Great Lives from History

477 - 1453

Volume 1Pietro d’Abano-Kfbf Daishi

EditorShelley Wolbrink

Drury University

Editor, First Edition

Frank N. Magill

Salem PressPasadena, California Hackensack, New Jersey

Great Lives from History

477 - 1453

Cover photos: Library of Congress

Copyright © 2005, by Salem Press, Inc.All rights in this book are reserved. No part of this work may be used or reproduced in any manner whatsoever or

transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any informationstorage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner except in the case of brief quotationsembodied in critical articles and reviews. For information address the publisher, Salem Press, Inc., P.O. Box 50062,Pasadena, California 91115.

∞ The paper used in these volumes conforms to the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for PrintedLibrary Materials, Z39.48-1992 (R1997).

Some of the essays in this work originally appeared in the following Salem Press sets: Dictionary of World Biography(1998-1999, edited by Frank N. Magill) and Great Lives from History (1987-1995, edited by Frank N. Magill).

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Great lives from history. The Middle Ages, 477-1453 / editor, Shelley Wolbrink.— 1st ed.p. cm.

Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 1-58765-164-5 (set : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-165-3 (v. 1 : alk. paper) — ISBN 1-58765-166-1 (v. 2 :

alk. paper)1. Biography—Middle Ages, 500-1500. 2. Middle Ages—History. I. Wolbrink, Shelley.

CT114.G74 2005920′.009′02—dc22

2004016696

First Printing

printed in the united states of america

Editor in Chief: Dawn P. DawsonEditorial Director: Christina J. Moose

Project Editor: Rowena WildinDevelopmental Editor: Leslie Ellen Jones

Copy Editor: Desiree DreeuwsAssistant Editor: Andrea E. Miller

Editorial Assistant: Dana Garey

Photograph Editor: Philip BaderAcquisitions Editor: Mark RehnResearch Supervisor: Jeffry JensenProduction Editor: Joyce I. BucheaGraphics and Design: James HutsonLayout: William Zimmerman

Contents

Publisher’s Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ixContributors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiiiKey to Pronunciation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xviiComplete List of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . xixList of Maps and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvMaps of the Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

Pietro d’Abano . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14Abd al-Malik . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34Abd al-Mu$min . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9Peter Abelard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13Abn Wantfah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18Abul Wefa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21Adam de la Halle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24Adrian IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27Æthelflæd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30Afonso I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33Awmad ibn Wanbal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364Al3$-ud-Dtn Muwammad Khaljt . . . . . . . . . . 39Saint Albertus Magnus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42Alboin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45Alcuin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49Saint Alexander Nevsky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52Alexander III. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56Alfonso X . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59Alfred the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63Alhazen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66Alp Arslan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70Amalasuntha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75An Lushan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78Blessed Angela of Foligno. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81Fra Angelico . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83Anna, Princess of the Byzantine Empire . . . . . . 86Anna Comnena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89Saint Anselm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92Saint Anthony of Padua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95Arnold of Villanova . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98Arnolfo di Cambio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102Árpád . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105#ryabhaza the Elder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108al-Ash4art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111Ashikaga Takauji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115Averroës . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118Avicenna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Roger Bacon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127John Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130Basil the Macedonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133al-Batt3nt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137Baybars I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139Beatrice of Nazareth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144Saint Thomas Becket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Saint Bede the Venerable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150Saint Benedict of Nursia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153Benjamin of Tudela . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Saint Bernard of Clairvaux . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160al-Btrnnt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163Blanche of Castile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166Giovanni Boccaccio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169Boethius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173Bohemond I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176Saint Bonaventure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180Saint Boniface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183Boniface VIII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186Boris I of Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189Henry de Bracton. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192Brahmagupta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195Saint Brigit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198Robert Bruce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200Filippo Brunelleschi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205Leonardo Bruni. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208Hubert de Burgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211Jean Buridan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215

Cædmon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219Canute the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221Giovanni da Pian del Carpini. . . . . . . . . . . . 226Casimir the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229Cassiodorus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233Saint Catherine of Siena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236Guido Cavalcanti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239Charlemagne . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242Charles d’Orléans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247Charles Martel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250Charles the Bald . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254Charles IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257Alain Chartier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260Geoffrey Chaucer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264Chrétien de Troyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267Christina of Markyate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

v

Christine de Pizan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273El Cid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278Cimabue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282Saint Clare of Assisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284Saint Clotilda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287Clovis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290Saint Cyril and Saint Methodius . . . . . . . . . . 294

Enrico Dandolo. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298Dante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300David I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304David II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307Dhuoda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310Dionysius Exiguus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313Saint Dominic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316Donatello . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319Du Fu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322Duccio di Buoninsegna. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326John Duns Scotus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329John Dunstable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

Edward the Confessor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337Edward the Elder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340Edward I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343Edward II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347Edward III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350Egbert. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353Eleanor of Aquitaine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355Saint Elizabeth of Hungary. . . . . . . . . . . . . 359Ethelred II, the Unready . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362Jan van Eyck and Hubert van Eyck . . . . . . . . 365

Fakhr al-Dtn al-R3zt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369Jacqueline Félicie. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372Firdusi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375Saint Francis of Assisi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378Fredegunde . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381Frederick I Barbarossa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384Frederick II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389Jean Froissart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392Fujiwara Michinaga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396Saint Fulbert of Chartres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

Genghis Khan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402Geoffrey of Monmouth. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405Gershom ben Judah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408Mawmnd Gh3z3n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411al-Ghazz3lt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415Lorenzo Ghiberti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418Giotto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

Gottfried von Strassburg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423Gregory of Tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426Gregory the Great . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430Gregory VII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433Gregory IX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436Guido d’Arezzo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439Johann Gutenberg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441Guy de Chauliac . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445Gwenllian verch Gruffydd . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448

Hafiz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451al-Wall3j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454Harold II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457Har;a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460Hartmann von Aue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463H3rnn al-Rashtd . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467al-Wasan al-Ba;rt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471Henry the Lion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473Prince Henry the Navigator . . . . . . . . . . . . 477Henry I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481Henry II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483Henry II the Saint. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486Henry III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490Henry IV (of England) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493Henry IV (of Germany) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497Henry V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 501Heraclius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505Saint Hilda of Whitby . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509Hildegard von Bingen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512Hrosvitha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516János Hunyadi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519Jan Hus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522

Ibn al-4Arabt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526Ibn Bazznzah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529Ibn Gabirol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532Ibn Khaldnn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536al-Idrtst . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539Innocent III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541Innocent IV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545Saint Irene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548Isabella of France. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552Saint Isidore of Seville . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555Itzcóatl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558

Abn Mns3 J3bir ibn Wayy3n . . . . . . . . . . . . 562Jacopo della Quercia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566al-J3wi, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568James I the Conqueror . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571Joachim of Fiore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575

vi

The Middle Ages

Joan of Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578Jfchf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581King John. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584John of Damascus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587Judah ha-Levi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591Julian of Norwich . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595Justinian I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598

Damia al-K3hina . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 604Margery Kempe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607Khadtja . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610Khosrow I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 613al-Khw3rizmt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617Kfbf Daishi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620

vii

Contents

Publisher’s Note

Great Lives from History: The Middle Ages, 477-1453is the second installment in the revised and expandedGreat Lives series, initiated in 2004 with Great Livesfrom History: The Ancient World, Prehistory-476 C.E. Itwill be joined by Great Lives from History: The Renais-sance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600, planned for2005, and in successive years by volumes covering theSeventeenth Century, Eighteenth Century, NineteenthCentury, and Twentieth Century—each two or more vol-umes in length. The entire series, when complete, is ex-pected to cover more than 2,500 lives in essays rangingfrom 3 to 6 pages in length.

Expanded CoverageThis ongoing series is a revision of the 10-volume

Dictionary of World Biography (DWB) series (1998-1999), which in turn was a revision and reordering ofSalem Press’s 30-volume Great Lives from History se-ries (1987-1995). The expanded Great Lives differs inseveral ways from DWB:

• The original essays are enhanced by the addition ofnew entries covering a wider geographical area and in-cluding many more women. The coverage of each sethas been increased significantly. In the current twovolumes on The Middle Ages, for example, 59 new es-says have been added to the original 297 for a total of356 essays covering 361 historical figures (5 essaysaddress closely allied pairs).

• In an effort to align coverage with curriculum, the newseries provides more logical breaks between eras. Forexample, The Ancient World now ends at 476 c.e. (thefall of Rome), and the current two volumes on TheMiddle Ages consequently begin at 477 and end at1453 (the fall of Constantinople)—as opposed to themore arbitrary 1400 in the old DWB.

• 109 regnal tables and dynastic lists have been added toenhance and supplement the text throughout, and asection of 11 maps has been added to allow students tolocate personages geographically and to place rulersdynastically.

• Essays from the original DWB on all personages fall-ing into the new time frame are reprinted in this newseries with updated and annotated bibliographies.

Scope of CoverageThe geographic and occupational scope of the indi-

viduals covered in Great Lives from History: The MiddleAges, 477-1453 is broad. Coverage is worldwide, withindividuals identified with one or more of the followingareas: 9 with Africa, 52 with the British Isles, 11 with theByzantine Empire, 3 with Central Asia, 23 with China orMongolia, 51 with France, 25 with German states, 61with Italy, 15 with Japan, 1 with Korea, 42 with the Mid-dle East or Persia, 16 with Russia and Central Europe, 17with Scandinavia and the Low Countries, 9 with South orSoutheast Asia, and 20 with Spain or Portugal. Only 1 in-dividual, Itzcóatl, represents the Americas; it must be re-called that the cutoff date for this set, 1453, precludedidentifiable figures who could sustain the minimum lengthof the essay, 1,500 words. (Figures such as Deganawida,Doña Marina, Montezuma II, Huascar, and others fromthe Americas are covered in Great Lives from History:The Renaissance & Early Modern Era, 1454-1600, slatedto appear in 2005.)

The editors have sought to provide coverage that isbroad in areas of achievement as well as geography,while at the same time including the recognized shapersof history essential in any liberal arts curriculum. Majorworld leaders appear here—emperors, conquerors, kings,and khans—as well as the giants of religious faith whowere central to the medieval world: popes, monks, andsaints who left their imprint on political as well as spiri-tual institutions. The set also includes figures who havereceived little or no attention in the past—from the sev-enth century queen of the Berbers Damia al-K3hina tothe eleventh century Italian gynecologist Trotula. By cat-egory, the contents include more than 120 world leaders,56 religious figures, 38 writers, 23 artists, 20 historiogra-phers, 16 philosophers, 13 military leaders, 8 scientists,7 medical practitioners, 6 musicians, 4 educators, 4 ex-plorers, 4 figures identified with the law, 4 mathemati-cians, 3 architects, 3 geographers, 2 patrons of the arts, 2social reformers, and 2 linguists. Among these architectsof today’s civilization are 53 women of the medievalworld: writers, scholars, scientists, and national leaders.

Essay Length and FormatEach essay ranges from 1,500 to 4,000 words in

length (roughly 3 to 6 pages), with the majority falling inthe range of 2,000 to 2,500 words. The familiar standardformat offers easy access to biographical information.

ix

Ready-reference top matter identifies the person andprovides vital data:• The essay title is the name of the individual; editors

have chosen the name as it is most commonly found inWestern English-language sources.

• The individual’s nationality or ethnicity and occupa-tion or historical role follow on the second line, in-cluding reign dates for rulers.

• A summary paragraph highlighting the individual’shistorical importance indicates why the person is stud-ied today.

• The Born and Died lines list the most complete datesof birth and death available, followed by the most pre-cise locations available, as well as an indication whenthese are unknown, only probable, or only approxi-mate; both medieval and modern place-names (wheredifferent) are listed.

• Also known as lists all known versions of the name, in-cluding full names, given names, alternative spellings,pseudonyms, and common epithets.

• Area(s) of achievement lists all categories of contribu-tion, from Architecture and Art through Warfare andWomen’s Rights.

The body of each article is divided into six parts:• Early Life provides facts about the individual’s up-

bringing and the environment in which he or she wasreared, as well as the pronunciation of his or her name,if unusual. Where little is known about the individ-ual’s rearing, historical context is provided.

• Life’s Work, the heart of the article, consists of astraightforward, generally chronological, account ofthe period during which the individual’s most signifi-cant achievements were accomplished.

• Significance is an overview of the individual’s place inhistory.

• Further Reading is an annotated bibliography, a start-ing point for further research.

• See also is a list of cross-references to essays in the setcovering related personages.

• Related articles lists essays of interest in Salem’scompanion publication, Great Events from History:The Middle Ages, 477-1453 (2 vols., 2005).

Special FeaturesSeveral features distinguish this series as a whole

from other biographical reference works. The front mat-ter includes the following aids:• Key to Pronunciation: a key to in-text pronunciation

guidelines, in both volumes.

• Complete List of Contents: this alphabetical list ofcontents appears in both volumes.

• List of Maps and Tables.• Maps: In the front matter to each volume, a section of

11 maps displaying major regions of the world in theperiod 477-1453 appear grouped together for easy ref-erence.

The back matter to Volume 2 includes several appen-dices and indexes:• Rulers and Dynasties: a geographically arranged set

of tables listing major rulers and their regnal dates,covering 37 regions of the world.

• Chronological List of Entries: individuals covered, ar-ranged by birth year.

• Category Index: entries by area of achievement, fromarchitecture to women’s rights.

• Geographical Index: entries by country or region.• Personages Index: an index of all persons, both those

covered and those additionally discussed within thetext.

• Subject Index: a comprehensive index including per-sonages, concepts, terms, events, civilizations, andother topics of discussion, with full cross-referencesfrom alternative spellings and to the Category andGeographical Indexes.

Usage NotesThe worldwide scope of Great Lives from History re-

sulted in the inclusion of many names and words thatmust be transliterated from languages that do not use theRoman alphabet, and in some cases, there is more thanone transliterated form in use. In many cases, transliter-ated words in this set follow the American Library Asso-ciation and Library of Congress (ALA-LC) translitera-tion format for that language. However, if another formof a name or word was judged to be more familiar to thegeneral audience, it is used instead. The variants fornames of essay subjects are listed in ready-reference topmatter and are cross-referenced in the subject and per-sonages indexes. The Pinyin transliteration was used forChinese topics, with Wade-Giles variants provided formajor names and dynasties. In a few cases, a commonname that is not Pinyin has been used. Sanskrit and otherSouth Asian names generally follow the ALA-LC trans-literation rules, although again, the more familiar form ofa word is used when deemed appropriate for the generalreader.

Titles of books and other literature appear, upon firstmention in the essay, with their full publication and trans-

x

The Middle Ages

lation data as known: an indication of the first date ofpublication or appearance, followed by the English titlein translation and its first date of appearance in English;if no translation has been published in English, and if thecontext of the discussion does not make the meaning ofthe title obvious, a “literal translation” appears in romantype.

Throughout, readers will find a limited number of ab-breviations used in both top matter and text, including“r.” for “reigned,” “b.” for “born,” “d.” for “died,” and“fl.” for “flourished.” Where a date range appears ap-pended to a name without one of these designators, thereader may assume it signifies birth and death dates.

Finally, in the regnal tables dispersed throughout the

text, the reader will find some names appearing in smallcapital letters. These figures are covered in their own sep-arate essays within these two volumes.

The Editors and ContributorsSalem Press would like to extend its appreciation to

Professor Shelley Wolbrink, Department of History,Drury University, Editor of Great Lives from History:The Middle Ages, 477-1453. In addition, we extend ap-preciation to the many academicians and scholars whoprepared essays for this work. Without their expert con-tributions, a project of this nature would not be possible.A full list of contributors and their affiliations appears inthe front matter of volume 1.

xi

Publisher’s Note

Pietro d’AbanoItalian scholar and scientistAbano founded the Paduan school of medicine,introducing elements of Arabic knowledge into Italy,and worked toward a synthesis of medieval, classical,Arabic, and Jewish philosophy.

Born: c. 1250; Abano, near Padua (now in Italy)Died: 1316; PaduaAlso known as: Peter of Abano; Petrus de Apono;

Petrus Aponus; Petrus AponensisAreas of achievement: Medicine, philosophy

Early LifePietro d’Abano (PYEH-troh duh-BAW-noh) was born inthe village of Abano, now in northern Italy. Not much isknown concerning his family background or early years.His father was a public notary and seems to have beenreasonably well-to-do, for Pietro was able to receive anunusually good education. As a youth, he went to Greeceand Constantinople, where he gained a mastery of theGreek language; among his early writings are translationsof works of Aristotle into Latin. The ability to read theGreek classics in the original was quite unusual in West-ern Europe before the invading Ottoman Turks began toforce Greek scholars to flee westward from the collaps-ing Byzantine Empire in the mid-fifteenth century.

On his return from Constantinople, Pietro attendedthe University of Paris, perhaps the best of the few insti-tutions of higher learning that existed in late thirteenthcentury Europe. He studied philosophy, mathematics,and medicine for a number of years and earned a doctor-ate. Pietro’s fame as a scholar and teacher quickly spread,and he became known as “the great Lombard.”

Life’s WorkIn addition to his scientific and philosophical studies,Pietro was very interested in the pseudoscience of astrol-ogy. He often included astrological considerations andprayer in his medical prescriptions. Later in his life, hewas responsible for the inscription of some four hundredastrological symbols on Padua’s city hall. His reachingfor supernatural forces was probably a reaction to thelimited scientific knowledge of the fourteenth century.Pietro himself, for example, asserted firmly that it wasimpossible to determine the constituent parts of a com-pound. Thus, without outside help, the medieval scientistwas so restricted as to be almost helpless. His astrologi-cal interests, however, eventually led to trouble with theChurch.

Pietro was more a man of the Middle Ages than of theearly Renaissance. His idea of the four elements—earth,water, air, and fire—was typical of medieval understand-ing of chemistry, but he went further than most medievalscholars through experimentation and critical translationof classical manuscripts. Pietro was also an eager collec-tor of new information. He left record of an interviewwith the explorer Marco Polo held shortly before the lat-ter returned to Venice in 1295. Pietro inquired about nat-ural phenomena and drugs such as camphor, aloe, andbrazil, which were imported from Asia. He made nomention of magic or other supernatural matters.

Pietro is often called a disciple of the Arabic scholarAvicenna and even more so of Averroës, whose ideas heis supposed to have introduced into Europe. Pietro’sideas about the stages of disease—onset, increase, full-ness, and decline—correspond to those of Avicenna,as does his preference for simple, natural medicines.Scholar Lynn Thorndike, however, argues quite effec-tively that the supposed influence of Averroës has no ba-sis in Pietro’s writings. Averroës’ ideas about chemistrywere more sophisticated than those of medieval Europe-ans such as Pietro, and Thorndike finds no reason to thinkthat Pietro’s theological ideas came from the same source.Other writers, however, suggest that Pietro’s adoption ofa corruption of Averroës’ idea of the soul was one of theprincipal sources of his trouble with the Church.

In addition to numerous translations from Arabic andGreek, Pietro wrote at least ten books. The most famousis the Conciliator differentiarum philosophorum et prae-cipue medicorum (1472; conciliator of the various medi-cal philosophies and practices), in which he attempted toreconcile the teachings of Greek, Arabic, Jewish, andLatin writers in philosophy and medicine. Althoughdone with the usual medieval resort to authority and syl-logism, this work contains much original comment andmakes clear Pietro’s deep commitment to astrology.

Pietro’s second major work, De venenis eorumqueremediis (1473; English translation, 1924), is a descrip-tion of all important known poisons with descriptions ofsymptoms and antidotes or treatments. Reportedly donefor a pope—possibly John XXII—it too is a mixture ofastrology and superstition, but the listing of poisons andsymptoms is well done.

Pietro’s writings other than translations are Expositioproblematum Aristotelis (1475; exposition of Aristote-lian problems), Hippocratis de medicorum astrologia

1

The Middle Ages Abano, Pietro d’

libellus Graeco in Latinum (1476; Hippocratus’s astro-nomical medicine translated from Greek to Latin), TextusMesue emendatus Petri Apponi medici in librum (1505;the text of Mesue amended by Dr. Pietro d’Abano),Astrolabium planum, in tabulis ascendens, continensqualibet hora atque minuto aequationes domorum coeli,significationes (1502; clear astronomical tables, contain-ing the heavenly signs for any hour and minute), JoannisMesue additio (1505; additions to John Mesue), Decisi-ones physiognomicae (1548; judging a person’s charac-ter by physical features), Geomantia (1549; Magical El-ements, 1655), and De balneis (1553; on baths). Many ofthese works were considered authoritative into the six-teenth century.

Although the details are in some dispute, Pietro’s re-turn to Padua from Paris seems to have been marked byserious trouble with the Church. Either shortly before orafter his arrival in Padua, Pietro was accused of heresyand necromancy. The charges were made through theDominican order of friars and were based on reports of aphysician named Petrus de Reggio. There are a numberof reported accusations, including that he used magic toget all the money he spent returned to him, that he

claimed that some biblical miracles had natural explana-tions, and that he adhered to the rationalistic philosophyof Averroës. Charged with several others, Pietro had toface the Inquisition. Thanks to the intervention of influ-ential patrons—there is one report that Pietro went toRome and won the support of Pope Boniface VIII—hewas exonerated in 1306. In 1314, Pietro was offered thechair of medicine at the new University of Treviso, but hefell ill and died before he could move there. His deathwas fortuitous in one sense, for in 1315, the charges ofheresy were renewed. Posthumously, he was condemnedand orders were issued for the exhumation and burning ofhis body. Although most authorities maintain that friendsspirited the body away to a new tomb and only an effigywas burned in the public square of Padua, Thomas ofStrassburg, Augustinian prior general, claims to haveseen the body burned. The distinction seems academic atbest.

Thorndike, who has made the most thorough study ofPietro, rejects much of the story of his troubles with theInquisition. It was, Thorndike argues, constructed ofwhole cloth in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.Pietro may have had one brush with Church authorities,but the embellishments about the body being spiritedaway have no basis in original sources. Thorndike is noteven convinced that Pietro died on the traditionally ac-cepted date of 1316 and suggests that he may, in fact,have taught for some years at Treviso after that date.Thorndike’s arguments are well marshaled, but they havenot been widely adopted by other scholars.

SignificancePietro was a medieval scientist, but he showed some ofthe qualities that would mark the Renaissance as well.His critical attitude and experimental approach weresigns of the future. The importance he placed on astrol-ogy and prayer as elements in medical prescriptions,however, harked back to the past.

Pietro played an important role in the development ofPadua and its university into a major intellectual center.Although in the thirteenth century the University ofPadua was known mostly for the study of law, by 1500 itcould boast of having had many of the major scientists ofthe Italian Renaissance as professors or students. Pietrofounded the Paduan school of medical thought, introduc-ing both classical and Arabic sources. His willingness toquestion established views and to seek new informationrather than depending wholly on authority was importantin shaping the growing scholarly tradition of Padua.

—Fred R. van Hartesveldt

2

Abano, Pietro d’ The Middle Ages

Pietro d’Abano. (Library of Congress)

Further ReadingBrown, Horace. “De venenis of Petrus Abbonus.” Annals

of Medical History 6 (1924): 25-53. A translation ofPietro’s work about poisons and their symptoms andtreatments, this is the only conveniently available En-glish translation of any of Pietro’s writings. It pro-vides a good sample of the mix of superstition and sci-ence that marked his approach to medicine.

French, R. K. Medicine Before Science: The Rationaland Learned Doctor. New York: Cambridge Univer-sity Press, 2003. This examination of the role of phy-sicians in the Middle Ages provides information onthe age in which Pietro lived.

Hyde, J. K. Padua in the Age of Dante. New York: Barnesand Noble Books, 1966. An excellent description oflate medieval Padua that provides valuable backgroundinformation about the milieu in which Pietro worked.

Olschki, Leonardo. “Medical Matters in Marco Polo’sDescription of the World.” In Essays in the History ofMedicine Presented to Professor Arturo Castiglionion the Occasion of his Seventieth Birth Day, edited byHenry E. Sigerist. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univer-

sity Press, 1944. Contains a discussion of Pietro’s in-terview with Marco Polo showing the former’s scien-tific approach to collecting new data.

Thorndike, Lynn. A History of Magic and ExperimentalScience. Vol. 2. New York: Columbia UniversityPress, 1947. A magisterial work in eight volumestracing the development of the techniques of modernscience. Contains a thorough study of Pietro.

_______. “Peter of Abano: A Medieval Scientist.” An-nual Report of the American Historical Associationfor the Year 1919 1 (1923): 317-326. Contains a sum-mary of Pietro’s life but is focused on historiographicalsources. Attempts to show that many common beliefsabout Pietro are misconceptions based on secondarysources from the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

See also: Alhazen; Arnold of Villanova; Averroës;Avicenna; Boniface VIII; Guy de Chauliac; Paul ofAegina; Marco Polo; al-R3zt; Trotula.

Related articles in Great Events from History: TheMiddle Ages, 477-1453: 1233: Papal Inquisition; 1271-1295: Travels of Marco Polo.

4Abd al-MalikIslamic caliph (r. 685-705)4Abd al-Malik solidified the Islamic Empire under theMarwanid Dynasty through his victory in the secondfitna, or Islamic civil war. This victory ensured thecontinued rule of the Marwanids, a branch of theUmayyad family. He also introduced the first Arabiccoinage, established Arabic as an official language,and oversaw the construction of the Dome of the Rock.

Born: c. 646; Medina, Hijaz (now Medina, SaudiArabia)

Died: October 705; Damascus, SyriaAlso known as: 4Abd al-Malik Ibn Marw3nAreas of achievement: Government and politics,

warfare and conquest, architecture

Early Life4Abd al-Malik (ahb-dewl mah-LIHK) was the son ofMarw3n ibn al-Hakam (r. 684-685) during the reign of4Uthm3n 4Aff3n (r. 644-656), the third caliph. Followingthe first fitna, the Umayyad family took control of the ca-liphate, and Mu$3wiyah (r. 661-680) became the caliph.The Umayyads had been a large, powerful family wellbefore their conversion to Islam. Under Mu$3wiyah,

Marw3n was appointed the governor of the Hijaz, an areaformerly the center of Islam, which included Mecca andMedina. 4Abd al-Malik was born in Medina, and receivedthe education and lifestyle that resulted from being a gov-ernor’s son and member of a powerful Arab family. Thiseducation was due to the nature of Umayyad society,which consisted of “not so much a nation as a hereditarysocial caste which one could enter by birth” (according toBernard Lewis in The Arabs in History, 1993).

Following the death of Mu$3wiya in 680, a secondcivil war broke out over the succession. Mu$3wiya hadsecured the succession of his son, Yaztd (r. 680-683).Followers of 4Alt (r. 656-661), the fourth caliph, disputedthe succession. This struggle was the second fitna.

In 680, Yaztd massacred 4Alt’s son, al-Wusayn, andsome of his followers at Karbala. This inspired a revolt inMedina. While putting down this revolt in the Hijaz,Yaztd died. Following Yaztd’s death in 683, Marw3n and4Abd al-Malik moved from Medina to Damascus. Theson of Yaztd, Mu$3wiyah II, became caliph but soon died,and his death fractured the entire Islamic world into com-peting factions. Two Arabian tribes, the Qays and the

3

The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Malik

Kalb, both supported contenders for the caliphate. Mar-w3n was supported by the Kalb and Ibn al-Zubayr wassupported by the Qays. Marw3n was victorious and be-came caliph in 684. He then negotiated to ensure that oneof his sons, either 4Abd al-Malik or 4Abd al-4Aztz, wasappointed his successor. In 685, Marw3n died of plague,and 4Abd al-Malik became caliph. On his ascension, thisIslamic world was divided into three main factions: 4Abdal-Malik controlled Syria, Ibn al-Zubayr controlled theHijaz, and al-Mukhtar controlled Iraq. 4Abd al-Malikwas forced to reunite the Islamic world.

Life’s WorkFor the first two years of his reign, 4Abd al-Malik con-cerned himself with securing his center of power. Hestruggled with the Byzantine Empire for control of north-ern Syria and also struggled to contain Zufar, who led theQays and was allied with Ibn al-Zubayr. Other revolts inSyria were from separate members of the Umayyad fam-ily. In 689, 4Amr ibn Sa4id al-Ashdaq, the head of anotherbranch of the Umayyads, led a revolt in Damascus. 4Abdal-Malik brutally suppressed this revolt by killing 4Amribn Sa4id, supposedly under a truce flag.

During 4Abd al-Malik’s struggle for control of Syria,al-Zubayr’s brother Mus4ab, the governor of Iraq, man-aged to defeat al-Mukhtar and establish control overmost of Iraq in 687. Mus4ab then concentrated on hisstruggle with the Kharijites, a rival faction that would ac-knowledge only the authority of a caliph they selected.In 691, while Mus4ab was mainly occupied with theKharijites, 4Abd al Malik advanced into Iraq with hisarmy. The caliph first offered to let Mus4ab keep the gov-ernorship of Iraq, but Mus4ab refused. Mus4ab was killedin battle that October. 4Abd al-Malik then establishedcontrol over Iraq and continued to suppress oppositionsuch as the Kharijites. The Kharijites were completelydriven out of Iraq under 4Abd al-Malik. 4Abd al-Malikthen sent his general, al-Wajj3j ibn Ynsuf, to deal with al-Zubayr. Al-Wajj3j, known for his brutality, advanced onMecca, where al-Zubayr was based. The resulting seven-month siege led to the destruction of the Kaaba. Al-Wajj3j managed to defeat al-Zubayr in late 692, and then,in two years as governor of the region, managed to sup-press all opposition. 4Abd al-Malik had now secured con-trol over the majority of the Islamic world. Following thisunification, 4Abd al-Malik renewed his struggle againstthe Byzantine Empire.

Following the solidification of the Islamic world,4Abd al-Malik made significant reforms in the govern-ment and administration of the empire. Under 4Abd al-

Malik, the beginnings of a standing army were created.Also, service in the army became a way to advance one’scareer. 4Abd al-Malik’s general and eventual governor ofIraq, al-Wajj3j, came from humble origins and gained hisposition through military skill. Also, 4Abd al-Malik iscredited with changing the official language of the ad-ministration to Arabic. Traditionally, the Arabs had as-similated the languages of the previous administrationsof the areas they conquered; Greek, Coptic, and Persianwere used in various parts of the region. Additionally, theprovincial administrations were standardized, althoughthey remained under the local governors’ control. Thisgovernmental centralization took time; however, it was asignificant break from previous Arab traditions.

4Abd al-Malik instituted the first Arabic coinage. Aswith the administrative languages, the Arabs had previ-ously adapted existing, mainly Byzantine, coinage forcommerce. According to some accounts, 4Abd al-Malikbegan minting Arabic coins called dinars in Kufic scriptin response to changes in Byzantine coinage. Thesechanges were made because of a reported dispute withthe Byzantine emperor. However, the change in Byzan-tine coinage probably was more a result of changes madea few years later. The coins were originally minted in Da-mascus and later in the Hijaz. Because of their high con-centration of precious metal, they replaced the lesserquality Byzantine coins rapidly. Additionally, 4Abd al-Malik began a process of fiscal reforms. The economicreorganization coupled with the establishment of a cen-tralized bureaucracy was the beginning of a transforma-tion from a coalition of tribes to a true empire.

4

4Abd al-Malik The Middle Ages

The Umayyad Caliphs, 661-750

Reign Caliph

661-680 Mu$3wiyah I (Mu$3wiyah ibn Abt Sufyna)680-683 Yaztd I683 Mu$3wiyah II684-685 Marw3n I685-705 4Abd al-Malik705-715 al-Waltd I715-717 Sulaim3n717-720 4Umar II720-724 Yaztd II724-743 Hish3m743-744 al-Waltd II744 Yaztd III744 Ibr3htm744-750 Marw3n II

The most dramatic example of this transformationduring 4Abd al-Malik’s reign was the construction of theDome of the Rock in Jerusalem, completed sometime inthe 690’s and built on the rocky outcropping called theTemple Mount, where the caliph 4Umar I is believed tohave entered the city during the Muslim conquest. Thebuilding was funded by seven years’ worth of revenuesfrom Egypt, 4Abd al-Malik’s richest province. There areseveral explanations for why 4Abd al-Malik built theDome of the Rock. Tradition says that it was to replacethe Kaaba as the destination of the pilgrimage (hajj) dur-ing the struggle with al-Zubayr. This reason would allow4Abd al-Malik to gather revenues from the hajj as well asincrease his legitimacy as the rightful caliph. This expla-nation, however, has generally been discarded.

During the second fitna, four opposing factions jointlymade the pilgrimage to the Kaaba in Mecca, and duringthe siege of Mecca, 4Abd al-Malik’s army requested en-try to the city for a pilgrimage. Additionally, by trying tousurp Mecca as the center of the Islamic world, 4Abd al-Malik would have lost legitimacy, instead of gaining it.Others believe the dome was built to demonstrate the le-gitimacy of Islamic culture. The region around Jerusa-lem was predominantly Jewish and Christian, with gran-diose temples and churches. The dome’s shape wasunique to Muslim buildings, and it more closely resem-bled Christian architecture. Regardless of 4Abd al-Malik’soriginal motives, the Dome of the Rock was a significantarchitectural achievement, and it demonstrated the ongo-ing transformation of a unified civilization between Jews,Christians, and Muslims. The Dome of the Rock also hasimportant historical significance in regard to Islam as areligion. The inscriptions on the inside of the building arethe earliest datable Qur$3nic texts, and they provide thefirst reference to the religion of Muwammad as “Islam.”

SignificanceThe reign of 4Abd al-Malik marked a significant transi-tional point in Islamic history. For the previous sixtyyears, the Middle East had seen the rise of Islam and thesubsequent conquest of most of the region. The organiza-tion of this conquest was mostly tribal, with little central-ization. During 4Abd al-Malik’s reign, he managed to de-feat several factions vying for control of this empire,unifying it once again. Concurrent with unification, healso began the long process of transforming a collectionof tribal conquests into a centralized civilization. Insteadof adapting the bureaucracy and currency of previous orneighboring empires, he instituted the Arab language asthe official language of government and began minting

Islamic coins. A result of this centralization was the cre-ation of a standing army and the resulting, albeit small,amount of social mobility through martial skill. Thischange meant that instead of seasonal campaigns in areasnear their home, armies were stationed or deployed fromNorth Africa to Iraq and were units designed to controland expand the empire.

Finally, 4Abd al-Malik solidified the caliphate as a dy-nastic monarchy. 4Abd al-Malik had four sons who laterbecame caliphs, and the only interruption of this was by acousin, 4Umar bin 4Abd al-4Aztz (r. 717-720). While allUmayyad caliphs after 685 were descendants of Marw3n,4Abd al-Malik was the true founder of the Marwanid Dy-nasty. The Umayyad family became the first dynasty ofIslam, and through the success of 4Abd al-Malik, theMarwanid branch dominated the empire. 4Abd al-Malikturned the Islamic Empire into a true imperial empire.

The significance of this unification and transforma-tion was seen by the success of the Islamic Empire duringand following 4Abd al-Malik’s death. Under 4Abd al-Malik’s son and successor al-Waltd (r. 705-715), theUmayyads conquered Spain and built the UmayyadMosque in Damascus. Initial military probes into Indiawere also conducted. The conquest into Europe contin-ued until the Battle of Tours in 732, which halted theMuslim advance. Finally, the Islamic Empire became amajor world center of science and the arts during a timewhen Western Europe was still in the Dark Ages.

—Paul C. Gaige

Further ReadingFlood, Finbarr Barry. The Great Mosque of Damascus:

Studies on the Makings of an Umayyad Visual Cul-ture. Boston: Brill, 2001. Examines the visual culture,including architectural elements, of the Umayyadsand the empire’s far-reaching cultural influences. Il-lustrations, extensive bibliography, and index.

Goitein, Shelomo Dov. “The Historical Background ofthe Erection of the Dome of the Rock.” Journal of theAmerican Oriental Society 70, no. 2 (April-June1950). This article discusses the various explanationsfor the construction of the Dome of the Rock as wellas details the significance of the building.

Hawting, G. R. The First Dynasty of Islam: The Umay-yad Caliphate A.D. 661-750. New York: Routledge,2000. Provides an excellent historical narrative of theUmayyad caliphate’s development into a dynasty. In-cludes excellent genealogical tables and a good expla-nation of the tribal organization and history of theArabs. Maps, bibliography, index.

5

The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Malik

Lewis, Bernard. The Arabs in History. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1993. Provides a general, narrativeoverview of the Arabs and their historical signifi-cance, with a concentration on social and economichistory. Focuses mostly on the social, everyday im-pact of historical events.

Raby, Julian, and Jeremy Johns, eds. Bayt-al-Maqdis:4Abd al-Malik’s Jerusalem. New York: Oxford Uni-versity Press, for the Board of Faculty of OrientalStudies, 1992-1999. Vol. 1 in a two-volume set thatexplores the architecture of al-Malik and the historyof religious architecture in the city of Jerusalem. Part

of the Oxford Studies in Islamic Art series. Some textin French. Bibliography.

See also: al-Wasan al-Ba;rt; John of Damascus; Damiaal-K3hina; 4Umar I.

Related articles in Great Events from History: TheMiddle Ages, 477-1453: c. 610-632: Muwammad Re-ceives Revelations; 685-691: Building of the Dome ofthe Rock; April or May, 711: Z3rik Crosses intoSpain; October 11, 732: Battle of Tours; 843: Treatyof Verdun.

4Abd al-Mu$minBerber founder of the Almohad Dynasty (r. 1130-1163)Through military prowess and administrative skill,4Abd al-Mu$min founded the Almohad Empire in NorthAfrica and the Iberian Peninsula, initiating a period ofthriving commerce and artistic creativity.

Born: 1094; Tagra, Kingdom of the Wamm3dids (nowin Algeria)

Died: May 2, 1163; Rabat, Almohad Empire (now inMorocco)

Also known as: 4Abd al-Mu$min ibn-4Alt ibnMakhlnf ibn Yu4la ibn Marw3n (full name); AbnMuwammad al-Knmi; Amir al-Mu$minin

Areas of achievement: Government and politics,warfare and conquest, patronage of the arts

Early LifeBorn 4Abd al-Mu$min ibn-4Alt ibn Makhlnf ibn Yu4la ibnMarw3n in Tagra in 1094, 4Abd al-Mu$min (ab-dool-MOO-mihn) was the son of Alt, a humble potter andmember of the Koumiya, an Arabized section of the Ber-ber Zanata tribe. Legends arose concerning marveloushappenings in his youth: Swarms of bees were said tohave alighted on him without stinging, and a holy manprophesied that the boy would conquer countries at thefour cardinal points.

Al3 decided that his son must have an education.Thus, 4Abd al-Mu$min studied at the school in Tagra andthen at the mosque in the important Algerian city ofTlemcen. One historian noted his intelligence: “In thetime it takes a man to grasp one question, he understoodten.” To further his knowledge, 4Abd al-Mu$min, accom-panied by uncle Ya4lu, determined to go to the East. In1117, that plan was scrapped at Mallala, Algeria, be-

cause of 4Abd al-Mu$min’s momentous meeting with IbnTnmart.

Ibn Tnmart, a Masmuda Berber of southern Morocco,founded the Almohad movement, the name being a cor-ruption of the Arabic al-muwawwidnn, meaning “themovement of the unitarians.” Ibn Tnmart placed specialstress on the oneness of God and introduced into NorthAfrica the Sht4ite notion of an infallible mahdt (divinelyguided one). It was as he was returning from his pilgrim-age to Mecca that Ibn Tnmart met 4Abd al-Mu$min atMallala. According to tradition, Ibn Tnmart had prophe-sied their meeting.

4Abd al-Mu$min became Ibn Tnmart’s first disciple,accompanying him to Morocco. In 1121, Ibn Tnmart es-tablished headquarters at his native village, Igliz, movingto Tinmel three years later. In 1125, Ibn Tnmart pro-claimed himself the mahdt, the imam known and infal-lible. 4Abd al-Mu$min served as Ibn Tnmart’s trustedlieutenant, spreading his doctrine, helping to organizeAlmohad society, and fighting against the Almoravid re-gime. In May, 1130, 4Abd al-Mu$min suffered wounds inthe Almohad defeat by the Almoravids at the Battle of al-Buhaira. On August 13, 1130, Ibn Tnmart died, havingdesignated 4Abd al-Mu$min as the Almohad leader. Forthree years, Ibn Tnmart’s death was concealed becausecertain Almohads disputed 4Abd al-Mu$min’s succes-sion, arguing that he was an outsider. By 1133, however,his supporters had managed to establish his leadership.

Life’s Work4Abd al-Mu$min determined to conquer the entire Ma-ghreb for the Almohad cause. For several years, he pre-

6

4Abd al-Mu$min The Middle Ages

pared meticulously, gaining adherents to the Almohadmessage and attracting mountaineers to his army inTinmel. Then, systematically employing guerrilla tacticsagainst the Almoravid Dynasty, he conquered the west-ern mountain ranges of North Africa one after another:the High Atlas, the Middle Atlas, the Rif, and the rangesouth of Tlemcen. Emboldened, 4Abd al-Mu$min movedfrom the mountains. In 1144, he defeated the Almoravidally Reverter and his Christian militia. A year later, 4Abdal-Mu$min crushed the Almoravid monarch Tashfin ibnAlt ibn Yusuf and took Oran and Tétouan. Next, aftera nine-month siege, 4Abd al-Mu$min captured Fez, and,in 1147, following an eleven-month siege, Marrakech,where he executed the last Almoravid ruler. 4Abd al-Mu$min made Marrakech the Almohad capital and pro-ceeded to massacre the Lemtuna Berbers.

Thereupon, 4Abd al-Mu$min turned his attention tothe Iberian Peninsula, where the Christians had been re-covering territory because of the Almoravid decline. Be-cause of their rigid doctrine, the Almohads encounteredresistance from Iberian Muslims and Christians alike. Asa result, by 1148, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s authority extendedto only the southwestern part of the Andalus. Regardingthe Iberian Peninsula as a diversion from the task of con-solidating Almohad rule in the Maghreb, 4Abd al-Mu$minpushed no farther into Europe.

After conquering Morocco, 4Abd al-Mu$min focusedattention on the central Maghreb. Here the Wamm3didkingdom existed in decline under Yawy3. In 1151, byforced marches and in secrecy, 4Abd al-Mu$min and his army reached Algiers andthen Bougie, the Wamm3did capital, whichsurrendered. Next, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s sontook and sacked Qal4a. In 1152, the Hilalians,Arab Bedouins of the region, joined the at-tempt to push the Almohads to the far west.4Abd al-Mu$min, who had been returning toMorocco, hurried back and met the enemy atSétif, where he triumphed after a four-daybattle. In this case, however, he treated thevanquished leniently.

4Abd al-Mu$min devoted the years be-tween 1152 and 1159 to organizing his state.He had taken the title caliph of Ibn Tnmart,imitating Abn Bakr, caliph of Muwammad.He also became Amir al-Mu$minin (princeof the faithful), the first non-Arab to be sohonored. Members of his family, known assayyids, formed the elite. In 1154, 4Abd al-Mu$min proclaimed his son as successor,

displacing Abn Hafs 4Umar, the first designee. 4Abd al-Mu$min sent his other sons to the principal provinces asgovernors. With each of them, 4Abd al-Mu$min sent aleading Almohad sheikh as counselor, thus joining thereligious leaders to his family. 4Abd al-Mu$min used AbnHafs 4Umar as his first vizier and then as a personaladviser; the latter’s family ranked next to the sayyids.Ibn Tnmart’s Council of the Fifty, a consultative assem-bly that had representatives from the original tribes ofthe Almohad movement, was retained. These elementsformed the aristocracy of the empire.

Using Ibn Tnmart’s teachings, 4Abd al-Mu$min aimedto build a unified Muslim community in the Maghreb.The bases for legislation were the Qur$3n, the tradition ofMuwammad, and the concord of Muwammad’s compan-ions. Practical needs of justice, however, drove 4Abd al-Mu$min to tacit toleration of the Malikite system of law.To maintain and enforce Ibn Tnmart’s doctrine, 4Abd al-Mu$min devised special training for provincial adminis-trators. He personally selected young men from theMasmuda tribes and trained them in Ibn Tnmart’s writ-ings, archery, horsemanship, and swimming. The ruler’ssons received this education as well.

As an administrator, 4Abd al-Mu$min shone in master-minding an immense geographical survey of the Ma-ghreb. According to a Muslim historian, one-third of thisarea was deducted for mountains, rivers, salt lakes, roads,and deserts, and the remainder was made subject to theland tax (kharaj), with a fixed amount in grain and money

7

The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Mu$min

Almohad Caliphs (Spain and North Africa)

Reign Caliph

1130-1163 4Abd al-Mu$min1163-1184 Abn Ya4qnb Ynsuf1184-1199 Abn Ynsuf Ya4qnb al-Man;nr1199-1213 Muwammad ibn Ya4qnb1212 Christians defeat Almohads at Las Navas de Tolosa1213-1224 Ynsuf II Abn Yaqnb1224 4Abd al-W3wid Abn Muwammad1224-1227 4Abd All3h Abn Muwammad1227-1235 Yawy3 Abn Zakariyy341227-1232 Idrts I ibn Ya4qnb1228-1229 Retreat from Spain1232-1242 4Abdul-W3wid ibn Idrts I1242-1248 4Alt ibn Idrts I1248-1266 4Umar ibn Isw3q1266-1269 Idrts II ibn Muwammad1269 End of Almohad domination in North Africa

to be paid by each tribe—a first in Barbary. 4Abd al-Mu$min used the survey to ascertain his fiscal resources.The treasury drew revenue from the taxes imposed by theQur$3n and from a large part of the kharaj. The latter ap-plied to “unbelievers,” paying the tax as a sort of rent ontheir former property, its ownership having been taken bythe state. The unbelievers comprised all non-AlmohadMuslims and also those Almohads who were judgedunzealous.

The pragmatic 4Abd al-Mu$min did not subject alltribes to the kharaj. He needed the help of nomads formanning his army in the Iberian Peninsula and for keep-ing order in the Maghreb. These nomads included theHilalians, who were brought to Morocco from Tunisia,the Zanata Beni 4Abd al-Wad in the area between Minaand the Moulouya, and another tribe camped in theBougie district. Members of these tribes enforced thepayment of the kharaj on settled tribes.

4Abd al-Mu$min encountered internal opposition tohis regime. His restricting the succession to the Almohadleadership to his own family caused a rebellion in 1155.The ringleaders were Ibn Tnmart’s brothers, 4Abd al-4Aziz and 4Isa. They besieged Marrakech but were de-feated and executed. Along with them, 4Abd al-Mu$minexecuted numerous chiefs of the Hargha tribe who hadbeen suspected of fomenting treason. Sensitive to oppo-sition, 4Abd al-Mu$min dealt cautiously with the proudMasmuda tribes, which claimed Ibn Tnmart as their ownson. 4Abd al-Mu$min allowed only the Masmuda to havethe honor of being called Almohads; they were also thesole group permitted to discuss and elaborate IbnTnmart’s doctrine. Furthermore, 4Abd al-Mu$min gavethe Masmuda preferential treatment in taxation.

While organizing his government, 4Abd al-Mu$mingave thought also to Ifriqiya (Tunisia). Muslims theresought his help against the Norman occupation underKing William I of Sicily. In two years of preparation,4Abd al-Mu$min built seventy warships and an army of200,000. In 1159, he led the army into Ifriqiya, his navyfollowing along the coast. He sent one force to besiegeTunis, whose ruler was a Muslim Sanhaja chief underNorman protection. 4Abd al-Mu$min led his main armyagainst heavily fortified Mahdia, the major Normanstronghold. On January 22, 1160, a seven-month siegeended, the Almohad navy having defeated a Norman re-lieving fleet from Sicily. 4Abd al-Mu$min and the Nor-mans negotiated: The Normans evacuated Mahdia, and4Abd al-Mu$min gave them safe passage to Sicily. Thusended Norman rule in Africa. At this time, the Almohadscaptured Tunis and the interior of Ifriqiya. Now, more-

over, the Muslims of Tripolitana, who had evicted theNormans in 1157, swore allegiance to 4Abd al-Mu$min.

4Abd al-Mu$min’s achievements extended to still an-other activity: patronage of architecture. He ordered theconstruction of a palace and of the impressive Kutubiamosque at Marrakech, as well as the mosque at Taza. Tocommemorate Ibn Tnmart, 4Abd al-Mu$min built amosque at Tinmel. The design of this structure reveals in-fluences from the surrounding area, the East, and Moor-ish Spain. Another of his buildings was the fortress ofRibat al-Fath.

On May 2, 1163, 4Abd al-Mu$min died at Rabat. Hewas buried near Ibn Tnmart at Tinmel.

Significance4Abd al-Mu$min created a new chapter in the history ofNorth Africa. Designated by the mahdt, Ibn Tnmart, ashis successor in leading the Almohad movement, 4Abdal-Mu$min converted that spiritual body into a politicalregime lasting from 1130 to 1269. Throwing off his defer-ence to Abn Hafs 4Umar, 4Abd al-Mu$min built by war anempire in North Africa and southern Spain which hisfamily, the Mu$minid, ruled. His long military activity an-gered some of the original Almohads, who tried unsuc-cessfully to assassinate him in 1160. The conspirators alsohated his magnanimous policy toward the empire’s Arabs.

The reigns of 4Abd al-Mu$min, his son Abn Ya4qnbYnsuf (r. 1163-1184), and his grandson Abn YnsufYa4qnb al-Man;nr (r. 1184-1199) marked the golden ageof Barbary. They brought a general revival of commerce,for the Almohads had the best fleet in the Mediterranean,and they opened the sea to Christian and Muslim traffic.Urban life continued the development begun under theprevious Almoravid rule, with a new burst of creative ac-tivity stemming from Ibn Zufayl and Averroës.

Art flourished in Morocco and Spain under 4Abd al-Mu$min and his dynasty. 4Abd al-Mu$min was thefounder of a new architectural style—the most originaland impressive in North Africa. He gave to Andalusianartists a new spirit: an austere and simple style that re-sulted in a magnificent union of Andalusian subtlety andMoroccan strength.

Nevertheless, 4Abd al-Mu$min contributed to the ulti-mate Almohad decline and fall. The mechanical and offi-cial nature of his piety began to loosen the Mu$minidstate from the passionate and radiant zeal of Ibn Tnmart,whose uncompromising stand had created the Almohadmovement. Furthermore, 4Abd al-Mu$min settled someArab Bedouin tribes in Morocco, where he wanted totrain them to further his realm in Spain. Later, members

8

4Abd al-Mu$min The Middle Ages

of these tribes became unruly, causing anarchy in theheart of the Almohad Empire.

Still, 4Abd al-Mu$min’s great achievement cannot bedenied: He led the Berbers in the first unification ofNorth Africa.

—Erving E. Beauregard

Further ReadingAbun-Nasr, Jamil M. A History of the Maghrib. 2d ed.

Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,1975. This compact account of 4Abd al-Mu$min linkshis creation of a unified Muslim community to IbnTnmart’s doctrine. The relationship of the Almohadregime with previous and later dynasties is discussed.Brief bibliography; index, map.

_______. A History of the Maghrib in the Islamic Period.Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press,1987. A brief but excellent depiction of 4Abd al-Mu$min, more scholarly treatment than Abun-Nasr’sbook. Unannotated bibliography, index, map.

Falola, Toyin, ed. Africa. Durham, N.C.: Carolina Aca-demic Press, 2000. A good history of the continent.Bibliographic references, index.

Hopkins, J. F. P. Medieval Muslim Government in Bar-bary Until the Sixth Century of the Hijra. London:Luzac, 1958. One section describes the Almohad hi-erarchy. The entire system may have existed solely onpaper. Treatment of the elaborate organization may beof interest only to scholars. One map.

Julien, Charles-André. History of North Africa: Tunisia,Algeria, Morocco. Translated by John Petrie, editedby C. C. Stewart and Roger Le Tourneau. London:Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1970. Very good treat-ment of the Almohads (forty-seven pages), placing4Abd al-Mu$min on center stage in his varied roles.Apt quotations from sources; one map, fine bibliog-raphy.

Ki-Zerbo, Joseph, and Djibril Tamsir Niane, eds. Africafrom the Twelfth to the Sixteenth Century. Berkeley:University of California Press, 1997. Includes severalchapters on the Maghreb, including “The Unificationof the Maghrib Under the Almohads.” Illustrations,maps.

Le Tourneau, Roger. The Almohad Movement in NorthAfrica in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries. Prince-ton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1969. Excellentin integrating 4Abd al-Mu$min into the Almohad move-ment and showing his strengths and weaknesses. Briefbut good treatment of contemporary accounts and his-torical studies. Helpful index.

See also: Afonso I; Averroës; Ibn Khaldnn; al-Idrtst;James I the Conqueror.

Related articles in Great Events from History: TheMiddle Ages, 477-1453: 1062-1147: Almoravids Con-quer Morocco and Establish the Almoravid Empire;1190: Moses Maimonides Writes The Guide of thePerplexed; 1230: Unification of Castile and León.

4Abd al-RaWm#n III al-N#:irSpanish emir (912-929) and caliph (929-961)4Abd al-Rawm3n became the first full-fledged caliph ofCórdoba, on the Iberian Peninsula, inaugurating theUmayyad caliphate in Spain. His reign, characterizedby sound administrative, fiscal, and religious policies,military successes, astute diplomacy, and patronage oflearning, marked the apex of Islamic power in Spain.

Born: January, 891; Córdoba (now in Spain)Died: October 15, 961; CórdobaAreas of achievement: Government and politics,

religion and theology, military, patronage of the arts

Early LifeThe grandson of Emir 4Abd All3h and his Christian wife,great-grandson of Emir al-Mundhir and a Christian prin-cess from Navarre, and grandnephew of the powerful

Navarrese queen Toda, 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir(uhb-dool-rahk-MAHN uhl-NAH-sihr) spent his youthin the wealth and culture of his grandfather’s palace inCórdoba. This ancestry illustrates the complex nature ofSpanish society in the tenth century. Clearly the Chris-tians and the Muslims were in conflict, but the conflictwas rooted more in political and economic rivalries thanin religious or cultural antagonisms. This backgroundprovided 4Abd al-Rawm3n with perspective and connec-tions that he was able to exploit effectively, as his grand-father had not. When 4Abd al-Rawm3n inherited theemirate, his authority extended only to the area aroundCórdoba.

During the preceding decades, Arab aristocrats andBerber military men had amassed huge landed estates

9

The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir

that gave them a power base from which to ignore centralauthority. This independence was apparent particularlyin certain areas of Aragon, Toledo, and Estremadura. Re-ligious fanatics of one kind or another were in repeatedrevolt. Through sporadic raids and warfare, the Christianprinces in the north had regained vast tracts of land thatthe emirate had controlled earlier. The absence of politi-cal unity and social stability had devastated the economyof Spain. Although 4Abd All3h was not the strongest orwisest of emirs, he did make one outstanding decision:From among his many grandchildren, he chose 4Abd al-Rawm3n as his heir.

Life’s WorkIn 912, when 4Abd al-Rawm3n was twenty-one, he be-came the emir. He immediately undertook to rectify thepolitical, economic, and social problems that he had in-herited. His interests were many, but he gave primary at-tention to three major activities: the unification of hiskingdom, the construction of the Madinat az-Zahra pal-ace, and the promotion of an economic revolution.

The first of these tasks, the unification and centraliza-tion of his kingdom, took the first twenty years of 4Abdal-Rawm3n’s reign. He neutralized the power of the aris-tocracy and curbed the bellicosity of the Berber tribesby establishing a standing army, made up of slaves andforeigners from the whole of the Mediterranean world,soldiers whose first loyalty was to the caliph. This armyultimately numbered one hundred thousand and was sup-ported by a third of the royal revenues.

4Abd al-Rawm3n defeated the religious rebels whosepower centered on Bobastro and who had virtually de-clared their independence from the central government.He deliberately broke the independence of the gover-nors of Saragossa, Toledo, and Badajoz, restoring theirfunction as frontier marches whose purpose was to pre-vent Christian intrusion into the Córdoban kingdom.He campaigned repeatedly, though not always success-fully, against the Christian kingdoms of León, Castile,Navarre, and Galicia. In the end, it was to the caliphatethat the Christians went in search of physicians, musi-cians, architects, negotiators, tutors, and marriage alli-ances.

By the end of his reign, 4Abd al-Rawm3n had central-ized his authority over Islamic Spain. He had made theChristian kingdoms tribute states but allowed them to re-tain governmental autonomy. By 937, he had stopped thewestward expansion of the F3zimids out of Tunis, extend-ing his sovereignty over Morocco and western Algeria.In recognition of his power, rulers of all European and

eastern Islamic kingdoms commissioned emissaries tohis court.

To add to his prestige and focus his authority, in 929,4Abd al-Rawm3n declared himself caliph of IslamicSpain, based on his Umayyad lineage. He also took the ti-tles “commander of the believers” and “defender of thereligion of God,” tacitly supporting the Malikite theolog-ical position, which was then dominant among Muslimsin Spain. His assumption of these titles allowed pettychieftains in North Africa to recognize the Spanish ca-liph as their sovereign, rather than the schismatic and fa-natical F3zimids. It also did much to focus the emergingpatriotism and loyalty of his Spanish subjects.

In the economic sphere, 4Abd al-Rawm3n met withequal success. Production of gold, iron, silver, lead, andrubies increased. He improved and extended the canalsand irrigation systems. Despite the Qur$3nic dictatesagainst wine drinking, the growing of grapes and themaking of wine became important economic enterprises.

10

4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir The Middle Ages

Córdoba’s Umayyad Caliphs, 756-1031

Reign Ruler

756-788 4Abd al-Rawm3n I (emir)788-796 Hish3m I (emir)796-822 al-Hakam I (emir)822-852 4Abd al-Rawm3n II (emir)852-886 Muwammad I (emir)886-888 al-Mundhir (emir)888-912 4Abd All3h (emir)912-961 4Abd al-RaWm#n III al-N#:ir

(emir 912-929, caliph 929-961)961-976 al-Hakam II al-Mustan;ir976-1009 Hish3m II al-Muayyad1009-1010 Muwammad II al-Mahdt1009-1010 Sulaim3n al-Musta4tn1010-1013 Hish3m II (restored)1013-1016 Sulaim3n (restored)1016-1018 Alt ben Hammud1018 4Abd al-Rawm3n IV1018-1021 al-Qasim1021-1022 Yawy31022-1023 al-Qasim (restored)1023-1024 4Abd al-Rawm3n V1024-1025 Muwammad III1025-1027 Yawy3 (restored)1027-1031 Hish3m III1031 End of Umayyads; dissolution of

Umayyad Spain into small states

Note: Islamic rulers on the Iberian Peninsula were emirs until 929.

Agriculture was diversified and expanded. Rice, peaches,oranges, apricots, sugar, cotton, pomegranates, figs, andsaffron had been introduced by the Muslims into Spain;traditional crops such as wheat, other grains, and olivesalso continued to be cultivated.

This diversification and increased agricultural pro-duction were key elements of the prosperity of 4Abd al-Rawm3n’s caliphate, but industry played a crucial role aswell. The caliphate became known for its fine leather, su-perb steel, olive oil, and paper. These products weretraded as far east as India for slaves, cloth, and exoticspices. 4Abd al-Rawm3n expanded the navy in order toprotect trade routes and the merchant fleet from attacksby the Normans, Byzantines, or 4Abb3sids. In the end,4Abd al-Rawm3n’s navy and merchant marine came todominate the western Mediterranean.

In 936, 4Abd al-Rawm3n embarked on the construc-tion of his great palace, Madinat az-Zahra (which means“she of the shining face”). Az-Zahra was the caliph’s fa-vorite wife; curiously, initial funding for the palace cameas a gift to the caliph from one of his concubines. Theconstruction of the palace became a major public worksproject, employing ten thousand workers and three thou-sand animals for twenty-five years at an expense of one-third of the annual royal revenues. Materials such asebony, gold, and ivory were imported to decorate the pal-ace; luxurious gifts for its embellishment were receivedfrom other rulers. This sprawling palace complex, lo-cated about three miles outside Córdoba, provided abeautiful view of the city and surrounding countryside.Some have deemed it the crowning achievement of 4Abdal-Rawm3n’s reign.

Significance4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir died at the age of seventy,leaving the caliphate to al-Hakam II, his son by hisBasque Christian wife, Subh. 4Abd al-Rawm3n had beena determined and successful ruler. His energy wasboundless, his ability undisputed, his power immenseand wisely controlled. He demanded respect; he ex-tended charity. He carefully and intelligently tended tothe demands of state and religion, while conscientiouslyexpanding the culture, refinement, and economic well-being of his realm. He had established not only the mostmagnificent but also the most powerful kingdom in Eu-rope—and nowhere was this better exemplified than inhis capital, Córdoba.

Half a million people populated the city, whereas Lon-don had perhaps five thousand; indeed, the population ofSpain as a whole had exploded during 4Abd al-Rawm3n’s

reign. The streets of the city were paved and lighted. Re-splendent with palaces, seven hundred mosques, and atleast three hundred public baths, Córdoba contained sev-enty libraries, countless bookstores, and twenty-sevenfree schools.

The caliph founded the University of Córdoba in theGreat Mosque and established chairs and scholarshipsthere; it was an institution that attracted teachers and stu-dents from the whole Mediterranean world and westernAsia. During the reign of his son, the royal libraryfounded by 4Abd al-Rawm3n reached 400,000 volumes, anumber of which serve today as the basis of the Arabiccollection in the Library of the Escorial. In addition to theuniversity, a leading center for Jewish theological studiesflourished in Córdoba. Indeed, 4Abd al-Rawm3n’s physi-cian, Hasdai ibn Shaprut (915-970), was Jewish, a mem-ber of the Ibn Ezra family educated at the University ofCórdoba. A man of tact and goodwill, he became a diplo-matic, financial, and commercial adviser for the caliph.He patronized learning and gave scholarships and booksto deserving students. It is said that the stature of a leadercan, at least in part, be determined by the quality of thosewho serve him; Hasdai, then, serves as a case in point.

Córdoba became one of the three great cultural cen-ters of the medieval world, rivaling both Constantinopleand Baghdad. Its glory, however, was not only cultural.The economic power of the caliphate centered in Cór-doba as well. The city processed and marketed the prod-ucts of the agricultural revolution of the tenth century.Great brass, glass, pottery, paper, and leather works werelocated there. The city housed at least thirteen thousandsilk, wool, and cotton weavers. Through Córdoba andSeville (the premier port of the caliphate) flowed Spain’sexports in marble, sugar, figs, cotton, olives, olive oil,wine, and saffron. Revenues from import-export dutiesalone financed the caliphate.

The awe and admiration inspired by this “jewel ofthe world” that was Córdoba was only a reflection ofthe stature of the caliph himself. Never again could Is-lamic Spain claim such a one as 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir.

—Shirley F. Fredricks

Further ReadingChapman, Charles E. A History of Spain. 1918. Reprint.

New York: Free Press, 1965. A classic survey ofSpanish history, this work remains a standard refer-ence because of its objectivity, detail, and organiza-tion.

Christopher, John B. The Islamic Tradition. 1972. Re-

11

The Middle Ages 4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir

print. Lanham, Md.: University Press of America,1987. This is one of the best short introductions to thehistory, the basic religious tenets, and the great medi-eval cultural synthesis of Islam, including that whichoccurred in Spain. Indeed, it is out of this rich medi-eval cultural heritage that Islam faces the modernworld.

Coppée, Henry. History of the Conquest of Spain by theArab-Moors: With a Sketch of the Civilization WhichThey Achieved and Imparted to Europe. 2 vols. Piscat-away, N.J.: Georgia Press, 2002. This work, originallypublished in 1881, explores the conquest of Spain in711 and the resulting Arab influences on Europeancivilization.

Durant, Will. The Age of Faith: A History of MedievalCivilization—Christian, Islamic, and Judaic—FromConstantine to Dante, A.D. 325-1300. New York:MJF Books, 1992. This is the fourth volume of the au-thor’s Story of Civilization series, a massive synthesis.Good bibliography, helpful explanatory notes, andindex.

Hayes, John R., and George N. Atiyeh, eds. The Geniusof Arab Civilization: Source of Renaissance. 3d ed.New York: New York University Press, 1992. A livelycollection of essays, suitable for the general reader,discussing Arab intellectual and cultural accomplish-ments. Includes a bibliography and index.

Hillgarth, J. N. Spain and the Mediterranean in the LaterMiddle Ages: Studies in Political and Intellectual His-tory. Burlington, Vt.: Ashgate Variorum, 2003. A sur-vey of the political and intellectual history of Spainfrom 711 through the sixteenth century. Includes bib-liography and index.

Hitti, Philip K. Capital Cities of Arab Islam. Minneapo-lis: University of Minnesota Press, 1973. Describes

the uniqueness of six great capitals of Islam, includ-ing Córdoba.

_______. History of the Arabs: From the Earliest Timesto the Present. 10th ed. New York: Palgrave, Mac-millan, 2002. A complete and useful study of the riseof Islam in Spain and elsewhere.

Jackson, Gabriel. The Making of Medieval Spain. NewYork: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1972. A most in-sightful and evenhanded examination of medievalSpain. It stresses the rich results of the long intermin-gling of the Islamic, Christian, and Jewish cultures.Packed with information, this short text is lucid andextremely well written. Includes many excellent il-lustrations and a short but enlightening bibliographicessay.

Watt, W. Montgomery, and Pierre Cachia. A History ofIslamic Spain. Edinburgh: Edinburgh UniversityPress, 1965. This well-informed study details the in-fluence of Islam on the cultural development ofSpain—and through Spain, all Europe. Special atten-tion is focused on the Umayyads, of whom 4Abd al-Rawm3n was the greatest.

See also: Alfonso X; Averroës; Avicenna; Roger Ba-con; al-Btrnnt; El Cid; Dante; Fakhr al-Dtn al-R3zt;al-Ghazz3lt; Moses Maimonides; al-R3zt; Z3rik ibn-Ziy3d; Thomas Aquinas.

Related articles in Great Events from History: TheMiddle Ages, 477-1453: April or May, 711: Z3rikCrosses into Spain; c. 950: Court of Córdoba Flour-ishes in Spain; 1031: Caliphate of Córdoba Falls; No-vember 1, 1092-June 15, 1094: El Cid Conquers Va-lencia; c. 1150: Moors Transmit Classical Philosophyand Medicine to Europe; 1230: Unification of Castileand León.

12

4Abd al-Rawm3n III al-N3;ir The Middle Ages