprogram.

Marking potential hazards to identify potentialrisks recognizes a ‘duty of care’ and helps tolimit liability.

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Greenway ManagementEnjoymentCreating facilities and programs to encourage use and enjoyment.Managing the recreational resource created by the development of a greenway can expand thebenefits of the greenway into a very wide cross section of the community. Facilities and programsmust be developed to enhance and explain the environmental objectives of a greenway.

Maximizing User BenefitsGreenways can heighten community awareness, raise fit-ness, improve community spirit, and provide a focus forcommunity group efforts.

Greenway programming can be a focus for a GreenwayAlliance, and can keep a greenway alive and in the fore-front of public awareness. However, the end users of agreenway may be a very different, and a much broadergroup, than those that initiated the greenway program.

Community involvement in using a greenway can include:

Environmental interest groups in environmental restora-tion and maintenance, e.g.

n Naturalists clubs doing bird counts, habitat restoration.

n Fish and wildlife clubs doing fish enhancement, etc.

Service clubs providing funds and volunteer labour fortrail, fencing, signage and replanting projects, e.g.

n Rotary, Kinsmen, Lions, etc.

Life skill organizations using the greenway for training,e.g.

n Boy Scouts and Cubs

n Girl Guides

n John Howard Society, etc.

Education institutions using the greenway e.g.

n Elementary schools, for outdoor education.

n Secondary schools, for field practice related to science,biology, geography and ecology.

n Post-secondary institutions, for field practice in environ-mental assessment, design, and recreation management.

Community preventative health programs using the green-way for health protection, e.g.

n Walking events sponsored by the Heart and StrokeFoundation.

n Jogging clubs

n Cycling tours

n Gardening plots, and related shows and competitions

n Sports events such as triathalons.

Programming and Special EventsProgramming is an important aspect of greenway manage-ment. It provides opportunities for many people to benefitfrom a greenway individually or as part of a group.Special events advertised throughout the communitymaintain a public awareness of the greenway resourceand help to retain the broad public support for green-ways.

Ideas for special events to raise awareness of theGreenway include:

n Night time activities - ‘owl prowl’ or ‘bat hike’

n Hike week or Celebrity walk

n Trail awards ceremonies

n Natural heritage days

n Theme speaker walks providing information on: geolo-gy, birds, wildlife, vegetation, history, fish, water quality

n Fitness runs or walks

n Fishing derby

n Equestrian ride & prizes

n Fun runs (for groups like politicians, corporations, etc.)

n Art in the park

n Creek cleanup days

n Agriculture Events

Special events may include walks with environmentalspecialists such as biologists, ecologists, or forestersto share information about natural systems.

71

Interpretive programsGreenways provide an ideal locationfor a wide variety of interpretive pro-grams on such items as:

Biodiversityn Plant and salamander habitats.

n Fish and fisheries sensitive zones.

n Eagle nesting, eagle food and habi-tat needs.

n Heron rookeries, heron food andhabitat needs.

n Woodpecker haunts and snag trees.

n Waterfowl species and migration.

n Walks through history.

Natural Systemsn Marsh vegetation as a sewage treat-

ment system.

n Groundwater recharge and waterquality.

n Vegetation and air quality.

n Plants as the lungs of planet earth.

n Life in the mud (bethnic fauna).

Urban Systems in a NaturalContextn Constructed wetlands.

n Groundwater ways.

n Paving and flooding.

n Urban wildlife and urban ecosys-tems.

n Windthrow variables.

n Impacts of invasive exotic plants.

n Naturescape - backyard wildlifelandscape.

n New forestry.

Interpretive MediaInterpretive programs can be commu-nicated by a variety of media, includ-ing:

Outdoor sign programsUse simple, silhouette vinyl graphicsto reduce production costs. Fullcolour photographs can be repro-duced on signs, but at high cost.

Devise a coordinated signage systemwhich integrates interpretive, infor-mation, and regulatory signage.

Be careful to design for the main haz-ards to outdoor signage - vandalism,theft, and the weather, including fad-ing due to ultraviolet exposure.

Consider triggering economies ofscale by sharing sign productioncosts with interpretive programs inother jurisdictions in similar naturalenvironments.

Printed HandoutsBrochures can carry a similar mes-sage to signage programs, withoutthe vandalism and weather problemsassociated with signs.

Trail maps can include interpretiveinformation.

Locations for distributing thebrochures, and recycling or litter col-lection facilities, will be required.

Multi-media kiosksA new alternative for interactive infor-mation display is available throughmulti-media. CD Rom technology isused to store words, pictures andvideo clips which can be accessed bycomputer. The power of multimedia isin the ability of the user to sort theinformation to get informationfocused to their specific interest.

Multi-media kiosks need reliablepower sources, weather and vandal-ism protection, and reasonable lightconditions.

Interpretive ToursDirect contact by interpretive leadersis one of the most flexible and suc-cessful components of any interpre-tive program. To find leaders:

n Approach your local professionalassociations.

n Solicit the talents of local or seniorgovernment staff.

n Ask for volunteers from environ-mental organizations.

n Approach school and college staffand students.

Signs are useful to convey basicinformation to a broad audience.Signs can be inexpensive toproduce but should consider theeffects of weather and vandalismin their design.

This Ministry of Forestsinterpretive kiosk provides a greatdeal of information and allowsusers to sort quickly to get accessto the information they need.

72

For More InformationThe Stewardship SeriesThe Stewardship Series is a group of publications describing stewardship activities for variousaudiences. The series is funded by federal and provincial governments in partnership with non-government organizations on a project by project basis. Current publications include:

Stream Stewardship: A Guide for Planners andDevelopersThis document introduces concepts and relationships between urbandevelopment and the fisheries resource.Department of Fisheries and Oceans, and Province of B.C., 1994.Phone (604) 666-3545

Stewardship 94Proceedings from a conference held March 3-5, 1994 on revisiting theland ethic and caring for the land.Nora Layard and Loralee Delbrouck (Eds.), 1994. $15.Phone (604) 387-9369

Water Stewardship: A Guide for Teachers,Students and Community GroupsThis guide was written by teachers for teachers and outlines ways tostart educating students, friends and community groups about theimportance of water.Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1994. $20. Phone 1-800-387-9853

The Streamkeepers Handbook: a PracticalGuide to Stream and Wetland CareProvides guidance for people who wish to help protect and restore localwaterways in British Columbia. Projects are organized in modules, per -mitting easy updating of information.G. Taccogna and K. Munro (Eds.). Department of Fisheries and Oceans,1995. $30. Phone (604) 666-3545

Community Stewardship: A Guide toEstablishing Your Own GroupA practical guide to assist individuals, groups and communities getorganized to do stewardship work.Fraser River Management Program, 1995. Phone (604) 660-1177

Naturescape British Columbia: Caring forWildlife Habitat at HomeThe Naturescape kit provides the tools people need to restore, maintain,improve or protect wildlife habitat at home.Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 1995. Phone 1-800-387-9853

Additional Stewardship PublicationsAdditions to the Stewardship Series are in progress.

Other Suggested ReadingsChilibeck, B. et al. Land Development Guidelines for theProtection of Aquatic Habitat. Department of Fisheries andOceans / Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks.British Columbia. 1992.

Commission on Resources and Environment. FindingCommon Ground: A Shared Vision for Land Use in BritishColumbia . British Columbia. 1994.

Crombie, Honourable David. Commissioner. Regeneration:Toronto’s Waterfront and the Sustainable City: FinalReport. Royal Commission on the Future of the TorontoWaterfront, 1992.

Envirowest Environmental Consultants. Fish HabitatEnhancement: A Manual for Freshwater, Estuarine, andMarine Habitats. Department of Fisheries and Oceans.Vancouver. 1990.

Furuseth, O.J., Altman, R.E. Greenway Use and Users:An Examination of Raleigh and Charlotte Greenways.Carolina Planning, Vol. 16, No. 2, 1990.

Harding, L.E., McCullum, E. (Eds.). Biodiversity in BritishColumbia: Our Changing Environment. EnvironmentCanada, Canadian Wildlife Service. 1994.

Hope, D., Yachuk, D. Community Cycling Manual - APlanning and Design Guide. Canadian Institute ofPlanners. Ottawa. 1990.

Little, Charles E. Greenways for America. The JohnHopkins University Press, 1990.

Marsh, J. (Ed.). Rails to Greenways. Frost Centre forCanadian Heritage and Development Studies, TrentUniversity. Peterborough. 1994.

Quayle, Moura. City of Vancouver Urban Landscape TaskForce. Greenways-Public Ways. Final Report, May 1992.

Rivers and Trails Conservation Assistance Program.Economic Impacts of Protecting Rivers, Trails, andGreenway Corridors. National Park Service. 1992.

Roseland, M. Toward Sustainable Communities. NationalRound Table on the Environment and the Economy.1992.

Schwarz, Loring LaB. (Ed.) Greenways: A Guide toPlanning, Design and Development. The ConservationFund. Island Press, Washington, D.C. 1993.

Smith, D.S., Hellmund, P.C. (Eds.). Ecology of Greenways.University of Minnesota Press. Minneapolis. 1993.

Stathers, R.J., Rollerson, T.P., and Mitchell, S.J.Windthrow Handbook for British Columbia Forests.Ministry of Forests. 1994.

Twolan-Strutt, L. Wetlands and Woodlots. North AmericaWetlands Conservation Council (Canada). Ottawa. 1995.

CreditsThe information presented in this document has beenrefined with the help and cooperation of many agenciesand individuals.The broad scope of the subject matter is represented ina steering committee which included federal, provincial,and local governments, as well as corporations, andnon-government organizations. Together these groupsand individuals have participated in this process withthe recognition that through cooperative effort theirindividual objectives can be enriched by the creation ofCommunity Greenways.

Eric BonhamGeoff ChislettPeter LawMinistry of Environment Landsand Parks

Emma ChildRoderick Bell-IrvingMelody FarrellOtto LangerBrian TuttyDepartment of Fisheries andOceans

Rick McKelveyPeggy WardCanadian Wildlife Service

Judith CullingtonErik KarlsenMinistry of Municipal Affairs

Jane Waters,Theresa SzymanisMinistry of Transportation andHighways

David MorrisProvincial Capital Commission

Cresswell WalkerHarriet RueggebergCity of NanaimoBob LaphamBonnie BlueRegional District of Nanaimo

John MaherBC Hydro

Rod SilverWildlife Habitat Canada

Bob PhillipsAndrew BalesStephen ConnellyJoel UsseryThe Federation of BritishColumbia Naturalists

In addition to these steeringcommittee members, the authors also wish to thank allthose who attended technical review workshops, partici-pated in the Millstone Pilot Project, and reviewed draftsof this document.Photographs used within this document are provided bythe authors and members of the steering committee,except as specifically noted otherwise.Writing, layout, and publishing of this document wasby: Lanarc Consultants Ltd.Landscape Architects and Planners, Nanaimo, BritishColumbiaLegal services: Lidstone, Young and Anderson,Vancouver, British Columbia

When land is developed, whether forsubdivisions, transportation, agricultureor forestry, there is an inevitable changeto the balance found in natural systems.Drainage patterns are changed, trees arecut down, soil ismoved andhabitat is lost.When thesechanges aresmall, naturalsystems canoften absorb theimpacts, andnormal ecologi-cal functionscan continue.As the size andrate of develop-ment accelerates, the ability of naturalsystems to accommodate change dimin-ishes and the evidence of damagebecomes more widespread.We must continue to look for new waysto minimize our impact on the underly-ing natural systems that support us,and take advantage of opportunities torepair past damage.Community Greenways: LinkingCommunities to Country, and People toNature provides forward looking toolsthat will help community leaders tounderstand the principles of the naturalsystems that support our lives.

FundingFinancial support for this project wasprovided by the following organizations:Ministry of Environment Lands andParks

Urban Salmon Habitat ProgramHabitat Conservation Fund

Department of Fisheries and OceansFraser River Action Plan

Canadian Wildlife ServiceMinistry of Municipal Affairs

Georgia Basin InitiativeMinistry of Transportation and HighwaysForest Renewal B.C.’s WatershedRestoration ProgramProvincial Capital CommissionCity of NanaimoRegional District of NanaimoBC HydroWildlife Habitat CanadaFederation of British ColumbiaNaturalists

Land for Nature Initiative

“We abuse land because we regard it as“We abuse land because we regard it as

a commodity belonging to us. Whena commodity belonging to us. When

we see land as a community to whichwe see land as a community to which

we belong, we may begin to use it withwe belong, we may begin to use it with

love and respect."love and respect."A Sand County AlmanacA Sand County Almanac

Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)Aldo Leopold (1886-1948)

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication DataMain entry under title:Community greenways

Writing by Lanarc Consultants Ltd. Cf. Colophon.Co-published by Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans.Includes bibliographical references: p.ISBN 0-7726-2678-2

1. Greenways - British Columbia. 2. Greenbelts - BritishColumbia. 3. Land use - British Columbia - Planning. 4.Urban ecology - British Columbia.I. British Columbia. Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks. II. Lanarc Consultants. III. Canada.Dept. of Fisheries and Oceans.HD319.B7C65 1995 333.7’16’09711 C95-960409-X

Printed on Recycled Paper

LinkingLinkingCommunitiesCommunitiesto Country, andto Country, andPeople to NaturePeople to Nature

The Stewardship Series

...and a Way of ThinkingAs Places:Greenways are networks of green space creatingGreenways are networks of green space creatinglinkages for nature between public lands, like parkslinkages for nature between public lands, like parksand trails, together with private working landscapes,and trails, together with private working landscapes,like forests and farms.like forests and farms.

As a Way of Thinking:Greenways link ecosystems to local land useGreenways link ecosystems to local land useplanning.planning.

Greenways help maintain our watersheds to protectGreenways help maintain our watersheds to protectclean air, clean land, and clean water. These are theclean air, clean land, and clean water. These are thebasic needs of plants, of wildlife, of fish, ofbasic needs of plants, of wildlife, of fish, ofagriculture, of forest production, of us. agriculture, of forest production, of us.

Province ofBritish Columbia

Greenways are Places,

Community Greenways promises to be an excellent and highly practical addition to theemerging literature on greenways. We are impressed with the comprehensive treatment,persuasive arguments, pertinent quotes and useful examples integrated into thishandbook. It is well designed, with creative and helpful use of charts, maps and otherillustrations.The Honourable David Crombie, P.C.,Commissioner, Waterfront Regeneration Trust

Community Greenways serve many purposes: surely one of the most important will be toremind us of our growing alienation from a Nature on which we are totally dependent.The pressures of a technological world grow rapidly. Greenways are a release, whereperhaps we can jog, listen to a bird’s song or enjoy green leaves in the sunshine.Dr. Bert Brink, OC, OBC

Community Greenways is a solid document in concept and content; it is a treasure ofpractical information. For those working in any occupation dealing with land use, thesection Cutting Red Tape With Greenways Programs is rewarding reading.Tim Pringle, Executive Director of the Real Estate Foundation of B.C.