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GREEK THEATERThe Greek theatre history began with festivals honoring their gods. A god, Dionysus, was honored with a festival called by "City Dionysia". In Athens, during this festival, men used to perform songs to welcome Dionysus. Plays were only presented at City Dionysia festival.Athens was the main center for these theatrical traditions. Athenians spread these festivals to its numerous allies in order to promote a common identity.At the early Greek festivals, the actors, directors, and dramatists were all the same person. After some time, only three actors were allowed to perform in each play. Later few non-speaking roles were allowed to perform on-stage. Due to limited number of actors allowed on-stage, the chorus evolved into a very active part of Greek theatre. Music was often played during the chorus' delivery of its lines.Panoramic view of the Greek theatre at Epidaurus.Panoramic view of the Greek theatre at Epidaurus.Tragedy, comedy, and satyr plays were the theatrical forms.Tragedy and comedy were viewed as completely separate genres. Satyr plays dealt with the mythological subject in comic manner. Aristotle's Poetics sets out a thesis about the perfect structure for tragedy.Tragedy playsThespis is considered to be the first Greek "actor" and originator of tragedy (which means "goat song", perhaps referring to goats sacrificed to Dionysus before performances, or to goat-skins worn by the performers.) However, his importance is disputed, and Thespis is sometimes listed as late as sixteenth in the chronological order of Greek tragedians.Aristotle's Poetics contain the earliest known theory about the origins of Greek theatre. He says that tragedy evolved from dithyrambs, songs sung in praise of Dionysus at the Dionysia each year. The dithyrambs may have begun as frenzied improvisations but in the 600s BC, the poet Arion is credited with developing the dithyramb into a formalized narrative sung by a chorus.Three well-known Greek tragedy playwrights of the fifth century are Sophocles, Euripides and Aeschylus.Comedy playsComedy was also an important part of ancient Greek theatre. Comedy plays were derived from imitation; there are no traces of its origin. Aristophanes wrote most of the comedy plays. Out of these 11 plays survived - Lysistrata, a humorous tale about a strong woman who leads a female coalition to end war in Greece.Greek TheatreTheatre buildings were called a theatron. The theaters were large, open-air structures constructed on the slopes of hills. They consisted of three main elements: the orchestra, the skene, and the audience. Orchestra: A large circular or rectangular area at the center part of the theatre, where the play, dance, religious rites, acting used to take place.Skene: A large rectangular building situated behind the orchestra, used as a backstage. Actors could change their costumes and masks. Earlier the skene was a tent or hut, later it became a permanent stone structure. These structures were sometimes painted to serve as backdrops.Rising from the circle of the orchestra was the audience. The theatres were originally built on a very large scale to accommodate the large number of people on stage, as well as the large number of people in the audience, up to fourteen thousand.ActingThe cast of a Greek play in the Dionysia was comprised of amateurs, not professionals (all male).Ancient Greek actors had to gesture grandly so that the entire audience could see and hear the story. However most Greek theatres were cleverly constructed to transmit even the smallest sound to any seat.Costumes and MasksThe actors were so far away from the audience that without the aid of exaggerated costumes and masks.The masks were made of linen or cork, so none have survived. Tragic masks carried mournful or pained expressions, while comic masks were smiling or leering.

ROMAN THEATER

Roman theatres derive their basic design from the Theatre of Pompey, the first permanent Roman theatre. The characteristics of Roman to those of the earlier Greek theatres due in large part to its influence on the Roman triumvir Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus. Much of the architectural influence on the Romans came from the Greeks, and theatre structural design was no different from other buildings. However, Roman theatres have specific differences, such as being built upon their own foundations instead of earthen works or a hillside and being completely enclosed on all sides.The Roman theatre was shaped with a half circle or orchestra space in front of the stage. Most often the audience sat here in comfortable chairs. Occasionally, however, the actors would perform in this space. To solve the problem of lighting and sound - the theaters were outdoors.The Romans built theaters anywhere, even on flat plains, by raising the whole structure off the ground. As a result, the whole structure was more integrated and entrances/exits could be built into the cave, as is done in large theaters and sports arenas today. The arena was as high as the rest of the structure, so the audience could not look out beyond the stage. It also created more of an enclosed atmosphere and may have helped keep out the noises of the city. A tarp could be rigged and moved over the top of the theater to create shade.The huge amount of people present still held problems for the sound as the audience would not always stay quiet. To solve this problem, costumes and mask were worn to show the type of person on stage. Different symbols were worked out. The actors wore masks - brown for men, white for women, smiling or sad depending on the type of play. The costumes showed the audience who the person was - a purple gown for a rich man, a striped toga for a boy, a short cloak for a soldier, a red toga for a poor man, a short tunic for a slave etc. Women were not allowed to act, so their parts were normally played by a man or young boys wearing a white mask.The actors spoke the lines, but a second actor mimed the gestures to fit the lines, along with background music. Some things were represented by a series of gestures, which are recognized by the audience to mean something, such as feeling a pulse to show a sick person, making the shape of a lyre with fingers to show music. The audience was often more interested in their favorite actors than the play itself. The actors would try to win over the audience's praise with decorative masks, costumes, dancing and mime.If the play scripted an actor's dying, a condemned man would take the place of the actor at the last moment and actually be killed on stage. The Romans loved the bloodthirsty spectacles. Emperors such as Nero used the theatre as a way of showing their own talents - good or otherwise. Nero actually used to sing and would not let anyone leave until he was finished.Most theaters still standing date from the Hellenistic period, which dates from the 4th century BC and later. It's possible to assume much of the features were preserved, but not definitely. This is due to the fact that most plays completely lacked staging directions. Those directions found in modern translations were merely added by the translator. Some plays, however, do sometimes contain scenic requirements.Pompeii's large theatre underwent a structural change from the Hellenistic style to a more Greco-Roman style. The traditional Hellenistic theatres had the scene section moved forward into the orchestra area, reducing it to a semicircle. The front portion of the scene converted into a 'proskeniontogeion' (high raised stage). The stage was 8-12 feet, 45-140 feet in width, and 6.5-14 feet in depth. The back wall of the stage had 1-3 doors that opened onto the stage but later the number of doors increased to 1-7, depending on the theatre. The stage was supported in front by open columns.Triangular wooden prisms with a different scene painted on each side (periaktoi) were created and located near the side entrance of the stage. This allowed for a more realistic show. The higher stage gave way to better acting which later attracted actors and popularity.After the Romans moved into the area and built the odium, Pompeii's theatre underwent complete changes and in 65 A.D, the theatre transformed away from the Hellenistic style into the Greco-Roman style of theatre. A porticos was added in the back of the theatre. The ends of the scene building were removed.Rows of seats were added for honored guests. The stage was lowered and 2 short flights of steps leading down to the stairs were added. These changes were important because the intent of the theatre was to replace the temporary wooden stages that the Romans were using to house their tragedies and comedies. The new look of the theatre is what was left to the world after Vesuvius's fatal eruption.The earliest known Italian drama, is known to come from the region of Campania, which is located in the Southern half of Italy. It was in the town of Atella where the Atellan Farces became popular. These were originally written in the language of Oscan, and later translated into Latin as these farces caught on in Rome. What allowed theses plays to catch on, however, was actually due to the Etruscans from the North, as well as Greek colonies located on the Eastern side of the Peninsula to whom the Romans have given the credit of introducing the many forms of music and dance.In 364 B.C., the Romans specifically introduced the Etruscan form of the ballet as a dance so as to appease the gods, so that they might remove a plague from the empire. Livius Andronicus, who is thought to be a freed slave during the 3rd century B.C., is credited for translating the first Greek plays into Latin as well as producing them (Butler 79). Many of the performances were associated with important holidays as well as with religious festivals.

Roman theatres were built in all areas of the empire from medieval-day Spain, to the Middle East. Because of the Romans' ability to influence local architecture, we see numerous theatres around the world with uniquely Roman attributes.There exist similarities between the theatres and amphitheatres of ancient Rome/Italy. They were constructed out of the same material, Roman concrete, and provided a place for the public to go and see numerous events throughout the Empire. However, they are two entirely different structures, with specific layouts that lend to the different events they held. Amphitheatres did not need superior acoustics, unlike those provided by the structure of a Roman theatre. While amphitheatres would feature races and gladiatorial events, theatres hosted events such as plays, pantomimes, choral events, and orations. Their design, with its semicircular form, enhances the natural acoustics, unlike Roman amphitheatres constructed in the round.These buildings were semi-circular and possessed certain inherent architectural structures, with minor differences depending on the region in which they were constructed. The scaenae frons was a high back wall of the stage floor, supported by columns. The proscaenium was a wall that supported the front edge of the stage with ornately decorated niches off to the sides. The Hellenistic influence is seen through the use of the proscaenium. The Roman theatre also had a podium, which sometimes supported the columns of the scaenae frons. The scaenae was originally not part of the building itself, constructed only to provide sufficient background for the actors. Eventually, it became a part of the edifice itself, made out of concrete. The theatre itself was divided into the stage (orchestra) and the seating section (auditorium). Vomitoria or entrances and exits were made available to the audience.The auditorium, the area in which people gathered, was sometimes constructed on a small hill or slope in which stacked seating could be easily made in the tradition of the Greek Theatres. The central part of the auditorium was hollowed out of a hill or slope, while the outer radian seats required structural support and solid retaining walls. This was of course not always the case as Romans tended to build their theatres regardless of the availability of hillsides. All theatres built within the city of Rome were completely man-made without the use of earthworks. The auditorium was not roofed; rather, awnings (vela) could be pulled overhead to provide shelter from rain or sunlight.Some Roman theatres, constructed of wood, were torn down after the festival for which they were erected concluded. This practice was due to a moratorium on permanent theatre structures that lasted until 55 BC when the Theatre of Pompey was built with the addition of a temple to avoid the law. Some Roman theatres show signs of never having been completed in the first place.Inside Rome, few theatres have survived the centuries following their construction, providing little evidence about the specific theatres. Arausio, the theatre in modern-day Orange, France, is a good example of a classic Roman theatre, with an indented scaenae frons, reminiscent of Western Roman theatre designs, however missing the more ornamental structure. The Arausio is still standing today and, with its amazing structural acoustics and having had its seating reconstructed, can be seen to be a marvel of Roman architecture.

Standard Floor Plan

Theatre Structure

Interior view of the auditorium

1) Scaenae frons 2) Porticus post scaenam 3) Pulpitum 4) Proscaenium5) Orchestra 6) Cavea 7) Aditus maximus 8) VomitoriumThescaenae fronsis the elaborately decorated background of a Roman theatre stage. This area usually has several entrances to the stage including a grand central entrance. The scaenae frons is two or sometime three stories in height and was central to the theatre's visual impact for this was what is seen by a Roman audience at all times. Tiers or balconies were supported by a generous number of classic columns. This style was influenced by Greek theatre. The Greek equivalent was the "Scene" building. It lends its name to "proscenium," which describes the stage or space "before the scene."Thepulpitumis a common feature in medieval cathedral and monastic architecture in Europe. It is a massive screen, most often constructed of stone, or occasionally timber, that divides the choir (the area containing the choir stalls and high altar in a cathedral, collegiate or monastic church) from the nave and ambulatory (the parts of the church to which lay worshippers may have access).Aprosceniumis the area of a theater surrounding the stage opening. Note that a proscenium theatre should not be confused with a "proscenium arch theatre".Thecaveawere the subterranean cells in which wild animals were confined before the combats in the Roman arena or amphitheatre.Avomitoriumis a passage situated below or behind a tier of seats in an amphitheatre, through which big crowds can exit rapidly at the end of a performance.They are also a pathway for actors to enter on and off stage. The Latin word vomitorium, plural vomitoria, derives from the verb vomeo, vomere, vomitum, "to spew forth." In ancient Roman architecture, vomitoria were designed to provide rapid egress for large crowds at amphitheatres and stadiums, as they do in modern sports stadiums and large theaters.

Theatre of Marcellusthe year 11 or 13. It stands on level ground and is supported by radiating walls and concrete vaulting. An arcade with attached half-columns runs around the building. The columns are Doric and Ionic.At the theatre, locals and visitors alike were able to watch performances of drama and song. Today its ancient edifice in the rione of Sant'Angelo, Rome, once again provides one of the city's many popular spectacles or tourist sites. It was named after Marcus Marcellus, Emperor Augustus's nephew, who died five years before its completion. Space for the theatre wof Marcellus. one ancient The theatre to survive in Rome, the Theatre of Marcellus, was started by Caesar and completed by Augustus around as cleared by Julius Caesar, who was murdered before it could be begun; the theatre was so far advanced by 17 BC that part of the celebration of the ludi saeculares took place within the theatre; it was completed in 13 BC and formally inaugurated in 12 BC by Augustus.The theatre was 111 m in diameter; it could originally hold 11,000 spectators. It was an impressive example of what was to become one of the most pervasive urban architectural forms of the Roman world. The theatre was built mainly of tuff, and concrete faced with stones in the pattern known as opus reticulatum, completely sheathed in white travertine. The network of arches, corridors, tunnels and ramps that gave access to the interiors of such Roman theaters were normally ornamented with a screen of engaged columns in Greek orders: Doric at the base, Ionic in the middle. It is believed that Corinthian columns were used for the upper level but this is uncertain as the theater was reconstructed in the Middle Ages, removing the top tier of seating and the columns.Like other Roman theaters in suitable locations, it had openings through which the natural setting could be seen, in this case the Tiber Island to the southwest. The permanent setting, the scaena, also rose to the top of the cavea as in other Roman theaters.The name templum Marcelli still clung to the ruins in 998. In the Early Middle Ages the Teatro di Marcello was used as a fortress of the Fabii and then at the end of the 11th century, by Pier Leoni and later his heirs (the Pierleoni). The Savelli held it in the 13th century. Later, in the 16th century, the residence of the Orsini, designed by Baldassare Peruzzi, was built atop the ruins of the ancient theatre.Now the upper portion is divided into multiple apartments, and its surroundings are used as a venue for small summer concerts; the Portico d'Ottavia lies to the north west leading to the Roman Ghetto and the Tiber to the south west.In the 17th century, the renowned English architect Sir Christopher Wren explicitly acknowledged that his design for the Sheldonian Theatre in Oxford was influenced by Serlio's engraving of the Theatre

Theatre at Orange

The Theatre of Orange is an ancient Roman theatre, in Orange, southern France, built early in the 1st century CE. It is owned by the municipality of Orange and is the home of the summer opera festival, the Choregies d'Orange.It is one of the best preserved of all the Roman theatres in the Roman colony of Arausio (or, more specifically, Colonia Julia Firma Secundanorum Arausio: "the Julian colony of Arausio established by the soldiers of the second legion") which was founded in 40 BC. Playing a major role in the life of the citizens, who spent a large part of their free time there, the theatre was seen by the Roman authorities not only as a means of spreading Roman culture to the colonies, but also as a way of distracting them from all political activities. Mime, pantomime, poetry readings and the "attelana" (a kind of farce rather like the commedia dell'arte) was the dominant form of entertainment, much of which lasted all day. For the common people, who were fond of spectacular effects, magnificent stage sets became very important, as was the use of stage machinery. The entertainment offered was open to all and free of charge.As the Western Roman Empire declined during the 4th century, by which time Christianity had become the official religion, the theatre was closed by official edict in AD 391 since the Church opposed what it regarded as uncivilized spectacles. After that, the theatre was abandoned completely. It was sacked and pillaged by the "barbarians" and was used as a defensive post in the Middle Ages. During the 16th-century religious wars, it became a refuge for the townspeople.

Medieval theatre

Nineteenth-century engraving of a performance from the Chestermystery playcycle.Medieval theatrerefers to thetheatrein the period between the fall of theWestern Roman Empirein the 5th century A.D. and the beginning of theRenaissancein approximately the 15th century A.D. Medieval theatre covers all drama produced in Europe over that thousand year period and refers to a variety of genres, includingliturgical drama,mystery plays,morality plays,farcesandmasques. Beginning withHrosvithaof Gandersheim in the 10th century, Medieval drama was for the most part very religious and moral in its themes, staging and traditions. The most famous examples of Medieval plays are the English cycle dramas, theYork Mystery Plays, theChester Mystery Plays, theWakefield Mystery Playsand theN-Town Plays, as well as themorality play,Everyman.Due to a lack of surviving records and texts, a low literacy rate of the general population, and the opposition of the clergy to some types of performance, there are few surviving sources on Medieval drama of theEarlyandHighMedieval periods. However, by thelateperiod,dramaandtheatrebegan to become more secularized and a larger number of records survive documentingplaysand performances.

Hrosvithaof Gandersheim, the first dramatist of the post-classical era.Faced with the problem of explaining a new religion to a largely illiterate population, churches in theEarly Middle Agesbegan staging dramatized versions of particular biblical events on specific days of the year. These dramatizations were included in order to vivify annual celebrations.[1]Symbolic objects and actions (vestments,altars,censers, andpantomimeperformed by priests) recalled the events which Christian ritual celebrates. These were extensive sets of visual signs that could be used to communicate with a largely illiterate audience. These performances developed intoliturgical dramas, the earliest of which is theWhom do you Seek (Quem-Quaeritis)Easter trope, dating from ca. 925.[2]Liturgical drama was sung responsively by two groups and did not involve actors impersonating characters. However, sometime between 965 and 975,thelwold of Winchestercomposed theRegularis Concordia (Monastic Agreement)which contains a playlet complete with directions for performance.[3]Transition from Rome, 500-900 A.D.[edit]As theWestern Roman Empirefell into severe decay through the 4th and 5th centuries A.D., the seat of Roman power shifted toConstantinopleand theEastern Roman Empire, today called theByzantine Empire. While surviving evidence about Byzantine theatre is slight, existing records show thatmime,pantomime, scenes or recitations fromtragediesandcomedies,dances, and other entertainments were very popular. Constantinople had two theatres that were in use as late as the 5th century A.D. However, the true importance of the Byzantines in theatrical history is their preservation of many classical Greek texts and the compilation of a massive encyclopedia called theSuda, from which is derived a large amount of contemporary information on Greek theatre.[4]In the 6th century, the EmperorJustinianfinally closed down all theatres for good.According to thebinarythinking of the Church's early followers, everything that did not belong toGodbelonged to theDevil; thus all non-Christian gods andreligionsweresatanic. Efforts were made in many countries through this period to not only convertJewsandpagansbut to destroy pre-Christian institutions and influences. Works ofGreekandRomanliterature were burnt, the thousand-year-oldPlatonic Academywas closed, theOlympic Gameswere banned and all theatres were shut down. The theatre itself was viewed as a diabolical threat toChristianitybecause of its continued popularity inRomeeven among new converts. Church fathers such asTatian,TertullianandAugustinecharacterized the stage as an instrument in the Devil's fiendish plot to corrupt men's souls, whileactingwas consideredsinfulbecause of its cruel mockery of God's creation.[5]Under these influences, thechurchset about trying to suppress theatrical spectacles by passing laws prohibiting and excludingRomanactors. They were forbidden to have contact with Christian women, ownslaves, or weargold. They were officiallyexcommunicated, denied thesacraments, includingmarriageandburial, and were defamed and debased throughoutEurope. For many centuries thereafter, clerics were cautioned to not allow these suddenly homeless, travelling actors to perform in their jurisdictions.[5]From the 5th century,Western Europewas plunged into a period of general disorder that lasted (with a brief period of stability under theCarolingian Empirein the 9th century) until the 10th century A.D. As such, most organized theatrical activities disappeared inWestern Europe. While it seems that small nomadic bands traveled around Europe throughout the period, performing wherever they could find an audience, there is no evidence that they produced anything but crude scenes .[6]Hrosvitha(c.935-973), an aristocratic canoness and historian in northernGermany, wrote six plays modeled onTerence's comedies but using religious subjects in the 10th century A.D. Terence's comedies had long been used inmonasteryschools as examples of spokenLatinbut are full of clever, alluringcourtesansand ordinary human pursuits such assex,loveandmarriage.[7]In order to preempt criticism from thechurch, Hrosvitha prefaced her collection by stating that her moral purpose to save Christians from the guilt they must feel when reading Classical literature. Her declared solution was to imitate the "laudable" deeds of women in Terence's plays and discard the "shameless" ones.[8]These six plays are the first known plays composed by a female dramatist and the first identifiable Western dramatic works of the post-Classical era.[3]They were first published in 1501 and had considerable influence on religious and didactic plays of the sixteenth century. Hrosvitha was followed byHildegard of Bingen(d. 1179), aBenedictineabbess, who wrote aLatinmusicaldrama calledOrdo Virtutumin 1155.The anonymous pagan playQuerolus, written c.420, was adapted in the 12th century by Vitalis of Blois. Other secular Latin plays were also written in the 12th century, mainly in France but also in England (Babio). There certainly existed some other performances that were not fully fledged theatre; they may have been carryovers from the original pagan cultures (as is known from records written by the clergy disapproving of such festivals). It is also known that mimes, minstrels, bards, storytellers, and jugglers traveled in search of new audiences and financial support. Not much is known about these performers' repertoire and few written texts survive. One of the most famous of the secular plays is the musicalLe Jeu de Robin et Marion, written byAdam de la Hallein the 13th century, which is fully laid out in the original manuscript with lines, musical notation, and illuminations in the margins depicting the actors in motion. Adam also wrote another secular play,Jeu de la FueilleeinArras, a French town in which theatre was thriving in the late 12th and 13th centuries. Perhaps the ugliest play surviving from Arras, is theJeu de saint NicolasbyJean Bodel(c.1200).High and Late Medieval theatre[edit]

Stage drawing from 15th-centuryvernacularmorality playThe Castle of Perseverance.As theVikinginvasions ceased in the middle of the 11th century A.D.,liturgical dramahad spread fromRussiatoScandinaviatoItaly. Only inMuslim-occupied Spainwere liturgical dramas not presented at all. Despite the large number of liturgical dramas that have survived from the period, many churches would have only performed one or two per year and a larger number never performed any at all.[9]TheFeast of Foolswas especially important in the development of comedy. The festival inverted the status of the lesser clergy and allowed them to ridicule their superiors and the routine of church life. Sometimes plays were staged as part of the occasion and a certain amount ofburlesqueandcomedycrept into these performances. Although comic episodes had to truly wait until the separation of drama from the liturgy, the Feast of Fools undoubtedly had a profound effect on the development of comedy in both religious and secular plays.[10]Performance of religious plays outside of the church began sometime in the 12th century through a traditionally accepted process of merging shorter liturgical dramas into longer plays which were then translated intovernacularand performed by laymen and thus accessible to a wider segment of society inclusive of the working class. The use of vernacular enabled drama to be understood and enjoyed by a larger audience.The Mystery of Adam(1150) gives credence to this theory as its detailed stage direction suggest that it was staged outdoors. A number of other plays from the period survive, includingLa Seinte Resurrection(Norman),The Play of the Magi Kings(Spanish), andSponsus(French).The importance of theHigh Middle Agesin the development of theatre was theeconomicandpoliticalchanges that led to the formation ofguildsand the growth of towns. This would lead to significant changes in theLate Middle Ages. In theBritish Isles, plays were produced in some 127 different towns during the Middle Ages. These vernacular "mystery plays" were written in cycles of a large number of plays:York(48 plays),Chester(24),Wakefield(32) andUnknown(42). A larger number of plays survive fromFranceandGermanyin this period and some type of religious dramas were performed in nearly every European country in theLate Middle Ages. Many of these plays containedcomedy,devils,villainsandclowns.[11]The majority of actors in these plays were drawn from the local population. For example, atValenciennesin 1547, more than 100 roles were assigned to 72 actors.[12]Plays were staged onpageant wagonstages, which were platforms mounted on wheels used to move scenery. Often providing their own costumes, amateur performers in England were exclusively male, but other countries had female performers. The platform stage, which was an unidentified space and not a specific locale, allowed for abrupt changes in location.

Henry VIIIofEnglandloved courtmasquesMorality playsemerged as a distinct dramatic form around 1400 and flourished until 1550. The most interesting morality play isThe Castle of Perseverancewhich depictsmankind's progress from birth to death. However, the most famous morality play and perhaps best known Medieval drama isEveryman. Everyman receivesDeath's summons, struggles to escape and finally resigns himself to necessity. Along the way, he is deserted byKindred,Goods, andFellowship- onlyGood Deedsgoes with him to the grave.There were also a number of secular performances staged in the Middle Ages, the earliest of which isThe Play of the GreenwoodbyAdam de la Hallein 1276. It contains satirical scenes andfolkmaterial such asfaeriesand other supernatural occurrences.Farcesalso rose dramatically in popularity after the 13th century. The majority of these plays come fromFranceandGermanyand are similar in tone and form, emphasizingsexand bodily excretions.[13]The best known playwright of farces isHans Sachs(14941576) who wrote 198 dramatic works. In England, [The Second Shepherds' Playof theWakefield Cycleis the best known early farce. However, farce did not appear independently in England until the 16th century with the work ofJohn Heywood(14971580).A significant forerunner of the development ofElizabethandrama was theChambers of Rhetoricin theLow Countries.[14]These societies were concerned withpoetry,musicanddramaand held contests to see which society could compose the best drama in relation to a question posed.At the end of theLate Middle Ages, professional actors began to appear inEnglandandEurope.Richard IIIandHenry VIIboth maintained small companies of professional actors. Their plays were performed in thegreat hallof a nobleman's residence, often with a raised platform at one end for the audience and a "screen" at the other for the actors. Also important wereMummers' plays, performed during theChristmasseason, and courtmasques. These masques were especially popular during the reign ofHenry VIIIwho had a house of revels built and anoffice of revelsestablished in 1545.[15]The Ms of Medieval drama[edit]During the Medieval time period the art of theatre was created and developed. There are five notable types of drama that have a significant role in the way theatre is practiced in the 21st century. These types of drama are often referred to as "The Ms of Medieval Drama." Here are the five notable types of Medieval drama:1- Mummings: a theatrical drama in which people represent the order of vegetation. Many of the performers dressed in costumes that signified that they were a plant of some sort. These dramas had a short plot and were often performed in the basement of a bar. They were meant to be humorous and as such there was always a clown. In other words, there was always a character within the plot that was the butt of every joke and would often get fooled to cause havoc. These performances were performed during the dark time of the year. In each plot the hero dies, but is always brought back to life.2- Mystery play: a drama that explores the most known stories within the Bible. Mystery plays were extremely prevalent in the 15th century. They were heavily religious and were the heart of the Corpus Christi Festival in Medieval times. These plays became obsolete when the focus of dramas were no longer religious.3- Miracle play: a drama that accounted the life of a saint. Sometimes the drama was focused on the martyrdom of the saint; sometimes the drama focused on the miracles the saint either witnessed or performed. These dramas could either be real stories or fictitious ones.4- Morality play: characters within the drama personify moral qualities to teach moral lessons. In these dramas the plot led to teaching the audience how to be a good Christian, or how to be a person worthy of Heaven. In other words, these dramas were allegories of correct Christian behavior.5- Manners: the first secular dramas. These dramas were the beginning of breaking the tradition of keeping a religious purpose in the theatre world during the Medieval time period. Because of this genre of drama, mummings, mystery, miracle, and morality plays began to become obsolete.Staging[edit]

TheValenciennesPassion PlayDepending on the area of the performances, the plays were performed in the middle of the street, onpageant wagonsin the streets of great cities (this was inconvenient for the actors because the small stage size made stage movement impossible), in the halls ofnobility, orin the roundin amphitheatres, as suggested by current archaeology in Cornwall and the southwest of England. The most detailed illustration of a mystery play stage design is the frontispiece toHubert Cailleau'sThe Passion and Resurrection of the Savior. All medieval stage production was temporary and expected to be removed upon the completion of the performances. Actors, predominantly male, typically wore long, dark robes. Medieval plays such as the Wakefield cycle, or the Digby Magdalene featured lively interplay between two distinct areas, the wider spaces in front of the raised staging areas, and the elevated areas themselves (called, respectively, the locus and the platea).[16]Typically too, actors would move between these locations in order to suggest scene changes, rather than remain stationary and have the scene change around them as is typically done in modern theater.The dramas remained religious but were no longer strictly liturgical; therefore, they were not exclusively performed in the church or before the gates of the church. When staging later Medieval theatre, it was important to have spectacle and present a realistic depiction of the play so the audience members would see and feel the characters whom religious traditions may have not fully presented. Although the main key to having widespread knowledge of the plays was the vernacular language they were performed in, the spectacle of action, props, costumes and stage direction enhanced the production and its interpretation by the audience. Thus, scenery, stage machinery and costumes enabled a more realistic depiction of the message the play was trying to promote. Whether on a fixed stage, with more opportunity for spectacle, or on a pageant wagon that moved through the streets, the ornate details and tricks attributed to these productions enhanced the audiences experience of the play.[17]More examples of the Medieval StageDecline and change[edit]Its death was due mostly to changing political and economic factors. First, the Protestant Reformation targeted the theatre, especially in England, in an effort to stamp out allegiance to Rome. InWakefield, for example, the local mystery cycle text shows signs of Protestant editing, with references to thepopecrossed out and two plays completely eliminated because they were too Catholic. However, it was not just the Protestants who attacked the theatre of the time. TheCouncil of Trentbanned religious plays in an attempt to rein in the extrabiblical material that the Protestants frequently lampooned.A revival of interest inancient RomanandGreek culturechanged the tastes of the learned classes in the performing arts.GreekandRomanplays were performed and new plays were written that were heavily influenced by the Classical style. This led to the creation ofCommedia dell'arteand other forms ofRenaissance theatre.A change of patronage also caused drastic changes to the theatre. In England the monarch and nobility started to support professional theatre troupes (includingShakespeare'sLord Chamberlain's MenandKing's Men), which catered to their upper class patrons' tastes. These patrons desired to be entertained, not preached to, and as time passed the plays became more secular and refined. In time these same tastes would filter down to the lower classes.Finally, the construction of permanent theaters, such as theBlackfriars Theatresignaled a major turning point from reliance on church facilities, touring groups, and inns as stages. Permanent theaters allowed for more sophisticated staging and storytelling. Moreover, professional troupes that owned their own theatre had more resources with which to prepare their productions, which changed the theatre from a mostly amateur or traveling art form to a professional one with different practices and standards.Contributions to theatre[edit]Medieval theatre brought many contributions to the theatre that continue to be incorporated in productions around the world to this day. The major contributions of the Medieval theatre are the use of the vernacular, spectacle, stage direction and the use of farce. Prior to Medieval theatre, all drama was performed in Latin or Greek, however Medieval theatre evolved to the use of the vernacular about 1200 A.D. Performances that were spoken in the vernacular provided opportunities for larger audiences, who included members of lower socio-economic status, who would have otherwise been excluded from understanding the performances.[18]Medieval theatre differed from the classical theatre for it emphasized spectacle. In addition, it presented various actions on stage in time and space and presented a combination of the sublime with detailed realism. Approximately 1400 A.D., the dramas were performed with spectacle; no longer dependent exclusively on the spoken word, but incorporating music, dance, costume and set design. The spectacle of the later Medieval theatre made it necessary to have detailed stage directions. A sample of documented staging drawings and directions remain from the 15th-century morality playThe Castle of Perseverance. The evolution to the dependence on detailed stage direction made possible the great Shakespearean stage.[19]Farce contributed to modern theatre in that it allowed the author and the actors to ridicule and criticize their superiors whether it be in the church or in society, without retribution. This was a transition to all the future theatre including Shakespeare, who employed the use of farce with ease.Separation of the Medieval theatre from the oversight and support of the church, as well as the growth of the productions in the later Medieval theatre, made it necessary to have the financial subsidization, a need that exists through the remaining history of the theatre.Modern day productions of Medieval theatre[edit]Main article:Contemporary productions of medieval theatre

Medieval theatre productions are still performed today. Performances of plays outside of the church are frequent during the Christmas season with reenactments of the Nativity. The reenactment of the Passion is performed throughout the world in the late Lenten season. The most famous of the productions is TheOberammergau Passion Play. It is a Passion play performed every 10 years by the inhabitants of the village of Oberammergau, Bavaria, Germany and each performance is attended by thousands.

A 1596 sketch of a rehearsal in progress on thethrust stageofThe Swan, a typical circularElizabethanopen-roof playhouse.English Renaissance theatre, also known asearly modernEnglish theatre, or (commonly) asElizabethan theatre, refers to the theatre ofEnglandbetween 1562 and 1642.This is the style of the plays ofWilliam Shakespeare,Christopher MarloweandBen Jonson.Background[edit]English Renaissance theatreencompasses the period between 1562 (performance at theInner Templeduring the Christmas season of 1561 ofGorboduc, the first English play usingblank verse) and 1642 (ban on theatrical plays enacted by the English Parliament).The phraseElizabethan theatreis used at times improperly, especially in languages other than English[citation needed], to meanEnglish Renaissance theatre, even though in a strict sense this only applies to 1603. Strictly speaking one distinguishes withinEnglish Renaissance theatrebetweenElizabethantheatrefrom 1562 to 1603,Jacobeantheatrefrom 1603 to 1625 andCarolinetheatrefrom 1625 to 1642Along with the economics of the profession, the character of the drama changed towards the end of the period. UnderElizabeth, the drama was a unified expression as far as social class was concerned: the Court watched the same plays the commoners saw in the public playhouses. With the development of the private theatres, drama became more oriented towards the tastes and values of an upper-class audience. By the later part of the reign ofCharles I, few new plays were being written for the public theatres, which sustained themselves on the accumulated works of the previous decades.[1]Theatrical life and the establishment of permanent theatres[edit]Theatrical life was largely centred inLondon, but plays were performed by touring companies all over England.[2]English companies even toured and performed English plays abroad, e.g. inGermanyand inDenmark.[3]The period starts before the establishment of the first permanent theatres. Initially two types of location were used for performing plays,the courtyards of innsand theInns of Courtsuch as theInner Temple. These venues continued to be used even after permanent theatres were established.The first permanent English theatre, the 'Red Lion' opened in 1567[4]but it was a short-lived failure. The first successful theatres, such asThe Theatre, opened in 1576.The establishment of large and profitable public theatres was an essential enabling factor in the success of English Renaissance drama. Once they were in operation, drama could become a fixed and permanent rather than a transitory phenomenon. Their construction was prompted when the Mayor and Corporation of London first banned plays in 1572 as a measure against the plague, and then formally expelled all players from the city in 1575.[5]This prompted the construction of permanent playhouses outside the jurisdiction of London, in thelibertiesof Halliwell/Holywell in Shoreditch and laterthe Clink, and atNewington Buttsnear the established entertainment district of St. George's Fields in rural Surrey.[5]The Theatrewas constructed in Shoreditch in 1576 byJames Burbagewith his brother-in-law John Brayne (the owner of the unsuccessfulRed Lionplayhouse of 1567)[6]and theNewington Buttsplayhouse was set up, probably by Jerome Savage, some time between 1575[7]and 1577.[8]The Theatre was rapidly followed by the nearbyCurtain Theatre(1577),the Rose(1587),the Swan(1595), theGlobe(1599), theFortune(1600), and theRed Bull(1604).[9]Archaeological excavations on the foundations of the Rose and the Globe in the late 20th century showed that all the London theatres had individual differences; yet their common function necessitated a similar general plan.[10]The public theatres were three stories high, and built around an open space at the centre. Usually polygonal in plan to give an overall rounded effect (though the Red Bull and the first Fortune were square), the three levels of inward-facing galleries overlooked the open centre, into which jutted the stageessentially a platform surrounded on three sides by the audience, only the rear being restricted for the entrances and exits of the actors and seating for the musicians. The upper level behind the stage could be used as abalcony, as inRomeo and JulietorAntony and Cleopatra, or as a position from which an actor could harangue a crowd, as inJulius Caesar.[citation needed]Usually built of timber, lath and plaster and with thatched roofs, the early theatres were vulnerable to fire, and were replaced (when necessary) with stronger structures. When the Globe burned down in June 1613, it was rebuilt with a tile roof; when the Fortune burned down in December 1621, it was rebuilt in brick (and apparently was no longer square).[citation needed]A different model was developed with theBlackfriars Theatre, which came into regular use on a long-term basis in 1599.[11]The Blackfriars was small in comparison to the earlier theatres and roofed rather than open to the sky; it resembled a modern theatre in ways that its predecessors did not. Other small enclosed theatres followed, notably theWhitefriars(1608) and theCockpit(1617). With the building of theSalisbury Court Theatrein 1629 near the site of the defunct Whitefriars, the London audience had six theatres to choose from: three surviving large open-air "public" theatres, the Globe, the Fortune, and the Red Bull, and three smaller enclosed "private" theatres, the Blackfriars, the Cockpit, and the Salisbury Court.[12]Audiences of the 1630s benefited from a half-century of vigorousdramaturgicaldevelopment; the plays ofMarloweandShakespeareand their contemporaries were still being performed on a regular basis (mostly at the public theatres), while the newest works of the newest playwrights were abundant as well (mainly at the private theatres).[citation needed]Around 1580, when both the Theatre and the Curtain were full on summer days, the total theatre capacity of London was about 5000 spectators. With the building of new theatre facilities and the formation of new companies, the capital's total theatre capacity exceeded 10,000 after 1610.[13]In 1580, the poorest citizens could purchase admittance to the Curtain or the Theatre for a penny; in 1640, their counterparts could gain admittance to the Globe, the Cockpit, or the Red Bullfor exactly the same price.[citation needed](Ticket prices at the private theatres were five or six times higher).[citation needed]Performances[edit]The acting companies functioned on a repertory system; unlike modern productions that can run for months or years on end, the troupes of this era rarely acted the same play two days in a row.Thomas Middleton'sA Game at Chessran for nine straight performances in August 1624 before it was closed by the authoritiesbut this was due to the political content of the play and was a unique, unprecedented, and unrepeatable phenomenon. Consider the 1592 season ofLord Strange's Menat theRose Theatreas far more representative: between 19 Feb. and 23 June the company played six days a week, minus Good Friday and two other days. They performed 23 different plays, some only once, and their most popular play of the season,The First Part of Hieronimo, (based on Kyd'sThe Spanish Tragedy), 15 times. They never played the same play two days in a row, and rarely the same play twice in a week.[14]The workload on the actors, especially the leading performers like Edward Alleyn, must have been tremendous.One distinctive feature of the companies was that they included only males. Female parts were played by adolescentboy playersin women's costume.Costumes[edit]Costumes were often bright in colour and visually entrancing. Costumes were expensive, however, so usually players wore contemporary clothing regardless of the time period of the play. Otherwise, costumes would be recycled and used in multiple different plays multiple times until it was too worn to be used. Occasionally, a lead character would wear a conventionalized version of more historically accurate garb, but secondary characters would nonetheless remain in contemporary clothing.Playwrights[edit]The growing population of London, the growing wealth of its people, and their fondness for spectacle produced a dramatic literature of remarkable variety, quality, and extent. Although most of the plays written for the Elizabethan stage have been lost, over 600 remain.The men (no women were professional dramatists in this era) who wrote these plays were primarily self-made men from modest backgrounds.[15]Some of them were educated at eitherOxfordorCambridge, but many were not. AlthoughWilliam ShakespeareandBen Jonsonwere actors, the majority do not seem to have been performers, and no major author who came on to the scene after 1600 is known to have supplemented his income by acting.Not all of the playwrights fit modern images of poets or intellectuals.Christopher Marlowewas killed in an apparent tavern brawl, whileBen Jonsonkilled an actor in a duel. Several probably were soldiers.Playwrights were normally paid in increments during the writing process, and if their play was accepted, they would also receive the proceeds from one day's performance. However, they had no ownership of the plays they wrote. Once a play was sold to a company, the company owned it, and the playwright had no control over casting, performance, revision or publication.The profession of dramatist was challenging and far from lucrative.[16]Entries inPhilip Henslowe's Diary show that in the years around 1600 Henslowe paid as little as 6 or 7 per play. This was probably at the low end of the range, though even the best writers could not demand too much more. A playwright, working alone, could generally produce two plays a year at most; in the 1630sRichard Bromesigned a contract with theSalisbury Court Theatreto supply three plays a year, but found himself unable to meet the workload. Shakespeare produced fewer than 40 solo plays in a career that spanned more than two decades; he was financially successful because he was an actor and, most importantly, a shareholder in the company for which he acted and in the theatres they used. Ben Jonson achieved success as a purveyor of Courtmasques, and was talented at playing thepatronagegame that was an important part of the social and economic life of the era. Those who were playwrights pure and simple fared far less well; the biographies of early figures likeGeorge PeeleandRobert Greene, and later ones like Brome andPhilip Massinger, are marked by financial uncertainty, struggle, and poverty.Playwrights dealt with the natural limitation on their productivity by combining into teams of two, three, four, and even five to generate play texts; the majority of plays written in this era were collaborations, and the solo artists who generally eschewed collaborative efforts, like Jonson and Shakespeare, were the exceptions to the rule. Dividing the work, of course, meant dividing the income; but the arrangement seems to have functioned well enough to have made it worthwhile. (The truism that says, diversify your investments, may have worked for the Elizabethan play market as for the modern stock market.) Of the 70-plus known works in the canon ofThomas Dekker, roughly 50 are collaborations; in a single year, 1598, Dekker worked on 16 collaborations for impresarioPhilip Henslowe, and earned 30, or a little under 12 shillings per weekroughly twice as much as the average artisan's income of 1s. per day.[17]At the end of his career,Thomas Heywoodwould famously claim to have had "an entire hand, or at least a main finger" in the authorship of some 220 plays. A solo artist usually needed months to write a play (though Jonson is said to have doneVolponein five weeks); Henslowe's Diary indicates that a team of four or five writers could produce a play in as little as two weeks. Admittedly, though, the Diary also shows that teams of Henslowe's house dramatistsAnthony Munday,Robert Wilson,Richard Hathwaye,Henry Chettle, and the others, even including a youngJohn Webstercould start a project, and accept advances on it, yet fail to produce anything stageworthy. (Modern understanding of collaboration in this era is biased by the fact that the failures have generally disappeared with barely a trace; for one exception to this rule, see:Sir Thomas More.).[18]Most playwrights, like Shakespeare for example, wrote in verse.Genres[edit]Genresof the period included thehistory play, which depicted English or European history.Shakespeare's plays about the lives of kings, such asRichard IIIandHenry V, belong to this category, as doChristopher Marlowe'sEdward IIandGeorge Peele'sFamous Chronicle of King Edward the First. History plays dealt with more recent events, likeA Larum for Londonwhich dramatizes the sack ofAntwerpin 1576.Tragedywas an amazingly popular genre. Marlowe's tragedies were exceptionally popular, such asDr. FaustusandThe Jew of Malta. The audiences particularly likedrevenge dramas, such asThomas Kyd'sThe Spanish Tragedy. The four tragedies considered to be Shakespeare's greatest (Hamlet,Othello,King Lear, andMacbeth) were composed during this period, as well as many others (seeShakespearean tragedy).Comedieswere common, too. A subgenre developed in this period was thecity comedy, which deals satirically with life in London after the fashion ofRomanNew Comedy. Examples areThomas Dekker'sThe Shoemaker's HolidayandThomas Middleton'sA Chaste Maid in Cheapside.Though marginalised, the older genres likepastoral(The Faithful Shepherdess, 1608), and even themorality play(Four Plays in One, ca. 1608-13) could exert influences. After about 1610, the new hybrid subgenre of thetragicomedyenjoyed an efflorescence, as did themasquethroughout the reigns of the first twoStuartkings,James IandCharles I.Printed texts[edit]Only a minority of the plays of English Renaissance theatre were ever printed; of Heywood's 220 plays noted above, only about 20 were published in book form.[19]A little over 600 plays were published in the period as a whole, most commonly in individualquartoeditions. (Larger collected editions, like those ofShakespeare's,Ben Jonson's, andBeaumont and Fletcher'splays, were a late and limited development.) Through much of the modern era, it was thought that play texts were popular items among Renaissance readers that provided healthy profits for thestationerswho printed and sold them. By the turn of the 21st century, the climate of scholarly opinion shifted somewhat on this belief: some contemporary researchers argue that publishing plays was a risky and marginal business[20]though this conclusion has been disputed by others.[21]Some of the most successful publishers of the English Renaissance, likeWilliam PonsonbyorEdward Blount, rarely published plays.A small number of plays from the era survived not in printed texts but inmanuscriptform.[22]End of English Renaissance theatre: ban on plays by the English Parliament[edit]The risingPuritanmovement was hostile toward theatre, as they felt that "entertainment" was sinful. Politically, playwrights and actors were clients of the monarchy and aristocracy, and most supported the Royalist cause. The Puritan faction, long powerful in London, gained control of the city early in theFirst English Civil War, and on 2 September 1642, the Parliament, pushed by theParliamentarian party, underPuritaninfluence, banned the staging of plays in the London theatres[23]though it did not, contrary to what is commonly stated, order the closure, let alone the destruction, of the theatres themselves:The text of the act is as follows:Whereas the distressed Estate of Ireland, steeped in her own Blood, and the distracted Estate of England, threatened with a Cloud of Blood by a Civil War, call for all possible Means to appease and avert the Wrath of God, appearing in these Judgements; among which, Fasting and Prayer, having been often tried to be very effectual, having been lately and are still enjoined; and whereas Public Sports do not well agree with Public Calamities, nor Public Stage-plays with the Seasons of Humiliation, this being an Exercise of sad and pious Solemnity, and the other being Spectacles of Pleasure, too commonly expressing lascivious Mirth and Levity: It is therefore thought fit, and Ordained, by the Lords and Commons in this Parliament assembled, That, while these sad causes and set Times of Humiliation do continue, Public Stage Plays shall cease, and be forborn, instead of which are recommended to the People of this Land the profitable and seasonable considerations of Repentance, Reconciliation, and Peace with God, which probably may produce outward Peace and Prosperity, and bring again Times of Joy and Gladness to these Nations.[24]Note that the Act purports the ban to be temporary ("...while these sad causes and set Times of Humiliation do continue, Public Stage Plays shall cease and be forborn") but does not assign a time limit to it.After 1642, during theEnglish Civil Warand the ensuingInterregnum(English Commonwealth), evenafterthe Puritan mandated banning of the performance of plays, theatrical activity which continued English Renaissance theatre could be seen to some extent, e.g. in the form of short comical plays calledDrollsthatwereallowed by the authorities, while proper full-length plays were banned. The theatres were not closed. The buildings were used for purposes other than staging plays.[25]The performance of plays remained banned for most of the next eighteen years, becoming allowed again after theRestorationof the monarchy in 1660. The theatres started again performing many of the plays of the previous era, though often in adapted forms; new genres ofRestoration comedyandspectaclesoon evolved, giving English theatre of the later seventeenth century its distinctive character.

Baroque

The Triumph of the ImmaculatebyPaolo de Matteis

The Church ofSant'Andrea al Quirinale, designed byGian Lorenzo BerniniTheBaroque(US/brok/orUK/brk/) is often thought of as a period of artisticstylethat used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. The style began around 1600 inRome,Italyand spread to most of Europe.[1]The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by theCatholic Church, which had decided at the time of theCouncil of Trent, in response to theProtestant Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement.[2]Thearistocracyalso saw the dramatic style of Baroque architecture and art as a means of impressing visitors and expressing triumph, power and control. Baroque palaces are built around an entrance of courts, grand staircases and reception rooms of sequentially increasing opulence. However, "baroque" has resonance and application that extend beyond a simple reduction to either style or period.[3]Etymology[edit]

Broochof an African,Walters Art MuseumThe wordbaroqueis derived from the Portuguese word "barroco", Spanish "barroco", or French "baroque", all of which refer to a "rough or imperfect pearl", though whether it entered those languages via Latin, Arabic, or some other source is uncertain.[4]The 1911Encyclopdia Britannica11th editionthought the term was derived from the Spanishbarrueco, a large, irregularly-shaped pearl, and that it had for a time been confined to the craft of the jeweller.[5]Others derive it from themnemonicterm"Baroco", a supposedly laboured form of syllogismin logicalScholastica.[6]The Latin root can be found inbis-roca.[7]In informal usage, the wordbaroquecan simply mean that something is "elaborate", with many details, without reference to the Baroque styles of the 17th and 18th centuries.The word "Baroque", like mostperiodicor stylistic designations, was invented by later critics rather than practitioners of the arts in the 17th and early 18th centuries. It is a French transliteration of thePortuguesephrase "prola barroca", which means "irregularpearl", and natural pearls that deviate from the usual, regular forms so they do not have anaxis of rotationare known as "baroque pearls".[8]The term "Baroque" was initially used in a derogatory sense, to underline the excesses of its emphasis. In particular, the term was used to describe its eccentric redundancy and noisy abundance of details, which sharply contrasted the clear and sober rationality of theRenaissance. Although it was long thought that the word as a critical term was first applied to architecture, in fact it appears earlier in reference to music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the premire in October 1733 ofJean-Philippe Rameau'sHippolyte et Aricie, printed in theMercure de Francein May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque", complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was unsparing with dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[9]Modern taste and usage[edit]The word was first rehabilitated by theSwiss-bornart historian,Heinrich Wlfflin(18641945) in hisRenaissance und Barock(1888); Wlfflin identified the Baroque as "movement imported into mass," an art antithetic to Renaissance art. He did not make the distinctions betweenMannerismand Baroque that modern writers do, and he ignored the later phase, the academic Baroque that lasted into the 18th century. Long despised, Baroque art and architecture became fashionable between the two World Wars, and has largely remained in critical favour. For example the often extremeSicilian Baroquearchitecture is today recognised largely due to the work of SirSacheverall Sitwell, whoseSouthern Baroque Artof 1924 was the first book to appreciate the style, followed by the more academic work ofAnthony Blunt. In painting the gradual rise in popular esteem ofCaravaggiohas been the best barometer of taste.Inart historyit has become common to recognise "Baroque" stylistic phases, characterized by energetic movement and display, in earlier art, so thatSir John Boardmandescribes the ancient sculptureLaocon and His Sonsas "one of the finest examples of theHellenisticbaroque",[10]and a later phase of Imperial Roman sculpture is also often called Baroque.William Watsondescribes a late phase ofShang dynastyChinese ritual bronzesof the 11th century BC as "baroque".[11]The term "Baroque" may still be used, usually pejoratively, describing works of art, craft, or design that are thought to have excessive ornamentation or complexity of line.Development[edit]

Aeneas flees burning Troy,Federico Barocci, 1598The Baroque originated around 1600, several decades after theCouncil of Trent(154563), by which theRoman Catholic Churchanswered many questions of internal reform, addressed the representational arts by demanding that paintings and sculptures in church contexts should speak to the illiterate rather than to the well-informed. This turn toward a populist conception of the function of ecclesiastical art is seen by manyart historiansas driving the innovations ofCaravaggioand brothersAgostinoandAnnibale Carracci, all of who were working (and competing for commissions) in Rome around 1600.The appeal of Baroque style turned consciously from the witty, intellectual qualities of 16th-centuryManneristart to a visceral appeal aimed at the senses. It employed an iconography that was direct, simple, obvious, and theatrical (illustration, right). Baroque art drew on certain broad and heroic tendencies inAnnibale Carracciand his circle, and found inspiration in other artists likeCorreggioandCaravaggioandFederico Barocci(illustration, right), nowadays sometimes termed 'proto-Baroque'. Germinal ideas of the Baroque can also be found in the work ofMichelangelo. Some general parallels in music make the expression "Baroque music" useful: there are contrasting phrase lengths, harmony andcounterpointhave oustedpolyphony, and orchestral color makes a stronger appearance. Even more generalized parallels perceived by some experts in philosophy, prose style and poetry, are harder to pinpoint.Though Baroque was superseded in many centers by theRococostyle, beginning in France in the late 1720s, especially for interiors, paintings and the decorative arts, the Baroque style continued to be used in architecture until the advent ofNeoclassicismin the later 18th century. See the Neapolitan palace ofCaserta, a Baroque palace (though in a chaste exterior) whose construction began in 1752.

St. Nicholas ChurchinLesser TowninPraguewas founded in 1703 under lead of Baroque architectChristoph Dientzenhofer.In paintings Baroque gestures are broader than Mannerist gestures: less ambiguous, less arcane and mysterious, more like the stage gestures ofopera, a major Baroque art form. Baroque poses depend oncontrapposto("counterpoise"), the tension within the figures that move the planes of shoulders and hips in counterdirections. See Bernini'sDavid.The dryer, less dramatic and coloristic, chastened later stages of 18th century Baroque architectural style are often seen as a separateLate Baroquemanifestation, for example in buildings byClaude Perrault. Academic characteristics in the neo-Palladianstyle, epitomized byWilliam Kent, are a parallel development in Britain and the British colonies: within interiors, Kent's furniture designs are vividly influenced by the Baroque furniture of Rome and Genoa, hierarchical tectonic sculptural elements, meant never to be moved from their positions, completed the wall decoration. Baroque is a style of unity imposed upon rich, heavy detail.The Baroque was defined byHeinrich Wlfflinas the age where the oval replaced the circle as the center of composition, that centralization replaced balance, and that coloristic and "painterly" effects began to become more prominent. Art historians, oftenProtestantones, have traditionally emphasized that the Baroque style evolved during a time in which theRoman Catholic Churchhad to react against the many revolutionary cultural movements that produced a new science and new forms ofreligionReformation. It has been said that the monumental Baroque is a style that could give thePapacy, likesecular absolute monarchies, a formal, imposing way of expression that could restore its prestige, at the point of becoming somehow symbolic of theCounter-Reformation.Whether this is the case or not, it was successfully developed inRome, where Baroque architecture widely renewed the central areas with perhaps the most important urbanistic revision.Periods[edit]The Baroque era is sometimes divided into roughlythree phasesfor convenience:[12][13][14] Early Baroque, c.1590c.1625 High Baroque, c.1625c.1660 Late Baroque, c.1660c.1725Late Baroque is also sometimes used synonymously with the succeedingRococomovement.Painting[edit]Main article:Baroque painting

Caravaggio, The Crowning with Thorns

A defining statement of whatBaroquesignifies in painting is provided by the series of paintings executed byPeter Paul RubensforMarie de Mediciat theLuxembourg Palacein Paris (now at theLouvre),[15]in which a Catholic painter satisfied a Catholic patron: Baroque-era conceptions of monarchy, iconography, handling of paint, and compositions as well as the depiction of space and movement.Baroque style featured "exaggerated lighting, intense emotions, release from restraint, and even a kind of artistic sensationalism". Baroque art did not really depict the life style of the people at that time; however, "closely tied to the Counter-Reformation, this style melodramatically reaffirmed the emotional depths of the Catholic faith and glorified both church and monarchy" of their power and influence.[16]There were highly diverse strands of Italian baroque painting, fromCaravaggiotoCortona; both approaching emotive dynamism with different styles.Another frequently cited work of Baroque art isBernini'sSaint Theresa in Ecstasyfor the Cornaro chapel in Saint Maria della Vittoria, which brings together architecture, sculpture, and theatre into one grand conceit.[17]

Still-life, byJosefa de bidos, c.1679,Santarm, Portugal, Municipal LibraryThe later Baroque style gradually gave way to a more decorativeRococo.A rather different art developed out of northern realist traditions in 17th centuryDutch Golden Age painting, which had very little religious art, and littlehistory painting, instead playing a crucial part in developing secular genres such asstill life,genre paintingsof everyday scenes, andlandscape painting. While the Baroque nature ofRembrandt's art is clear, the label is less often used forVermeerand many other Dutch artists.Flemish Baroque paintingshared a part in this trend, while also continuing to produce the traditional categories.In a similar way the French classical style of painting exemplified byPoussinis often classed as Baroque, and does share many qualities of the Italian painting of the same period, although the poise and restraint derived from following classical ideas typically give it a very different overall mood.

Sculpture[edit]Main article:Baroque sculpture

Stanislas Kostkaon his deathbedbyPierre Le Gros the YoungerIn Baroque sculpture, groups of figures assumed new importance and there was a dynamic movement and energy of human formsthey spiraled around an empty central vortex, or reached outwards into the surrounding space. For the first time, Baroque sculpture often had multiple ideal viewing angles. The characteristic Baroque sculpture added extra-sculptural elements, for example, concealed lighting, or waterfountains.Aleijadinhoin Brazil was also one of the great names of baroque sculpture, and his master work is the set of statues of theSanturio de Bom Jesus de MatosinhosinCongonhas. The soapstone sculptures of old testament prophets around the terrace are considered amongst his finest work.The architecture, sculpture and fountains ofBernini(15981680) give highly charged characteristics of Baroque style. Bernini was undoubtedly the most important sculptor of the Baroque period. He approachedMichelangeloin his omnicompetence: Bernini sculpted, worked as an architect, painted, wrote plays, and staged spectacles. In the late 20th century Bernini was most valued for his sculpture, both for his virtuosity in carving marble and his ability to create figures that combine the physical and the spiritual. He was also a fine sculptor of bust portraits in high demand among the powerful.Bernini's Cornaro chapel[edit]A good example of Bernini's Baroque work is hisSt. Theresa in Ecstasy(164552), created for the Cornaro Chapel of the church ofSanta Maria della Vittoria, Rome. Bernini designed the entire chapel, a subsidiary space along the side of the church, for the Cornaro family.

Bernini'sEcstasy of St. TeresaSaint Theresa, the focal point of the chapel, is a soft white marble statue surrounded by a polychromatic marble architectural framing. This structure conceals a window which lights the statue from above. Figure-groups of the Cornaro family sculpted in shallow relief inhabit opera boxes on the two side walls of the chapel. The setting places the viewer as a spectator in front of the statue with the Cornaro family leaning out of their box seats and craning forward to see the mystical ecstasy of the saint.St.Theresais highly idealized and in an imaginary setting. She was a popular saint of theCatholic Reformation. She wrote of her mystical experiences for an audience of the nuns of herCarmelite Order; these writings had become popular reading among lay people interested in spirituality. In her writings, she described the love of God as piercing her heart like a burning arrow. Bernini materializes this by placing St. Theresa on a cloud while a Cupid figure holds a golden arrow made of metal and smiles down at her. The angelic figure is not preparing to plunge the arrow into her heartrather, he has withdrawn it. St. Theresa's face reflects not the anticipation of ecstasy, but her current fulfillment.This work is widely considered a masterpiece of the Baroque, although the mix of religious and erotic imagery (faithful to St Teresa's own written account) may raise modern eyebrows. However, Bernini was a devout Catholic and was not attempting to satirize the experience of achastenun. Rather, he aimed to portray religious experience as an intensely physical one. Theresa described her bodily reaction to spiritual enlightenment in a language of ecstasy used by many mystics, and Bernini's depiction is earnest.The Cornaro family promotes itself discreetly in this chapel; they are represented visually, but are placed on the sides of the chapel, witnessing the event from balconies. As in anopera house, the Cornaro have a privileged position in respect to the viewer, in their private reserve, closer to the saint; the viewer, however, has a better view from the front. They attach their name to the chapel, but St. Theresa is the focus. It is a private chapel in the sense that no one could say mass on the altar beneath the statue (in 17th century and probably through the 19th) without permission from the family, but the only thing that divides the viewer from the image is the altar rail. The spectacle functions both as a demonstration of mysticism and as a piece of family pride.Architecture[edit]Main article:Baroque architectureIn Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on boldmassing,colonnades,domes, light-and-shade (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' color effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous architecture. The other Baroque innovation in worldly interiors was the state apartment, a sequence of increasingly rich interiors that culminated in a presence chamber or throne room or a state bedroom. The sequence of monumental stairs followed by a state apartment was copied in smaller scale everywhere in aristocratic dwellings of any pretensions.Baroque architecture was taken up with enthusiasm in central Germany (see, e.g.,Ludwigsburg PalaceandZwinger, Dresden),AustriaandRussia(see, e.g.,Peterhof). In England the culmination of Baroque architecture was embodied in work by SirChristopher Wren, SirJohn VanbrughandNicholas Hawksmoor, from ca. 1660 to ca. 1725. Many examples of Baroque architecture and town planning are found in other European towns, and in Latin America. Town planning of this period featured radiating avenues intersecting in squares, which took cues fromBaroque garden plans. In Sicily, Baroque developed new shapes and themes as in Noto,RagusaandAcireale"Basilica di San Sebastiano".Another example of Baroque architecture is theCathedral of Morelia,MichoacninMexico. Built in the 17th century by Vincenzo Barrochio, it is one of the many Baroque cathedrals in Mexico. Baroque churches are also seen in the Philippines, which were built during the Spanish period.Francis Ching described Baroque architecture as "a style of architecture originating in Italy in the early 17th century and variously prevalent in Europe and the New World for a century and a half, characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and interpenetration of spaces, and the dramatic combined effects of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts."[18] Architecture Augustusburg PalacenearCologne Trevi Fountainin Rome Wilanw Palace inWarsaw, Poland Interior of the Cornaro Chapel, Santa Maria della Vittoria church, Rome including the Cornaro portraits, but omitting the lower parts of the chapel.Theatre[edit]

18th-century painting of theRoyal Theatre of TurinIn theatre, the elaborate conceits, multiplicity of plot turns and a variety of situations characteristic ofMannerism(Shakespeare's tragedies, for instance) were superseded by opera, which drew together all the arts into a unified whole.Theatre evolved in the Baroque era and became amultimediaexperience, starting with the actual architectural space. In fact, much of the technology used in current Broadway or commercial plays was invented and developed during this era. The stage could change from a romantic garden to the interior of a palace in a matter of seconds. The entire space became a framed selected area that only allows the users to see a specific action, hiding all the machinery and technology mostly ropes and pulleys.This technology affected the content of the narrated or performed pieces, practicing at its best theDeus ex Machinasolution. Gods were finally able to come down literally from the heavens and rescue the hero in the most extreme and dangerous, even absurd situations.The term Theatrum Mundi the world is a stage was also created. The social and political realm in the real world is manipulated in exactly the same way the actor and the machines are presenting/limiting what is being presented on stage, hiding selectively all the machinery that makes the actions happen.The filmsVatelandFarinelligive a good idea of the style of productions of the Baroque period. The American musicianWilliam ChristieandLes Arts Florissantshave performed extensive research on all the French Baroque Opera, performing pieces fromCharpentierandLully, among others that are extremely faithful to the original 17th century creations.Literature and philosophy[edit]Further information:17th century in literature,17th century philosophyandEarly Modern literatureFor German Baroque literature, seeGerman literature of the Baroque period.Music[edit]Main article:Baroque music

George Frideric Handel, 1733

Johann Sebastian Bach, 1748The termBaroqueis also used to designate the style of music composed during a period that overlaps with that of Baroque art, but usually encompasses a slightly later period.It is a still-debated question as to what extent Baroque music shares aesthetic principles with the visual and literary arts of the Baroque period. A fairly clear, shared element is a love ofornamentation, and it is perhaps significant that the role of ornament was greatly diminished in both music and architecture as the Baroque gave way to the Classical period.The application of the term "Baroque" to music is a relatively recent development, although it has recently been pointed out that the first use of the word "baroque" in criticism of any of the arts related to music, in an anonymous, satirical review of the premire in October 1733 of RameausHippolyte et Aricie,printed in theMercure de Francein May 1734. The critic implied that the novelty in this opera was "du barocque," complaining that the music lacked coherent melody, was filled with unremitting dissonances, constantly changed key and meter, and speedily ran through every compositional device.[19]However this was an isolated reference, and consistent use was only begun in 1919, byCurt Sachs,[20]and it was not until 1940 that it was first used in English (in an article published byManfred Bukofzer).[19]Many musical forms were born in that era, like theconcertoandsinfonia. Forms such as thesonata,cantataandoratorioflourished. Also, opera was born out of the experimentation of theFlorentine Camerata, the creators ofmonody, who attempted to recreate the theatrical arts of the Ancient Greeks. An important technique used in baroque music was the use ofground bass, a repeated bass line.Dido's LamentbyHenry Purcellis a famous example of this technique.