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SECTION ONE

YIIK 373.167.1:811'111EEK 81'2 1*trtt-922

GENERAL INFORMATION

CHAPTER 1

GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY

Part 1. Geographical Position.

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North-ern Irelandr is situated on the British Isles2 - alarge group of islands lying off the north-westerncoast of Europes and separated from the continentby the English Channela and the Strait of Dovers inthe south and the North Sea6 in the east.

' The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern IrelgndIde ju'nartrd'kr4dem av'grert'brltn end'nc:6en'atelend]O6re4zxtinnoe KopoJIeBcrBo Benvrco6prararuvr u CenepnofiVlptauguu

' the British Isles ['bltrJ'arlz] - BpratancKrre ocrpoBaL Europe I juorop]

-Eapona .a the English Channel ['4qlrJ'tJrnl] - rpoJ'II/IB JIa Manurr' the Strait of Dover [strbtt cv'douve] - [poJrI{B fla ,[e Kane't the North Sea ['nc:0'si:] - Ceaepnoe Mope

rsBN 5-89815-015-3@ rePo, rsss

I

2

3

{

5

6

The British Isles consist of two large islands - Great

Britain and Ireland - separated by the Irish Seal, and

a lot of small islands, the main of which are the Isle of

Wigfrt' in the English Channel, Angleseaa and the Isle

of ftann in the Irish Sea, the Hebridesb - a group of

islands off the north-western coast of Scotland6 ' and

t*o grorrps of islands lying to the north of Scotland:

tft" d"m"y Islands? and the Shetland Islands8 'Historically the territory of the United Kingdom

is divided into four parts: Englande, Scotland' Waleslo

and Northern Ireland.The total area of the united Kingdom is 244 square

kilometres.

the Irish Sea ['alarrJ'si:] - I'Ip;lanAcKoe Mope

the Isle of Wight [iatl av'watt] - ocrpon VafirAnglesea ['.rlglsi:] - Enr.ncuthe"Isle of nnut ['irl ev'rnren] - octpor Men

the Hebrides ['hebrrdi:z] - le6pu4rtScotland ['skotl rJIaHArrfi

ih" ott tt.y ttl arlondz] - o-p-xneftcxrre ocrpoBa

the Shetlancl Is darlendz] - Iller'nan4cKr4e ocrpoBa

QUESTIONS.1. Where is the United Kingdom of Great Britain

and Northern Ireland situated?2. Which waters separate the British Isles from the

continent of Europe?3. What islands do the British Isles consist of?4. Which four parts is the territory of the United

Kingdom historically divided into?5. What is the total area of the United Kingdom?

Part 2. Nature.

Great Britain is situated in the temperate zone ofEurope. The nature of Great Britain is greatly af-fected by the sea: there is no place situated morethan 100-120 km from the seashore, in the northernparts only 40-60 km.

The territory of Great Britain can be divided intothree natural regions:

1) Scotland with highland and upland relief andconiferous and mixed forests;

2) Wales and mountainous England with uplandconsiderably cut by ravines and valleys and coveredwith meadows, moorlandr and cultivated farmland,with patches of broadleaf forest;

3) South-east England with plain landscape, fer-tile soils, the predominance of cultivated farmland,with patches of broadleaf forest.

QUESTIONS.1. What natural zone is the United Kingdom situ-

ated in?

{' England [,rqglond] - Anr.nusr0 Wales [wcrlz] - Valrc

4

The lsle of Wight

I moorland ['mualend] - nycrorub, rropocrrrag BepecKoM

2. What factor is the nature of Great Britain af-

fected bY? WhY?3. What natural regions can the territory of Great

Britain be divided into?

Part 3. Coasts.

The coastline of Great Britain is greatly indented,

especially in the west and north-west where the moun-

tains come close to the coast' The coasts of Scotland'

as well as the coasts of the Hebrides' the Orkney

Islands and the Shetland Islands, are cut by numer-

ous fiords. In the south and east the land gradually

slopes down towards the sea, and the coasts are sandy

ani gentle, here and there interrupted by the ends of

hill-ianges, which form low cliffs'

QUESTIONS.1. Why is the coastline of Great Britain especially

greatly indented in the west and north-west?2. Where are fiords especially numerous?3. How do the southern and eastern coasts of Great

Britain differ from the western and north-west-ern coasts?

Part 4. Relief.The general slope of the land is from north-west to

south-east.The mountains cover the greater part of northern,

western and middle Great Britain. Th.ey can be divid-ed into the following groups:

1) The Highlands of Scotlandl occupy most of theland to the north-west of a line drawn from Glasgow2to Aberdeen3. Two parts of the Highlands - theNorth-western Highlandsa and the Grampiansb - areseparated by a narrow valley, through which runsthe Caledonian Canalo. At the south-western end ofthe Highlands rises Ben NevisT, 1343 m, the highestmountain of the British Isles.

2) The Central Plain of Scotland8 separatesthe Highlands from the Southern Uplands of Scot-

' The Highlands of Scotland |harlcndz ov'skotlendl - ceBepnanBbrconoropEafl qacrb TTTor;ranAran

2 Glasgow ['glo:sgou] - l.rasro' Aberdeen [,rcbo'di:rr] - E6ep4rEuI tl-re North-western Higlilands ['nr:0'u,cstcn'harlondz] - Cenepo-

aarra.quafl qacrb BbrcoKoropHofi ITlotnaugltr' the Grarnpians ['gricnrprenz] -- fparvrnlraHcnrle ropbl' the Caledonian Canal [.kclr'd:rrrlcn kc'nrrl] -- Ka.ne4onctir.ul xaHan; Ben Nevis ['bcn'ncvrs] - Ben Heenc* The Central Plain of Scotland ['sentrcl'plcrn cv'skrtlond] -I{enrpa,trnas TITot.uanAcKafl paBHrrHa

7The coast of Britain

landl. The Southern Uplands and the Pennines2 ' which

stretch in the north-south direction across the north-

ern and middle parts of England, form a practically

continuous group.-";;.o|fiv-ttt.t*ttole of Wales is occupied bv the

Cumbrian.d. Th" highest peak of the Cumbrians is

Snowdona, 1085 m. tThe south-eastern part of England is lowland' in-

terrupted in places by low chalk ridges'

QUESTIONS.What is the general slope of the land in Great

Britain?Which three groups can the mountains be divided

into?Where are the Highlands of Scotland situated?

Which are the two parts of the Highlands? What

are theY seParated bY?

5. Which is thl highest mountain of the British Isles?

How high is it? Can you show it on the map?

6. Where are the Souihern Uplands of Scotland?

How are they separated from the Highlands?

7. Where are the Plnnines situated? In what direc-

tion do theY stretch?8. Where are the Cumbrians?9. Which is the highest peak of the Cumbrians? How

high is it? Find it on the maP'

10. What is the relief of the south-eastern part of

England?

the Southern Uplands of Scotland ['s'rr6an'nplendz av'skct-

lend rb

thethe roPbr

Snowdon ['snoudan] - CnoY4on

1.

2.

Part 5. Glimate.

Great Britain enjoys the humid and mild marineWest-Coast climatel with warm winters and cool sum-mers and a lot of rainfall throughout the year.

The prevailing winds blow from the south-west.As these winds blow from the ocean, they are mild inwinter and cool in surnmer, and are heavily chargedwith moisture at ali times. As they approach the moun-tainous ar()as near the rvest coasts, they rise up tirenlountain siopes. Their tenperahure drotrrs, whichcanses condensation of rnoisture in the form of rain.Therefor:e the wettest parts trf Britain are those areaswhere high mountains lie near the west coast: the

western I{ighlands of Scotland, the Lake District2 anclNorth Wales. The eastern part of Brilain is said tobe in the rain-shadow, as the winds lose most of theirrnoisture in tlieir passage over the highlands of thewest.

All parts of the British Isles receive rain at anytinre of the year. Still autumn and winter are thewettest seasons, except in the Tharnesridistrict, wherernost r:ain falls in the sunrmer half of the -vear. Ox-fordr, for example, has 29 per cent of its rain insurrnler and only.22 per cent in winter.

As to ternperature, Great Britain has warnrer win-ters than any other district in the sarle latitude. It is

' the humid and mild marine West-Coast clirnate ['hjumrdcud'rnarldrnc'ri:n'westkoust'klarrnrt] - BirarrcHbrfi ra ltnrxnii uropcrcoirKJrr4Mar BanaAnoro no6epexcra

2 the Lake f)istrict ['lerk'drstnkt] - Oedpuufi rpafi2 the Thames [temz] - TevrsaI Oxford ['oksfcd] - OrccQop4

9

3.4.

2

I4

8

due in large measure to the prevalence of mild south-west winds. Another factor is the Gulf Streaml, whichflows from the Gulf of Mexico2 and brings muchwarmth from the equatorial regions to north-west-ern Europe.

QUESTIONS.1. What climate does Great Britain enjoy? What

are the characteristic features of this climate?2. Which are the prevailing winds in Great Brit-

ain? What do they bring to the country?3. Which are the wettest parts of Great Britain?

whv?4. The eastern side of Great Britain is said to be in

the rain-shadow. What does it mean?5. Which are the wettest seasons in Great Britain?6. Why does Great Britain have warmer winters than

any other district in the same latitude?

Part 6. lnland Waters.

The rivers of Britain are short; their direction andcharacter are determined by the position of the moun-tains.

Most of the rivers flow in the eastward directionsince the west coast is mountainous.

Due to the humid climate and abundant rainfall,the water level in the rivers is always high. The riv-ers seldom freeze in winter, most of them remain ice-free. Many of the rivers are joined together by ca-nals. This system of rivers and canals provides a goodmeans of cheap inland water transport.

tlie Gulf Stream ['g,rlF.stri:m] - fom(rcrpuvrthe Gulf of Mexico ['meksrkou] - Merccnnancrcurl saJrrrB

erpool6, and the ClydeT in Scoiland, which flows westacross the Southern Uplands and on.which the portof Glasgow is situated.

owing to the fact that British lakes are rather smailand have no outlets, they afford limited economicpossibilities in the system of navigable waterways.But most of them, especially those situated in ihecounties of Cumberlands, Westmorlande and north

I Severn ['sevanj - p. Cenepn2 the Bristol channel ['brrsteltJrenl] - Epzcron'cxutrr BaJrrrB" the Tyne [tarn] - p. TaftnI the Trent [tr.ent] -- p.'' the Mersey ['mc:zr] -' Liverpool ['hvopul] -

],,

tn" ttuo" [krard] - p' qr l"#"1""J;J*"^Jlanxaurnp

I

2

1011

3.4.

5.6.

and deep lakes, ravines, waterfalls and green mead-ows. The Lake District is one of the most popularholiday districts in Great Britain.

QUESruONS.1. Why do most of the rivers in Great Britain flow

in the eastward direction?2. Why is the water level in British riyers always

htgh?Do British rivers freeze in winter?Many rivers in Great Britain are joined togetherby canals. What does the system of rivers andcanals provide?Are British rivers navigable for ocean ships?What prevents the formation of deltas at themouths of rivers?

7. Where are most of the large sea ports situated?8. Which are the most important rivers in Great

Britain?9. What are the British lakes famous for? Where

are most of them situated?10. Give a description of the Lake District.

Part 7. Vegetation.

In the mountainous regions of Great'Britain thevegetation is represented by coniferous and mixedforests with the predominance of pine, oak andbirch. Many parts of highland Britain have onlythin, poor soils. As a result, there are large stretchesof moorland in the Highlands of Scotland, the Pen-nines, the Lake District, the mountains of Walesand in some parts of north-east and south-westEngland. In most of these areas the farmers have12

cultivated only the varley lands and the plains wherethe soils are deeper and richer.

With its mild climate and varied soils, Britainhas a rich natural vegetation. When the islandswere first settled, oak forests probably covered thegreater part of the lowland. In the course of thecenturies, nearly all the forests have been cut down,and now woodlands occupy only about Z per cent ofthe surface of the country. The greatest density ofwoodland occurs in the north and east of scoiland,in some parts of south-east England and on theWelsh border. The most common trees are oak,beech, ash and elm, and in Scoiland also pine andbirch.

Midland Britain appears to be well wooded be_cause of the numerous hedgesr and isolated trees.Hedges are a typical feature of countryside land_scape in England. Farming land is divided inio fieldsby hedges or stone walls. Most of countryside p"S_land is agricultural land, about a third of *hi"h i.arable, and the rest is pasture and meadow.

QUESTIONS.1. What is the vegetation represented by in the

mountainous regions of Great Britain?2. Where are stretches of moorland to be found?

Why are these places covered with moorland?3. Why does Great Britain have a rich natural veg_

etation?4. What has happened to nearly all the forests?

What parts of Great Britain do most woods stillremain in?

13

' hedges [hed3rz] - xcprBbre r,rcropoAlr

D.

6.

Which are the most common trees in Great Bri-tain?What is a"typical feature of countryside land-scape in England? Why does midland Britainappear to be well wooded?

Part 8. Animal Life. I

The animal life of the British Isles is now muchpoorer than it was a few centuries ago. With thedisappearance of forests, many forest animals, in-cluding the wolf, the bear, the boar, the deer and thIrish elk, have become practically extinct. There arefoxes in most rural areas, and otters are found alonmany rivers and streams. Of smaller animalsare mice, rats, hedgehogs, moles, squirrels, haresrabbits and weasels.

There are a lot of birds, including many song-birds.Blackbirds, sparrows and starlings are probably moscommon. There are many sea-birds, which nest routhe coasts and often fly far inland in search of for shelter in rough weather.

QUESTIONS.1. Why is the animal life of the British Isles mu

poorer now than it was a few centuries ago? Whaforest animals have become practically extinct?

2. What animals can be found in most rural a

along many rivers and streams?3. Are ther€ many birds in Great Britain? Whic

are most common?

t4

Part 9. Mineral Resources.

Great Britain is rich inbasins in NorthumberlandrNottinghamshires, Southnear Glasgow.

coal. There a,re rich coal, Lancashire, yorkshire2,Wales, North Wales and

Among other mineral resources, iron ores foundalongside coal layers are of primary importance, butthe iron content of most of the ores is very tow.

There are tin and copper mines in Cornrvalla andDe_vonshire5, copper and lead mines in England.

Lead and silver ores are also mined in DJrby"hi"euand CumberlandT and Lancashire.

QUESTIONS. !

1' what mineral resources is'Great Britain rich in?2. Where are the coal basins?3' where are the iron ores found? what is the draw-

back of the iron ores in Great Britain?4. In what parts of Great Britain are the tin, cop-

per, lead and. silver deposits?

part 10. Economy.

The United Kingdom was the first country inthe world which became highly industrialized. Or"_ing the rapid industrialization of the lgth century,

15

one of the most important factors was that coal

a"potit. were situaied near the ground surface'

whieh made mining easy' CoaI mining is one-of-the

*o.t developed industries in Great Britain' The big-

g".i .out urrd iron mines are-in the, lort-h-."T1..;.fErrltur,a, near Newcastlel, in Lancashire and York-

s-hi-re; in Scotland near Glasgow; in ales near

Cardiff2 and Bristols 'Untilrecenttimes,Britain'sheavyindustryw

mainly concentrated in the centre of England and ir

the London region. Such towns as Birminghama ' Cov

;;try; and sheffield6 produced h-eavy machines' rail

way carriages and motor-cars' In the 20th centurl

;; il;;h;s of industrv have appeared: electronics

radio, chemical industry and others'Of great importance for Britain is ship-buildi

industry. It is concentrated in London' Glasgow

Newcasile, LivbrPool and BelfastT

Great Britain produces a lot of wool' and woolle

industry is deveioped in Yorkshire' British woolle

products are exported to many countries'- S"u-ports play a great'role in the life of the coun

try. l,ondorr, Lirr""pool and,Glasgow are the b

ilgfish ports, from which big liners go to all

of in" world. Great Britain exports industrial prod

ucts to other countries and imports food and somr

other products.

Newcastle ['nju:ko:sl] - HlronacnCardiff ['ko:drtl - KaP4utP(P

Bristol Ibrrstl] - BPucro.nrBirmingham ['bc:mrqcnt] - BlrpmrznreuCoventry ['krvcntrl] - KoaenrplrSheffield ['Jefi:ld] - ilIetbOurgBelfast ['bclfo:st] - Belc[act

I

2

I

5

ft

t6

Sheep-farming, cattle-farming and dairy-farmingare also important branches of Great Britain's econ-omy. Chicken farms produee a great number of chick-ens and eggs for the population.

The south of England is often called the "Gardenof England", because there are many gardens andorchards there. In the orchards people grow apples,pears, cherries, plums and other fruits, and thereare also large plantations of different berries.

QUESTIONS.1. What was one of the most important factors of

the rapid industrialization of the country in the19th century?

2. What industry is mostly developed in Great Brit-ain? Where are the biggest coal and iron minessituated?

3. Where was Britain's heavy industry mainly con-eentrated until recent times? What was produiedin Birmingham, Coventry and Sheffield?

4. What branches of industry appeared in the 20thcentury?

5. What towns is ship-building industry concen-trated in?

6. Great Britain has always been a great exporterof wool, hasn't it? Where is the woollen industryconcentrated?

7. Do sea-ports play a great role in the life of GreatBritain? Which are the biggest sea-ports of thecountry?

8. Why is the south of England often called the"Garden of England"? What fruits grow in theorchards?

17

. CHAPTER REVIEWI. Fill in the blanks with the correct'words from the '

ernpties, agricultural, pasture , !^-: ^- ^t. Vtost of ttt" Iarge sea-ports of Great rritain are

situated in theMost of countrYside England isabout a third of which is

-

and the rest is

andS. Ttt" *i"ds blowing from the ocean

charged with4. Gre-at Britain

Europe'is situated in the

5. Farming land is dividedand stone walls.

into fields bY '

6. Great Britain enjoYs the West-Coast cli-

a, Iand,

are heavilY

zone of

tn-

7.8.

mate.The coastline of Great Britain is greatly

The nature of Great Britain is greatly

-

by

the sea.9. The Thames -

10. South-east Englandsoils.

11. f-h" rrigttlands of Scotland are covered wi

into the North Sea.

has landscaPe and

t2.;nd fdrests'

Tn" .onttt-eastern part of England is

-'

II. Write a 20o-word composition on the geographyof Great Britain.

CHAPTER 2

COMPOSITION OF THE COUNTRY

The territory of the United Kingdom of Great Brit-ain and Northern Ireland is historically divided intofour parts:

1) England; 2\ Scotland; 3) Wales; 4) NorthernIreland.

Part 1. England.

Of the four countries which make up the UnitedKingdom, England is the largest. It occupies an areaof 131,8 thousand sq. km.

England borders on Scotland in the north. In theeast it is washed by the North Sea. In the south it isseparated from the continent by the English Chan-nel. In the west it borders on Wales and is washed bythe Bristol Channel and by the Irish Sea.

The highest part of England is in the west, fromwhere the land gradually slopes down to the east.

The Atlantic Ocean washes the rock"y and brokenwest coast of England, Wales and Scotland and isgradually wearing it away, leaving caves and sandybeaches. On the east coast the land is low and sandy.

The rivers flowing to the east and emptying intothe North Sea form deep estuaries well protectedfrom the sea. The greatest port of the country Lon-clon is conveniently situated in the Thames estu-ary.

The white chalk cliffs of the south coast washed

19

by the English Channel ean be seen from many miles

QUESTIONS,1. Which four parts is the United Kin om of Great

Britain and Northern Ireland historicatly divided

into?2. How does the west coast of England look? To*

does the east coast differ from the west one?

3. Where is the port of London situated? What

makes its Position convenient?4. What is characteristic of the south coast of Eng

Iand?5. What parts can England be divided into as con

cerns the relief?

Part 2. Scotland'

Scotland is the most northern of the countries tha

constitute the United Kingdom' It occupies an

of 78,8 thousand sq. km'

British Isles. Their average height does not

20

-- Scotland i's washed by the Atlantic Ocean in

north and west and by the North Sea in the east'

The coastline of Scotland is greatly indented'-I

many places deep fiords penetrate very far inland'- -Cuogtuphically the territory of Scotland can bt

divided inlo three regions: the Northern Highlands

it " C"rrttal Lowlands and the Southern Uplands'

The Highlands are the highest mountains in th

457 m above sea level, though some peaks are muchhigher, rising over a thousand metres. Ben Nevis,the highest peak in the BritishJsles, reacheB the heightof 1343 m.

The Lowlands are the cradle of the Scottish, na-tion. They are densely populated.

The Southern Uplands seldom rise over 579 m abovesea level. It is one of the most sparsely populateddistricts in Great Britain.

QUESTIONS.1. Where is Scotland situated?2. What is the coastline of Scotland like?3. Which three regions can the territory of Seot-

land be divided into?4. Are the Highlands very high?5. What part of Scotland can be called the cradle of

the Scottish nation?

Part 3. Wales.Wales is a peninsula washed by the sea on three

sides: the Bristol Channel in the south, the St.George's Channelr in the west, and the Irish Sea inthe north. Its territory is 20,8 thousand sq. km.

Geographieally Wales may be considered part ofhighland Britain, the Cumbrian Mountains occupy-ing most of the land. It is an area of high mountains,deep valleys, waterfalls and lakes.

Wales is a region of heavy rainfall brought by theprevailing west winds from the Atlantic Ocean. Thevalleys are sheltered by the high mountains from-toldeast winds. The climate is rather mild.I the St. George's Channel [srrt'd3o:d3iz'tJrenl] - npo.nnr Ca.

feopra21

Wales has never been densely populated:. T1"Welshl have kept their own language, but FJngtrsn rs

spoken in town as well.

QUESTIANS.1.'What kind of relief does Wales have?

2. How do you explain the fact that the;e is a lot of

rainfall in Wales?3. What language is sPoken in Wales?

Part 4. Northern lreland'

Northern Ireland occupies the north-easterrr Pa

of Ireland, which is separated from the island ",19::Britain by the North Channel2. In the south-we

Northern Ireland borders on the Irish Republi

(Eirea ).Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plai

of volcanic origin, deepening in the centre-to t-".1"

the largest lake of the British Isles, Lou.9h ^l-i^{i--The greatly indented coastline oi Notthern Irel

is abundant in rocks and cliffs.- ii;;h;;; i""i""a has a tvpical ocebnic climate with

mild damp winters (the mean temperatutg,ltt- *l:,ary is +4, +5) and cool rainy suLmers (the

temperature in July is +14, +15'). , --- -;ili]';;';;il"' scarie, moors and meado

prevail.Northern Ireland is mostly an agratian distri

on small farms they grow crops' ".pE"iuilv oats' veg

I The Welsh [wclJ] - YeJIbcqbI2 the North Channel [inr:0'tJtcrrl] - Cenepnrrfi flpo-'rrlB---.--.-

'' the Irish Repubri"i'i,,"tiitip^ui'r.t - llpianacfias pecnyoruria- Eire ['ccrc] - EfiPe; Lough Neagh ['lox'ner] - 03. JIox Hefi

22

etables and potatoes. Large areas are taken up bymeadows, where cattle graze. On the river banks andon the coasts the population is engaged in fishing.

QUESTIONS.1. Where is Northern Ireland situated? What coun-

try does it border on?2. Describe the relief of Northern Ireland.3. What is characteristic of the coastline of North-

ern Ireland?4. What kind of climate does Northern Ireland en-

joy?5. What vegetation prevails in Northern Ireland?6. What do people grow on their farms?

CHAPTER REVIEW \

I. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from thelist:

historically, rnahe up, slopes, rochy, brohen, sandy,estuaries, conueniently, chalh, Pennine, peninsula,sheltered, cradle, sparcely, uolcanic, indented, agrari-un, graze.1. Wales is a

sides.2. The rivers form deep _, well protected from

washed by the sea on three

in large meadows.the sea.Cattle

4. The greatly coastline of Northern lre-land is abundant in rocks and cliffs.

5. The territory of the United Kingdom isdivided into four parts:

6. The territory of Northern England is mostly takenup by the low Mountains.

7. The Southern Uplands are populafed.

23

8. The land in England graduallYwest to east.

9. Northern Ireland is mostlY an

-10. Of all the four countries which

-

of

-

origin.15. The port of London is

Kingdom, England is the largest'On ihe east coast the land is low and

The whit e

-

cliffs of the so coast are

washed bf the Engllsh Channel'The Central Lowlands are the

-

of the Scot-

tish nation.14. Almost all the area of Northern Ireland is a plain

down from

district.the United

11.L2.

13.

situated inThames estuarY.

16. The Atlantic Ocean washes the -- and

west coasts of England, Wales and Scotland'

17. The valleys ate

-

by the high mountains

from the cold east winds'

CHAPTER 3

POLITICAL SYSTEM

Great Britain is a parliamentary monarchy' Official

Iy the head of the state is the king or queen' The pt

ol tt," monarch is not absolute but constitutional.monarch acts only on the advice of the ministers'

The hereditary principle upon which the monar

chy is founded is strictly observed' The now reignimonarch, Queen Elizabetlr, II is a descendant of tSaxon king Egbert.

The monarch, be it king or queen' is the head

the executive body, an integral part of the legisla

ture, the head of ihe judicial body, the commander

in-chief of the armed forces of the crown' the head

24

the Established Church of Englandr and the head ofthe British Commonwealth of Nations.

QUESTTONS.1. Who is the official head of the state of Great

Britain?2. What are the official titles of Queen Elizabeth II?3. The monarchy in Great Britain is founded on he-

reditary principle, isn't it? What does "heredi-tary principle" mean?

4. Explain the following sentence: "The power ofthe monarch is not absolute but constitutional."

Part 1. The Constitution.

Practically speaking, there is no written constitu-tion in Great Britain. The term "English Constitu-tion" means the leading principles, conventions andlaws, many of which have been existing for centu-ries, though they have undergone modifications andextensions in agreement with the advance of civiliza-tion. These principles are expressed in such docu-ments of major importance as Magna Carta2, a fa-mous document in English history agreed upon inL2t5 by King Johns and the barons, which set cer-tain limits on royal power and which was later re-garded as a law stating basic civil rights; HabeasCorpus Acta , a law passed in 1679, which guarantees

I the Established Church of England - locuo4crByroqaflrlepKoBb Anrnnu

'' Magna Carta ['rnrcgno'ko:tc] - Marna Kapra ( Beturcaa xapmuflao,nunocnt.eil )

' King John [tl3rn] - KopoJrb,[rxon (Hoarun Benemenunwii)' Habeas Corpus Act ['hcrbjos'ko:pes irkt] --. Xa6eac Kopnyc

(Jq,rou 1679 e. o HenpurcocHoleHHocmu nuvruocntu)

25

acts, separate laws and agreements'

QUESTIONS.1. Is there a written constitution in Great Britain?

What does the term "English Constitution" mean?

2. Name some important documents which containthe leading principles of government'

3. When was Magna Carta signed? Who signed itWhat did Magna Carta set limits on?

4. When was Habeas Corpus Act passed? What do

Habeas CorPus Act guarantee?5. When did Parliament pass The BilI of Rights?

What did The Bilt of Rights confirm?

Part 2. Three Branchesof Government.

Power in Great Britain is divided among thbranches: the legislatives branch, the executivbranch and the judicialT branch.

I court of justice ['kc:t ev'd3nstrs] - cy42 the jury ['d3ucrr] - ilprrcfllrcnble saceAareJrlr3 The Bill of Rights - Bu.nnr o rpaBaxr the laws clecidi'g the successionlsck'scJn] of the royal famil

- SaKOHbI , OUpeAeJ'IflIOIqUe UOpflAOri HaCJIeAOBaHI4

KOpOJIeBCKOTO npecro.Ila

'' legislative ['led3rslctrv] - aaxonoAareJlbHas

'i executive Irg'zckjutrv] - racuo;rrulreJlbHafli judicial [cl3tr'drJcl] - cy4e6naa

26

Parliament SquareThe legislative branch is represented by parliament,

which consists of two chambers, or houses: the Houseof Lordsr and the House of Commons2.

Parliament in Britain has existed since I26b. Hav_ing been organized in the reign of King Edward Ia, itis the oldest parliament in the world.

The House of Lords consists of more than 1000Jreersa, including the "lords spiritual"t: the Arch_bishop of Canterburyo, the Archbishop of yorkz, and

the House of Lords - Ilanara JrropAoBthe House of Commons - flanara o6rqranKing Edward I ['cdrvcd do'tb:st] - Koporrb E.qyapg Ipeers [prcz] - napbr"lords spiritual Ispr'rrqjucl]" - Bbrcruee AyxoBerrcrBothe Archbishop [o:tJ'br1cp] of Canterbury ['k:rnrebcrr] _apxrrerrr{crcou Kenrep6eplrricxHiithe Archbisllop of York - apxuerr4crcou froprccxrzft

27

24 bishoPs of theChurch of England.The peers (with theexception of th"lords sPiritual"have the right to si

in Parliamenttheir lifetimeltransmit their righto their eldest sons.

During thesent century a

practice has aPPeared: the practice"creating" nepeers. TheY are calIed "life peers", because their childdo not inherit their,itles like the children of heredit

peers. New peers are created by the monarch on th

ud-ri"" of the Prime Minster. Sometimes a prominen

fotti"iutt is made a peer' sometimes a leading civi'servantt who has served the country well' As a re

sult, about one-third of the Lords today are not rep

resentatives of hereditary nobilitya but company di

rectors, bankers, newspaper proprietors and ot

businessmen.

2 &Barb cBoe rrpaBo

3 Ift rocY4aPcrBenlrbl

C,rYXaUlr'rfi

' hereclitary [hr'rcdrtcrr] nobility - HacJIeAcrBeHHafl 3Harb

28

The House of Lords

fhe House of Commons

The nrembers of the House of Commons are electedlry a general electionr. The whole country is dividedrrrto constituencies2, every one of which chooses onerlclegate. Big cities are divided into several constitu-trrcies each. Members of the House of Commons arer,lected for five years.

Parliament's main function is to make laws. Thegrrocedure of making new laws is as follows: a mem-lrt:r of the House of Commons proposes a bill3, whichis discussed by the House. If the bill is approved, itis sent to the House of Lords, which, in case it doesrrot like it, has the right to veto it for one year. If thellouse of Commons passes the bill again the follow-ng year, the House of Lords cannot reject it. Finallylre bill is sent to the Queen for the "royal assent"a,rl'ter which it becomes a law.

by a general election - eceo6rqzM roJrocoBauueMconstituencies [kan'strtjuonsrz] - lra6npareJrbrrbre oxpyraa bill - 3axoHorrpoexr"royal assent [c'scnt]" - KopoJreBcroe ogo6penlre

29

The executive branch is headed by the Prime

ister, who is appointed by the king (queen)' Ac

ing to tradition, the Prime Minister is the leader

ItZ pu.tv that has won the elections Td. h*.:l-t,l

loriiy in-the House of Commons' The Prime Ministt

uppoints the ministers to compose th.e,Sover"*:lAfter that the newly appointed minigters are

serited to the *orr'u""h for the formal bpproval'

*.tt important ministers of the government-(abo

l*""tvl ^fot* the Cabinetl' Memb"It.of tl:. 9uPio

mak" loi"t decisions or advise the Prime Minister'

The main function of the executive branch of .tlgovernment is to administer the liws (to see to it,thlTh" h*. are carried out, actually to rule the countryj

The iudicial branch interprets the laws'

itt. "friett"st judicial body is the Supreme 9""*.luJicatui2, which consists of two divisions: the Hi

C."* "f

Justices and the Court of Appeala ' It is^ ofl

."iJ tnut English law is superior to the law of

other countries. Indeed, the English judicial s

"""iti". many rules which protect the individual agait

""Ufi*w actions by the police and the government'

QUESTIONS,1. Which are the three branches of state power

the United Kingdom?Z. Wfrat body is the legislative power represented

the Cabinet - rca6unet MrltHrrcrpoB

the Supreme [rju"pri,m]t";-ik;*i Li 'luaicuture ['d3u:c'katJa] '

Bepxoanrtft cY4ths rrioh cnrrrt of .Iustice ['d:,rstrs'l -^nBucor-lrl :Xl:-.1

I

2

3

nep 1anam c nPuc0urcqu

Hu uu)

the qraonnuft cy4

arb Jrbgbre geficreuc

v0

ll. The British Parliament is the oldest parliamentin the world, isn't it? Since what time has it ex-isted? How old is it?

4. Which are the two chambers of the British Par-liament?

l'r. How many peers are there in the House of Lords?Who are the "lords spiritual"?

6. Who are "hereditary peers'.' and "life peersl'? Howare life peers created?

7. How are the members of the House of Commonselected? How often do general elections of theHouse of Commons take place?

8.9.0.1.t3.

What is the main function of Parliament?Explain in detail how new laws are made.Who is the executive branch headed by?How is the Prime Minister chosen?What is the procedure of forming the government?What is the Cabinet? What is the work of theCabinet?What is the highest judici.al body of the countrycalled? Which two divisions does it consist of?Why is it often said that English law is superiorto the law of most other countries?

Part 3. Political Parties.

The two main political parties of Great Britain aretre Conservative Partyr and the Labour Party2.

The Conservative Party (otherwise called the Tory3arty) is right-wing, tending to be opposed to great

the Conservative [kon'sc:votrv] Party - KoncepnarvBHafl naprr{ffthe.Labour ['lcrbc] Party - Jleft6opucrcKas raprr.IflTory ['o:r'r] - Topu

)1

and sudden changes in the established order of

"tV. lt is against state control of industry'

The Labour Party, sometimes called the Socialis

has a close u.ro"iuiion with the Trade Unionsl 'though it is now not as left-wing as it used to be'

has many supporters, especially among working-cl

and middle-class PeoPle' 1

QUESTIONS.1. Which are the two main political parties in Gret

Britain?Z. Wnat is the Conservative Party otherwise

How can the general policy of the Conservati

Party be described?3. Whai is the Labour Party sometimes called?

organization does the Labour Party have a c

u.So"iution with? Where does the Labour Pr

have the majoritY of suPPorters?

Part 4. The British Gommonwealthof Nations.

For centuries British sailors and merchants

ettea aII over the world, discovered new lands a

.i.i*"a them for England2 ' Large territories in Not

Americas, Africaa, the whole continent of Ausl

i;;; N"; Zealand', India? ""q3 lot of ftarl$s i1

;;; llt ,rna"t British rule' Thus' graduallv' in t

: r"yxTH;H*"'1 A - Atlpuxai, A rerljc]-Aacrpa,rur,, -N

'nji:'ii:lcnd] - Hoaas Senangua7 India ['rndro] - llugua

)2

corrrse of centuries, the huge British Empirer cameinto being. After World War II, with the growth ofrrutional liberation movement2 in the world, the coun-tries which were dependent on Great Britain andl'ormed parts of the British Empire, began claiminginclependences. As a result of this movement, thellritish Empire fell aparta. However, centuries-longcconomic, cultural and political ties of these formercolonies and dominions with Great Britain were toostrong for them to completely break away from eachother, and it was found advisable to maintain the oldbies. A new organization was established: the BritishClommonwealth of Nationss, including about 50 inde-llendent states which were formerly parts of the Brit-ish Empire. The British Commonwealth of Nationsoncourages trade and friendly relations among itstrtembers. The Queen is the official head of the Com-monwealth.

QUESTIONS,1. How was the British Empire formed?2. What international movement brought about the

fall of the British Empire? When did this move-ment start?

3. Why didn't for.mer dependent countries com-pletely break away from Great Britain? Why wasit found advisable to maintain the old ties?

the British Empire ['hrrtr{'cnrpara] - BpuraHcrcaa rrMrreprrflnational ['nrc]cncl] liberation ilrbc'rcrJn] movernent -Ha rlrlroHa.rrbno-ocao6o4IrTeJIbHoe ABrl)KeHrrebegan clairning independence Irndc'pendcns] - EaqaJrrr rpe6o-BATb HESABIICI4MOCTIIflell apalt -

pacnaJ'Iacbthe British Comrrronwealth ['krrncnwcl0] of Nations - BpuraH-crioe coApyxrecrBo naquft

11

4. What is the name of the new association of fBritish colonies and dominions?

5. What does the British Commonwealth of Na The

encourage?6. Wh; i. ihe official head of the British Common

. wealth of Nations?

I 1. Habeas Corpus Act to a person arrestedthe right to appear in court of _.

monarch Queen Elizabeth II is aof the Saxon king Egbert.

I il. The main function of the executive branch is tolaws.

1,4. Many leading principles, conventions and lawshave modifications in agreement with theadvance of civilization.The power of the queen of England is notThe branch of power is represented byParliament.

17. The House of Lords consists of more than 1000

lli. Magna Carta set certain limits on royalbranch of power is headed by the

Prime Minister.20. Parliament's main function is to makel. The House of Lords has the right to a bill

for one year.Write a 200-word

CHAPTER REVIEW

I. Fill in the blanks with the correct words from

peoPle.6. i;i;"iten said that English law is

-

to t

Iaw of most other countries'7. The motu,"hy-i" Ct"ut Britain is founded

orinciPle.f the governme

8. The most imPortant ministers o

form the _--9. According to tridition' the Prime Minister.is t

leader of the party which has the --- rn

Ilouse of Commons'

10. The children of life peers do not

titles.

34

I l-r.

lfi.

;m of the Unitedcomposition onKingdom.

the political sys-

15

SECTION TWO

HISTORY

UNIT ONE

THE EARLY DAYS OF BRITAIN

Around, 10,O0O BC Britain was peopled ^b

";;il Jroup'' oS t'unters and fishers' They fo

lowed' herd's of d'eer ' wh ich prouid'ed them wit

food' and' clothing'In the "ou,r"

i1 tim'e' d'iff erent g.roul: ".f

p":

pt) taept arritting in Britain'bringin$ their cu.s

', oln r- i'o a sh iLL s.-T h " R o * an s' w h o o c cu p i e d''B r it

ain in the -l*t c"ntury' broug-ht th" ,ty.::I:r:reading ona *'iii"g' frry wriiten word' was im'

piortan"t for spreaans ideas and culture'

CHAPTER 1

ANCIENT BRITONS

Part 1. The Ancient PoPulation'

Little is known about the ancient population

the British Isles' iitt" otft"r primitive people in ot

;;il' ;;;t'" *o'ta, t1"v.. ti13{ ll ":"^": -1*:::ilt"Li" ftt tood. Graclually they learned to grow co

and breed domestic animals' They made primitive-t^or

and weapons of t1o""' Later they learned to smel

metal and make *Lt"f tools and weapons' Archaeolc

36

A hut of ancient people inhabiting the British lsles (reconstruction)

gists find their tools and weapons, as well as remainsoli primitive houses.

These people were religious, though we know verylittle about their religion. Some temples which theylrrrilt still stand in many parts of England and Scot-lund. These temples are also very primitive. Theyrr:e just circles of great stones standing vertically.he greatest of them is Stonehengel in the south

rf England.

QUESTIONS1. Where did the ancient population of Britain live?

How did they get their food?2. What material did they use to make tools and

weapons?;]. What is known about the religion of the ancient

population of Britain?

Stonehenge ['stounhcrrd3] - Ctoyuxen4x)7

Part 2. Who were the Britons?

these people Britons and

island - Britannia. In thcourse of centuries the Britopartly killed the native PoPulation, partlY mixed with it'

The Britons were skilfuworkers. TheY made things ou

of iron, bronze, tin, cIaY

wood, and decorated them wibeautifully drawn lines and Pa

terns2. TheY made moneY outgold and silver. TheY began

make roads, along which

travelled about the country, buying and selling things

There were some good and rather big houses it

Britain, which had many rooms and corridors'richer Britons lived in these big houses' When

had feasts in their houses, they sat round low tabl

There were no forks or spoons. They took big pi

of meat in their fingers and tore them apart' or cu

them with their knives. They drank from big

made of earthenware or silver'

1 the Celts [kelts] - KeJlbrbr2 patterns - Ysopbr

38 39

A village of Britons

Not all parts of Britain were civilized' In the moun

tains and forests of the west and north there wer

;;;;";ho did not know the use of iron and did nc

use money. They tt"J tto real house:'b:'-"'llll":.1:;;; The parts in the south-east of Britain werr

*o.t "irrilized,

because they were neare;t t3;!-he con

il"."t, from which people got new knowledge'

QUESTIONS1. Where did the Britons come Jrom? How did

look? What were theY armed-with?

2. The Britons were skiiful workers' weren't

What could theY do?

3. What do we t<,'ow about the Britons' way of life-'

Wit"t kind of houses did thev have? ?td i.h:nuV" to"t s or knives? What did they make th

plates and cuPs of?

a. frni"f, parts o1B'ituitt were most civilized? W

Part 3. Their Religion'

The Britons were polytheistic' that is they believeJ

i" *."v g"ds. Thev felieved that diffet?11-s-""1t:i":l

in the thickest and darkest parts of the fores'ts' So

;ir""; ;ch as the mistl"t': 11-11".??l;i"-T:-1ffi#'#'J;";i. some historians think that th

Britons were Sorr"t""a by a class,:f ptlu^tT :1t]:

ilidJ *ft"ft"ua great powgr over them' Stonehe

*"" ift" temple oith" Druids' just as it Td P::lffi;;iit-" p"i*itive men^before' The Druids wi

;;;;T;"" ur,d th"i' wavs of worshipPi"g th"tt'sl

;;; ""tut too. They oft"tt declared that a god w

""UtU, ""d to get thl god's pardon the people had

I Druids ['dlurdz] - APYI'IAbI

40

offer up sacrifices of human beings. The Druids putlrren into huge baskets and burned them in the pres-ence of the people.

The Britons often fought among themselves. Theremains of forts built by the Britons can be seen inrlifferent parts of the country. From time to timet,he Britons had feasts arid entertainments. Duringn feast a minstrel usually sang songs about braverleeds of famous warriors. After the minstrel's songshis listeners began to boast of their own brave deeds.And when they had drunk too much, they beganrluarrelling and fighting, and usually some menwere killed.

QUES?/ONSl. What do we call the people who believe in many

gods?2. Where did the gods live, according to the early

Britons' religion?3. Who were the Druids? How did they worship their

gods?4. How did the Britons entertain themselves during

the feasts?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words from theist:

minstrel, temples, to smelt, sacred, polytheistic,rtt id s, c an) e s, sw ord s, c orn, u orshippin g, hunt e d, b ree d,crifices, to boast, ancient,

1. Thein and animals for food.

2. Gradually people learned to grow

-

anddomestic animals.

41

3.

4.

b.

6.

The Britons were

knives.The Britons were

calledDuring their feaststheir brave deeds.

armed with iron

governed bY a class of Pries

the Britons liked

their godsThe Druids' waYs ofstrange and cruel'The Druids offered uP' of human bei

7.8. The Britons were ,

in manY gods.that is theY beli

9. The mistletoe and the oak-tree were conslctere(

to. I-n.irnt people learned metal and mak

metal tools and weaPons'

11. Some ancient still stand in many parts

England and Scotland'12. Du-ring a feast a

-

usually sang songs abou

brave deeds of famous warriors'

CHAPTER 2

THE ROMANS

Part 1. The Goming of the Romans'

In the year 55 BC the great Roman general J

tiris Caesart sailed to Britain with about Lz'Ol

,ofai"tt in eighty ships' When they were near th

.outt, they saw the Britons armed with spears an

.*otit, ready to fight them' Still the Roman sol

;tr* landed and fought with the Britons' They wo

Julius Caesar in Britain

llre battle, but did not stay long and soon depart-r.d. In the I'ollowing year Julius Caesar came tollritain again. This time, after fighting the Brit-ons on the shore, the Romans marched north-westwhere London stands today. The British attackedl,hem in chariots and on foot, but the Romans hadlretter arms and armour, and were much betterlrained. The Britons could not stop them.t Julius Caesar ['d3u:hes'si:za] - IO'nufi I{esapr

42 43

the countrY.

I Clauclirts ['kl:r:djcs] - K;ran4rlli

44

Having staYin Britain somtime, the RomanIeft again and dinot appear onBritish shores fabout a hundyears.'Then, inyear 43 AD, tRoman EmPeroClaudiusl sentgeneral wit40 ,000 men tconquer Britaiall over again. ThBritish f oughbravely, but counot hold back thtrained Roman army. Soon thwhole of the soutof Britain waconquered.

The Romans were very pructical people' and thl

first thing they clid in Britain was to make and fortify the po"t. where they landed their soldiers and sup

pii... th" Rornun pottt were-very well built' wit]

,ton" quays and warehouses' There were big cranes

which tittea the cargo from the ships' holds' and manl

carts transported goods along the great Roman road

which ,un it long straight lines to different parts o

8U ESTION S. How many times

ctid Julius Cae-sar come to Brit-ain? When wasit? What did hedo the first andthe second time?

l. When did theRomans comeand stay inBritain?

i. What facts showthat the Ronranswere practicalpeople?

[. How were theRoman portsbuilt and whatequipment didthey have?

Part 2. The Revolt of Queen Boadiceal .

Although the Romans had occupied Britain, therere many British men and women hidden away in

lre great forests and swamps who refused to submit.hese men were fierce fighters, and they often came

rrrt of their hiding places and attacked small Romanorts or outposts. Then, when the Romans brouglrtp reinforcements, they disappeared into the forestshere the Romans could not find them.

The Romans landing in Britain

Boadicea [,bouctlr'src] - Boa4lrcea

45

Some of the Brit-ish tribes were mowarlike than othersand one of these wthe tribe of the Iceri1, who lived iwhat is now Norfolk2. In those dathis part of Englanwas covered witswamps, and thRoman soldiers hanever comPletelconquered it.

Less than twenyears after the Roman invasion, thmen of the Icentribe revolted headed by their warlikQueen Boadicea.

The Roman army was far away fighting in No

and all the people were cruelly killed'The Roman Governor of Britain at that time was

famous soldier named Suetonius5' When the news o

Wales, when Boadicea, with 100,000 fighting men

destroyed first the Roman town of Colchesters' ant

then, soon afterwards, the towns of London and S

Albansa. These towns were all burned to the ground

l he revolt of the Ice-rri reached him, hewas in the middle ofrr campaign againstl,he men of Wales. Innpite of it he decid-t,cl that he mustrrrarch across Eng-lrrnd and attack Boa-rlicea and the Iceni asHoon as possible.

He had about10,000 trained Ro-rrtan soldiers withhim, and althoughlloadicea had tentimes that number,Fiuetonius had norloubt that the train-ing and discipline oflhe Roman armywould give him the victory.

Suetonius placed his men on the slope of a hill,protected by woods on both sides. The British thoughtthat the Romans were trapped, and they crowded inltre woods to attack them. At the right moment, whenlloadicea's men were so crowded together that theycould not use their arms, the Romans attacked, andtlie British were completely beaten.

QUESTIONSl. How did the Britons fight against the Romans?

Why was it difficult for the Romans to crushthem?

t7

I Iceni [ar'si:nar] - Acesu'z Norfolk ['nr:fck].- HoPdronx:J (lolchester ['koultJ rstc] - Ko.nuectep1 St Albans [snt'r:lbcnz] - Cest O"n6anct' Suetotrir.rs [su'i:'tounjcs] - Cyeroulrit

46

Fighting off the rebellious Britons

2.

3.

Who was Boadicea? How many men did she gat

in her armY?Where was the Roman army when Boadicea

stroyed Colchester, London and St Albans?

4. Whv was Suetonius sure that he would winvictory in spite of the fact that Boadicea'sgreatly outnumbered his army? What advantag

aia ni. army have over the army 6f the Ice

queen?f . Wnat tactics clid Suetonius use to beat Boadicea

army?

Part 3. Britain under the Romans'

In the year 70 AD, when the Romans had

nearly thirty years in Britain' many Britons co

not remember a tinte when the country had been fr

and it seemed quite natural to them to be goverrnot bY British kior chiefs, but bY Goernors from Rome.

There were stithree legions ofman soldiers incountry, but evething was now soet that the soldiespent most of thetime enjoying theselves in sPorts orthe games in the a

phitheatres.Although Bri

ful, the Romans realizedthat at any moment sometribe might try to revolt.So they built forts inmany parts of the coun-try, in which they sta-tioned small groups ofsoldiers.

For the next threehundred and twenty-fiveyears Britain remained aRoman province, gov-erned by Roman Gover-nors and protected by theRoman legions. Duringthis time there were longperiods of peace, andBritain became a civi-lized country of townsand villages and goodroads.

Wherever the Romanswent, they built roads. Ifwe Iook at a modern mapof England, we see thatthere are great mainhighways running acrossthe country, often inlong straight lines, fromone town to another.Many of these roadswhich are still in use to-clay, were built by theRomans.Roman soldiers Roman roads in Britainwas now fairlY

tt

part 4. Hadrian's Wall.In the year 122 the Roman Emperor Hadrian, cameto Britain. Hadrian was a great traveller and wher_cver he went in the Roman Empire, he strengthenedits frontiers.Some years before there had been a serious rebel_lion in the north of Britain. Tribes of the picts2, the

,eople who lived to the north and south of the scot-tish border, had risen in revolt and killed the whole'f the 9th Roman legion which was station"a-rivrlir.Not a man was left.

The south of England was covered with the villof wealthy Romans and Britons. There were Iafarmhouses, often with water supply and baths.

QUESTIONS1. Why did it seem natural for many Britons to

ruled by Roman Governors?2. How many Roman soldiers were constanily sta

tioned in Britain?3. Britain was now faily peaceful, wasn't it? Ho

did the Roman soldiers spend much of their time4. Why did the Romans build forts in many par

of the country?5. What kind of country did Britain gradually be

come under Roman rule?What reminds us of the Roman rule whenlook at a modern map of England?What kind of houses did wealthy RomansBritons live in?

The rebellion wast:rushed, but Hadrianrlecided that in futureit should be madernuch more difficultI'or the Picts to crosst,he border into peace_1'ul Britain. So her:hose three legions ofli,oman soldiersrrbout 20,000 men -nnd set them the taskof building a greatwall running rightrcross the countryl'rom Newcastlea on

6.

7.

Hadrian ['hcrdrrcn.l _-A4przanPicts [prkts] - rrr{KrbrYork [o:k] - ftopxNewcastle ['rrju:ko:sl] _Hrrorcacn

A kitchen in a Roman house (reconstruction)

50

l

1.2.3.

the eastern shore to Carlislel on the western shore.In seven years the building of the wall was finished.Parts of this wall can still be seen.

Hadrian's wall was seventy-three miles long, sev-en to ten feet thick, and sixteen to twenty feet high.It was built of stone and it had a row of forts situat-ed about four miles from each other. At every mithere was a strong tower which held a hdndred men,and at every third of a mile there was a signal turret.Hadrian's Wall was the strongest of all the Romaf rontier fortifications.

guESTroNSWhen did Emperor Hadrian come to Britain?Who were the Picts?What fact gave Emperor Hadrian the idea tothe famous wall?How long did it take to build Hadrian's WallHow long was it? How thick? How high? Was ibuilt of stone, earth or wood? How far apart wethe towers and signal turrets?

Part 5. Roman Towns.

The Romans remained in Britain for three hundred and fifty years, and during that time they builmany towns. Strangely enough, London was notchief town in early Roman times. The capital cityfrom which the Romans governed the island, waColchester.

Many of these towns were large. The walls of SAlbans, for instance, were two miles round, and ttown covered two hundred acres of lancl. We kno

I Carlisle Iku:'larl] - Kapaarin

52

4.

where the Roman townshave stood from the namesof the English townswhich were later built ontheir ruins. The names ofrnodern towns ending in -

chester or -caster, likeDorchestert or Lancasterz,(:ome from the Latin wordt'astra rneaning a camp orn fortified place.

Each large town had a[heatre, open to the sky,with some seats in a greatsemi-circle. Many townshad amphitheatres like theOoliseum3 in Rome, butsmaller. Here the soldiersrlid military exercises andplayed all sorts of games.

There were shops in alllloman-British towns. Theshops were usually locat-cd on two sides of thernain' square. The shopswere of all kinds: butch-cr's, baker's and greengro-r:er's; there were shoemak-

Dorchester ['clc:tJlstc].(op.recrepLaneaster ['larTkcstc]JlanxacrepColiseum [,kclr'srcm]Ko"unaefi

A Roman town

Shopping in a Roman town

er's, and locksmith's,carpenter's and jewel-ler's shops. Tailoand leather workecould be seen at workbehind their counters,and everywhere merchants invited thpasseis-by to butheir goods.

The eustomersas varied as the mer-chants: Britons irough woollen cRomans in togas, soldiers in scarlet anbrass, women in grace-ful dresses and cloaks,and slaves in short tu-nics. It was a busscene.

The social centre of every Roman town was tgreat building of the baths. This building usualloccupied one side of the main square and contained,in addition to the hot and cold baths, the law courtsr,the municipal officesz, the school building and tgymnasium3.

The Romans believed inwonderful baths and used

keeping clean. They built

law courts ['lo;.ko:ts] - cyAmunicipal of f ices I mj Lf n r s r pcl'of r s r z] - Mynr{qrrnaJrbHbre }rqpe}K-ACHIIfigymnasium [d3rm'nerzjcrn] - cuoprusurrft saa

tlay. After the bathl,he young Romanswent into the largehigh gymnasium togrractice boxing andwrestling and allliinds of gymnastics.

At the same time,l,he Roman gymnasi-rrm was much morethan just a place forphysical exercise.Many business opera-l,ions were done in it.'['here were places,loo, in this Iargebuilding, where peo-ple could buy food andtlrink. In fact, a Ro-rnan citizen could goto the baths in the morning and spend the whole busyrlay there, without wasting a moment.

How long drd ,h"a#":':.1t"o"T; in Britain? whattown was their capital?How do we know from the name of a town that itwas built in Roman times?Were there theatres in large towns?What were the amphitheatres for?Where were the shops usually located? Whatshops were they?What clothes did different groups of people wear?

them two or three times 3.4.5.

A gymnasiumA Roman town

54 55

What else did it contain?9. What is a gymnasium? What

the Romans attached greatsports?

What was the centre of social life in every Roman town?

8. Did the building of the baths contain only baths

facts show thaimportance t

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words fromlist:

gymnasiutn, customers, Hadrian' s, chariots, arnxsbaths, wrestling, fortified, prouince, tribes, quays, ftifications, cargo, cranes, arnlolrr, warehouses, to smit, holds.1. The Britons attacked the Romans in

on foot.2. The Romans had

than the Britons.better and

3. The Roman well-built ports had stoneand

4. There were big in the Roman ports foIifting the from the ships'

5. There were many Britons who refusedthe Romans.

6. Some of the Britishthan the others.

were more warlik

7. Britain remained a Roman for over thhundred years.

8. Wall was the strongest of all the Romafrontier

9. The Latin word castra means a camp or aplace.

56

10. The --- in the shops were as varied as themerchants.

I 1. The social centre of every Roman town was thegreat building of the12. After the bath the young

large high __ toRomans went into thepractiee boxing and

CHAPTER 3ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND

Part 1. The lnvasion by Anglo_Saxons.Towards the end of the 4th century Europe was in_

vaded by barbaric tribes. The Romans had to leavellritain because they were needed to defend their ownt:ountry. The Britons were left to themselves, but theyhad very little peacelVery soon sea-robberscame sailing in shipsI'rom the continent.'l'hese invaders were(lermanicr tribesrulled Angles2, Sax-ons3 and Jutesa. Theywere wild and fear-Icss people, and the

' Germanic [d3c'mLr:nrk] -IepMaIICKIre',\ngles Irurlglz]

iI HIJIbI'Saxons ['sl:kscnz] -('aKc6II , .Iutes [d3u:ts] - rorbr

The Anglo-Saxon invasions andthe kindoms they established

57

An Anglo-Saxon village (reconstruction)

iiritons could 'neve., drive them away. The Brifought many battles, but at last they were forcedretreat to the west of Britain. Those who stayedcame the slaves of the Anglo-Saxons.

For a long time the tribes of Angles, Saxons aJutes fought with one another for supremeBritain split up into seven kingdoms: Kentr,sex2, Essexs, Wessexa, Mercias, East Anglia6,NorthumbriaT.

The Anglo-Saxons lived in small villages.each village there was a ditch and an earthen wwith a wooden fence on top. The earthen wall andfence serwed to defend the village against robbeand wild beasts.

I Kent [kent] - Kenr2 Sussex ['s,rsoks] - Caccercc3 Essex ['csoks] - EccerccI Wessex ['wescks] - Vaccercc

' Mercia ['nrc:Jrc] - Mepcua6 East Anglia ['i:st'rcqgLo] - Bocroqnas Anr.nra.st Northumbria Inr:'0,rmbrrc] - Hopryu6praa

58

A ditch and wall surrounding a village

The Anglo-Saxons were tall, strong men, withlllue eyes and long blond hair. They i"r" ar"r""aIrr tunics and cloaks which they fastened with abrooch above the right shoulder. On their feet theywore rough leather shoes. Their usual weapons wereI spear and a shield. Some rich men had iron sword.s,

An Anglo-Saxon woman

59

An Anglo-Saxon warrior

which they carried at their left side'

wore long dresses with wide sleeves'

were covered with a hood'In their villages the Anglo-saxons bred cows'

urrJ pig* They ploughed the Jields and grew whea

"V" ot outs for bread and barley for beer'

SUESTIONS.1. What tribes was Europe invaded by towards

Part 2. Christianity.

Christianity first penetrated to Britain in the 3''d

rrcntury. It was brought there from Romer by Chris-tinn refugees who were fiercely prosecuted for thei'rfuith at home. In the year 306, the Roman tr'lmperor(jonstantine2 the Great stopped the prosecution of the(lhristians and became a Christian himself. Christi-nnity was made the Roman national faith. It was broughtto all dependent countries. It became the official reli-gion in Britain, too. The Druids disappeared. The newlcligion was called the Catholics Church ("catholic"rneans "universal"). The Greeka and Latins languagestxrcame the languages of the Church all over Europe.

When the Anglo-Saxons, who were pagans, invad-otl Britain, most of the British Christians were killed.'l'hose who remained alive, fled to Wales and Ireland,where they lived in groups called Brethren6 (brother-hoods). They built churches and devoted themselvesto worship. They told people stories of Christian mar-iyrsT and visitations by saints8 (called visions). Suchxtories were typical of the literature of that time.

Towards the end of the 6th century Christian monkshcgan coming from Rome to Britain again. The headol'the Roman Church at that time was Pope Grego-ryr'. He wanted to spread his influence over England

llome [roum] - Pzvt(lonstantine ['krnstcntarn] - KoncraHrl4u(latholic ['krcOclrk] - Karorll4rrecxaa(ireek [qri:k] - rpeuecxlrfil,atin ['la:trn] -- .;ratrrrrcxul"rllrethren ['brcOrcu] - Bpatratttartyrs ['nro:tcz] - MyrreHu6uvisitations by saints - flBJIeHufl cBflrbrxl'ope [poupl Gregory ['grcAcn] - rara lpuropuft

The woTheir he

end of the 4th centurY?2. WhY did the Romans leave Britain?i. Wf,"t tribes invaded Britain after the Roma

Ieft?4. What parts of Britain did the Angles' Saxo

ancl Jutes settle in?f . Wfrat did the Britains have to do? Did all of t

g;; the west? What happened to those who

mained?O. WttV did the tribes of Angles' Saxons and Ju

fight with one another??. Which seven kingdoms were finally formed

Britain?8. Did the Anglo-Saxons live in towns?

9. Why were the Anglo-Saxon villages surrou

by walls and ditches? , r

10. Iiow did the Anglo-saxons look? What cl

did theY wear?11. What weapons dicl the Anglo-Saxons have?

12. What domestic animals did the Anglo-Sax

breed? What did they grow on their fields?

6061

by converting the people to Christianity. Hemonks to convert the Anglo-Saxons. The monksin Kent (the south-eastern part of Britain), and tfirst church they built was in the town of Canburyl. Up to this day Canterbury has remained tEnglish religious centre and the seat of thebishop of Canterbury2, head of the Established Chof Englands.

QUESTIONS.1. When did Christianity first penetrate to Bri

ain? Who brought it there?2. When did the prosecution of Christians stop

Rome? Who stopped it?3. What was the new Christian religion of

called? What does Catholic mean?4. What languages became the languages of

Church?What happened to many of the early Britishtians with the coming of the Anglo-Saxons?Who were Brethren? What did they devote theselves to? What stories did they tell people?In what century did Christian monks begining to Britain again?

8. Why did Pope Gregory want to convert theSaxons to Christianity?

9. Why is the town of Canterbury consideredEnglish religious centre?

I Canterbury ['kentaben] -- Keurep6epu2 the Archbishop [o:d'brJep] of Canterbury - apxr4errr,rcKerrep6epufrct<wir3 the Established Church of England - Iocuo4crayrlepxoBb A-srrurt

62

Part 3. The Raids of the Danes.Uniting the Country.

As we know, Anglo-Saxon Britain was not a unit_ecl country. There were a lot of small kingdomswhich constantly waged wars against one anotherf.or supreme power._ As a result-, these litile king_doms were weak and could not hold out againri ut_tacks from abroad.

_ Beginning with the gth century, pirates from Scan_elinavial and Denmark2 began raiding the easteinehores of Britain. They u"" frro*n in English historyos the Daness. They were brave, cruel and mercilesspeople. They landed their long boats, killed and robbedthe population of the towns and villages and sailedaway. They returned over and over again and contin_ued killing and robbing the population. Gradually theybegan settling in Brit-b.

6.

7.

ain and seized more andrnore land.

The Anglo-Saxonsunderstood that theirsmall kingdoms mustunite in order to strug_gle against the DanesSuccessfully. In the 9theentury Egberta, the

Scandinavia [.skrendl'nel-rjo] - CrcangranaarzaDenrnark ['dcnmo:k] _.(axuathe Danes Iclernz]AATqAHEEgbert ['egbct] - Dr6epr

lnvasions from Scandinaviacnd Denmark

63

king of Wessex, onethe stronger AnglSaxon kingdoms, uned several neiging kingdoms. Tunited kingdom gotname of ERgland,Egbert became the fiking of the unitcountry.

QUESTIONS.1.

2.

3.

Who raided the eastern shores of Britain in8tr' century? Where did the pirates come froWhy was it impossible for the Anglo-Saxons

hold out against the Danes?

What kind of people were the Danes? What

they do on the British shores?

4. Who was Egbert? What did he do?

Part 4. Alfred the Great'

Alfredl, the grandson of Egbert, became king

the year 8?1, when England's danger was greate

fh" Durr"s, who had settied on the eastern shores

Britain, continued robbing and killing the peop.tl

England and occupying more and more land' Alfgaihered a big army and gave the Danes a great b

It" at Maldon' in dgf . The Danes were defeated'

this battle, but still they remained very strong

dangerous, and Alfred hurried to make peace

I Alfred ['rcltrcd] -- AnlOPel2 Malclon ['ml:ldcn] - Mor4on

64

t,hem. He had to give the Danes the greater portionof England. The kingdom that was left in Alfred'sgrossession was Wessex. There were some years ofl)eace, and during this time Alfred built the firstl,)nglish navy.

Alfred is the only king of England who got thenirme "the Great." And he was really a great king.lIe was very well educated for his time. He had learnedto read and write when he was quite young. He hadl,ravelled on the continent and visited France. He knewl,atin. He is famous not only for having built thef irst navy, but also for having tried to enlighten hispeople. He worked out a code of laws. He translatedthe Church history and parts of the Bibler from Lat-irr into Anglo-Saxon. He started the famous Anglo-Saxon Chroniclez, which is the first history of Eng-land: it begins with the history of the early Britons.'l'he Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was continued by variousrtuthors f.or 25O years after the death of Alfred.

QUESTIONS.l. When did Alfred become king of England?2. Why did Alfred have to fight with the Danes?3. In what year did Alfred win a victory at Maldon?,4. Why did Alfred have to give the Danes a great

portion of the territory of England in spite ofthe fact that he had won a victory over them atMaldon?

5. How did Alfred use the time of peace that fol-Iowed the battle of Maldon?

6. When did Alfred learn to read and write?

tlre Bible [barbl] - Bn6rnst lrc Anglo-Saxon Chronicle ['kronrkl] - <Axr.rro-caxcoHcnue.XpOHLIHII )

65'

wasn't he? What works did he translate froLatin into Anglo-Saxon?

8. What is the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle?

Part 5.England after Alfred the Great's Reign.

The Anglo-Saxon kings that ruled after AlfredGreat, continued fighting the Danes, until allland was once more ruled by English kings. But eighyears after Alfred's death the Danes came again wigreat armies and occupied much of the terriAgain Britain was divided into two parts: theern part ruled by the Danes, and Wessex in the souruled by English kings. The Danes continuedattacks on Wessex and finally occupied the wholethe territory. In 1016, the king of Denmark Canubecame also the king of England.

Canute was a strong monarch and gave Englapeace for nearly twenty years. When he died in 103his two sons ruled England for a short time one athe other. With the death of Canute's second son iLO42, the Danish rule was over. An English kingto the throne. It was Edward the Confessor2. Hethe name of Confessor for being a very religiousThe famous Westminster Abbeys in London was bui Church.

7. Alfred was a very educated man for his

during his reign, and when he died in 1066 heburied in the Abbey.

1 Canute [ke'nju:t] - Kanyr2 Edward ['edwed] the Confessor [ken'fesa] - 9gyapn3 The Westminster Abbey ['westmrnsta'abr] - Becrrrzncrepc

a66arcrso

66

QUESTIONS1. What was the name of the Danish king who be_

came also king of England? When was it?2. How long did Canute rule England?3. When was the Danish rule over?4. Who.became king of England in lO42?5. What kind of man was Edward the Confessor?

What did he build?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words from thelist:

split up, to retreat, Germanic, barbaric, ploughed,,Confessor, Chronicle, Christianity, conuerting, to en-lighten, bred, worship, ditch, speer, prosecuted, fled.,Catholic, Canterbury, shield, Archbiihop.1. Towards the end of the 4th century Europe was

invaded by _ tribes.2. Britain was invaded by tribes called An_

gles, Saxons and Jutes.3. After severe battles with the invaders the Brit_

ons were forced to the west.4. Britain _ into ,"ru., kingdoms.5.

-- *." b"o.rght: to Britain from Rome.

6. The first Christians were fiercely

--

in Rome.7. The new Christian religion was called the

8. Many British Christians to Wales andIreland, where they built

"t.r."t "s and aevotea

themselves to9. Pope Gregory wanted to spread his influence over

E-nSland by_- the people to Christianity.10. The of

-- is head of the Established

67

Church of England.King Alfred the Greatpeople.

and a15. In their villages the Anglo-Saxons

sheep and Pigs.16. The Anglo-Saxons the fields and

wheat, rYe and oats.1?. Westminster AbbeY was built during the reig

HadrianAlfred the GreatEdward the Confessor

of Edward the

UNIT REVIEWWho were these people? What did they do? Writeshort about each of them.

Julius CaesarBoadiceaSuetonius

UNIT TWOMEDIEVAL BRITAIN

William the Conqtlerorl organized his Englishhingdom" accord,ing to the feud.al system whieh had,ulready begun to develop in Europe. The central id,eaof feudal soeiety was that all land, was owned,by thehing but it was held by others, called vassals, inreturn for seruices and, goods. Thc hing gaue largeestates to his main nobles in return for a promise toBerve him in war. The nobles also had to give himpart of the prod,uce of the land. The greater noblesg&ve part of their lands to le-sser nobles, calledhnights, and other freernen. Some freernen paid forlhe Land,by doing military service, while others paid,rent. The noble kept serfs to worh on his land,. Theseeerfs were not free to leaue the estate and were oftenIittle better than slaves.

There were two basic principles to feud.alism: eue-rA nlan had a lord,, and euery Lord had. land and,uassals. At each leuel a man had to promise loyaltyand service to his lord. On the other hand., each lord.had responsibilities to his vassals. He h.ad, to givelhem land and protection.

I William ['rvrljom] theSagoesarear

Conqueror ['k:rqkcrc] - Bu.nrre.nrlr

6968

CHAPTER 4ENGLAND AFTER

At the same time therewirs in England a youngl'iaxon named Haroldr, whowas the son of the Earl2 ofWessex, one of the mostl,owerful English nobles ofthe time, Most Saxon no-bles did not want a Frenchl<ing, and after Edward the(lonfessor's death they pro-claimed Harold King ofl,)ngland.

William gathered a greatnrmy and sailed across thel,)nglish Channel on hun-clreds of ships, Harold'slrmy met him on the Eng-lish coast. There was agreat battle at Hastingss onOctober 14, 1066. Harold'ssoldiers fought bravely, butWilliam's army was strong-er. Harold was killed in thebattle, and with the deathof their leader the Englishunderstood that the battlewas lost.

William marched hisarmy to London. Nobodytried to stop him on the

' Harold ['hrcLcld] - lapo.nr4' Earl [c:l] - rpatp' Hastings ['herstrqz] - factunrc

William of Normandy andKing Edward. The Confessor

THE NORMAN CONQUEST

Part 1. Williamthe Conqueror.

For a hundred andty years after the timeAlfred the Greatwere continuallY fighone another all overland. What the countneeded was a strong kiwho could keeP order.

In France there wasyoung boY named Wliam, who was the sonthe Duke of NormandYThis was the boY who ithe year 1066 came an

conquered England.The Duke Robert2

Normandy, William'sther, was a cousrn o

King Edward the Confessor of England, and wWilliam was 24 years old he came to England to v

his relative.When William saw what a green and pleasant

try England was, he wanted very much to be its kiKing Edward the Confessor liked his youngand promised him the crown.

I Normandy ['nc:mandt] - Hopruan4rns2 Robert ['rcbet] - Po6ePt

70

William the Conqueror

The battle at Hastings

way, and when he aPProached London, he found thgates of the city oPen. Hwas met by the Saxon bishops and nobles. TheY knthat they could not stoWilliam, so they askedto be the King of Englawithout any more fighting

So a Normanr dukecame King of England. Hwas crowned in WestmiAbbey on Christmas day, t25rh of December, 1066.

To protect himself fpossible attacks of theons, William orderedbuild a strong tower onleft bank of the ThamThis tower still stands. Itcalled the White Towercause it is built of whistone. Later other buildiwere added and the whoplace was surrounded bY

stone wall to form a strofortress which we knowas the Tower of London.

William the Conquetook lands from Saxonbles and gave them toNorman barons who beca

rrew masters of the land.Wiliiam and his barons, aswell as all the other Nor-nrans who had come withlrim, did not know the An-glo-Saxon language and didrrot want to learn it. Andl'or a very long time twolanguages were spoken in ther:ountry. Norman-French wasthe official language of ther:ourt, law and governmentrdministration. CommonSaxon people and the fewSaxon nobles who remainednlive spoke Anglo-Saxon.

There were many peoplein England who did notwant to be ruled by a Nor-rnan,.king, and in manyparts of the country therewere rebellions. But withthe strong army of his bar-ons and knights, Williamcruelly put down all the re-bellions. Lots of people werekilled, villages and townswere completely destroyed.

William sent groups ofrnen all over the country tonrake lists of all the popu-lation together with the in-formation of how much landevery family had and how

Bilding the Tower of London

Making the Domesday book

73

The death of Harold

The English crownoffered to William

72

t Norman ['no:mcn] - HoPMaITAcK

much cattle and what other property they hadtheir land. All this information was put into a

which was called the Domesday Booh'. By meansthe Domesday Booh, William's government knexactly where everyone lived and how much propethey owned. Thus, for the first time in the history o

England, it was made possible to collect,the rigtaxes for the king.

QUESTIONS1. Why was it necessary for England to have a

king?IlIrrH' r

2. Whose son was William? Where did he live as

boy? How was his father related to the Engliking Edward the Confessor?

3. When did William see England for the first timeWhy did Edward the Confessor promise Williathe crown?

4. Who was Harold? Why was he proclaimed Kiof England after Edward the Confessor's dea

5. When did the battle of Hastings take place?did it end?

6. Was William's march to London difficult? Wh7. Why did the Saxon nobles and bishops in Lond

ask William to be King of England? Whatwas William crowned in? When was it?

8. What fortress did William build on the bankthe Thames to protect himself? Why was it callthe White Tower?

9. Why did William take lands from Saxon nobles10. How did it happen that for a long time two Ia

guages were spoken in the country? Who s

Norman-French? Who spoke Anglo-Saxon?

I the Dontesdag Booh ['du:mzder.buk] - Seue.nbxas orlr{cb

74

11. There were rebellions against William's rule. Howdid he put down the rebellions?

12. What isthe Domesday Book? HowdidWilliammakeit? What did he make the Domesday Booh forT

Parl2.English Kings of the 11th and 12th Genturies.

After William the Conqueror's death in 1087, threenrore kings of the Norman dynasty ruled England:his two sons, William II (1087 ,1100) and Henry Ir(1100-1135), and his grandson, the son of his daugh-ter, Stephenz (1135-II54). After Stephen's death, theEnglish throne passed to the Plantagenets dynasty.

William lhe Conqueror's son Henry I had a daugh-ter, Matildaa, who was married to the French countof Anjous, Geoffreyo Plantagenet. Their son HenryPlantagenet was made King of England afterStephen's death in 1154.

Richard I the Lion-Heart (Richard Coeur de Lion)z(1189-1199) was the second king of the Plantagenetdynasty. He was famous for his good education (heknew Latin and was fond of music and poetry) andcourage. His contemporaries described him as a manof excellent manners, kind to his friends and crueland merciless to his enemids. Richard was seldomseen in England, spending most of his time taking

Henry I ['henrr 6e fe:st] - lenplrx IStephen [sti:vn] - CrusenPlantagenet Iplzen'ted3rnrt] - flaanrarerrerMatilda [mc'trlde] - Maru.nr4aAnjou [o:q'3u:] - AnrxyGeoffrey ['d3cfir] - Axeclr$puRichard I IrrtJcd do'tc:st] the Lion-Heart ['laren'ho:t] (RichardCoeur de Lion ['ko:de'larcn]) - Puvap4 I JlrsuHoe Cep4qe

75

I

',J

il

I

rl

tl

QUESTIONS1. Who were the three kings of the Norman dynasty

who ruled England after William's death? Whendid they rule?

2. What dynasty came to the English throne afterStephen's death? How was Henry Plantagenetrelated to William the Conqueror?

3. When did Richard I the Lion-Heart rule England?What was he famous for? How did his contempo-raries describe him?

4. Richard did not have much time for ruling Eng-land, did he? Where did he spend most of histime?

5. What did Richard's brother Prince John try todo in Richard's absence? Why was the life ofcommon people hard?

6. How did Richard the Lion-Heart die?7. What fact caused constant wars between Eng-

Iand and France?8. How do you explain the fact that great territo-

ries of France belonged to England?9. What caused an open rebellion of barons against

King John in 1215?10. What important document was the king made to

sign in l2l5? Why was the document very im-portant?

Part 3. Education. The First Universities.

Before the 12th century most people were illiter-nte. Reading and writing skills were not consideredlnrportant or necessary. Monasteries were centres ofeducation, and priests and monks were most educat-ed people.

77

part in crusadesr inestine2. At home theons, in the king'sstrengthened theirand acted like little kiPrince John3, the kingbrother, with the helpthe barons, tried tothe English throne. Comon people wereoppressed.

Richard the Lion-was killed in one ofbattles in France, andEnglish throne passedhis brother John.

At that time great territories in France beloto England. Naturally, the French kings anddid not like it and wanted to win back these lands,the English and the French waged continuous win France. King John wanted a lot of money to wthese wars. He made the barons give him thatey, and the barons did not like it. There wasstruggle for power between the king and the ba

Finally the barons organized an open rebellion.t2l5 the king was made to sign a document calthe Great Chartef (Magna Carta in Latin). For tfirst time in the history of England, the Great Ch

ter officially stated certain rights and liberties of'people, which the king had to respect.

I crusades [kru'scrdz] - KpecroBLle noxoAbr2 Palestine ['prchstaln] - fla.necrnna:' John [dgon] Axont the Gieit bhqrter ['tjo:to] - Be,urxas xaprlils sorsgocrefi

76

Henry ll's empire

One of thd oldest collegesin Oxford

But with the develment of such sciencesmedicine and law,ganizations of genestudy called universiappeared in Italy aFrance. A gniversihad four faculties:ologyl (the study ofligion), Canon La(church laws), Mediciand Art, which incled Latin grammar, roric3 (the art of makispeeches), Iogic, arimetic, geometry,tronomy and music.

In the middle of12th century a groupprofessors from Fracame to Britain afounded schools in ttown of Oxforda in 11lt was the beginningthe first English unisity. A second unity was formed in 1209

Theology [0 r'rlcd3r]TeoJTorr{fl ( 6oroc,roerae)Canon Law ['keencn,l:r:]IIepKoBHOe IIpaBOrhetoric ['rctarrk] - 1

TOpr.rKaOxford ['cksfcd] -

Cnrnbridgel. Towardstlrc end of the 13th cen-trrry colleges appearedground the universities,where other subjectswcre studied.

Getting an educationhr those times was verydifficult. Printing hadnot yet been invented,nrrd all the books werehand-written. That'swhy books were rare andvcry expensive. Only therichest people could af-ford buying books. If a man had twenty or thirtybooks, people said that he had a great library. Spe-cial rules existed for handling books. You were notto touch books with dirty hands or put them on thetuble at meal times. In almost any monastery youcould find one or two or more monks spending hoursevery day copying books.

Printing was invented in the middle of the 15thcentury in Germany2, by Johann Gutenberg!. To Eng-lund it was brought by William Caxtona.

In his early youth Caxton was an apprentice to acompany of London merchants. Later he lived in Flan-rlerss where he worked as a hand-copier of books fort,lie royal family. He was a learned man and did trans-

' Cambridge ['kcrmbrrd3] - Kervr6pu4xc' Gerrnany ['d3c:rncnr] -fepvrauua' Johann Gutenberg [JoLrhcn'gutanbc:g] - }{orann fyren6eprI William Caxton ['wrljcur'kiekstcn] - Vu;rrsru Itaxcron' Flanders ['flrrndoz] -

(D,ran4pua 79

William Caxton

A monk copying a book

lations from FrenchEnglish. When heon business in Germahe learned the artprinting. In 1476, wCaxton returned toIand, he set up the fiEnglish printing-in London. Two ylater, a second printipress was set up inford. During the nfifteen years Caxtprinted sixty-five worboth translations a

originals.

QU ESTIONS1. Were there many educated people in England

fore the 12th century? Who were the mostcated people?

2. Where did universities first appear in EWhich four faculties did a medieval univehave? What subjects were studied in each

ulty?3.

4.

flow was Oxford University founded? Whenit? When was Cambridge University opened?It was difficult to get an education in those tiwasn't it? Why were books rare and very exsive? How many books did your library havecontain so that people might say that you hgreat library?

I printing-press - tnuorPatPua

80

Which were some of the rules for handling books?Wouldn't it be advisable to observe these rulesnowadays?When was printing invented? Who invented it?Who brought the art of printing to Britain?When did Caxton set up the first printing-pressin London? Where and when was the second print-ing-press set up? How many books did Caxtonprint during the next fifteen years?

Part 4. A Medieval Town

Medieval towns were surrounded with walls. It wasdone to defend the town from possible attacks of en-emies. Along the whole length of the wall there weretowers with loopholes - very narrow windows -through which the defenders of the town could shootat the attacking enemies. Round many towns therewere moats filled with water. You entered the townby the drawbridge over the moat and through a widearchway with very strong gates which were closedevery night.

Outside the walls there were meadows where cattlegrazed and where the citizens spent holidays, run-ning races, playing sport games or just walking about.

The houses in medieval towns were built of stoneor wood, some of them partly of stone, partly of wood.The second floor overhung the first floor. The streetswere very narrow, so the windows of the overhang-ing second floors of the houses standing on the oppo-site sides of the street were very close to each other.The narrow streets were very dirty, covered with mud,mixed with all sort of rubbish. People who kept pigsor horses or cows threw all the wastes from the pig-

81

5.

6.

.ft.

sties, stables and cow-houses into the street.streets were never cleaned. The wastes often got inthe wells from which the townspeople got their drining water. There is no wonder that epidemicsvery frequent.

On market days farmers living in nearby villcame to the town to sell cheese, butter, eggp and oter things. Some of them came with their wives

children. The shopsno glass windows.rything was open tostreet. Across the fof each shop there wascounter with things fsale. The shopkeestood behind the counOn market days the ciizens and the farrnewho came to thewere fond of watchiplays performed bydering actors. They ually acted scenes frothe Bible.

Many people livingthe towns were engain craftsmanship.developed differencraf ts. In medievtowns there were cob

Houses with the second flooroverhanging the first

82

blers, tailors, blacsmiths, goldsmithbutchers, bakers and

Specialists of different trades (or professions) wererrnited into corresponding trade guilds, which were akind of professional associations or clubs. Membersof a guild obeyed the rules of the guild. One of therules was to sell the things they made at a fixed price.Nobody was allowed to sell his things cheaper thanunother member of the guild, for this would increasehis trade and spoil the other men's. Today every traderLries to sell cheaper than others to increase his busi-rress. It is called competition. There was no competi-tion in the medieval towns. The guilds took care oftheir members. When members fell ill and lost theirtrade, they received help. If they died, the guild paidlor the funeral, supported the widow and educatedthe children.

QUESTIONS1. Why were medieval towns surrounded with walls

and moats?2. What were loopholes? What were they used for?

Do you understand why they were made verynarrow?

3. How did you enter a medieval town?4. People living in medieval towns kept cattle, didn't

they? Where did the cattle graze?5. What did the citizens do in the meadows outside

the walls of the town on holidays?6. Were the houses built of stone or wood? Can you

explain why the floor spacer of the second floorof a house was larger than that of the first floor?

7. How did the streets of a medieval town look?Why were they so dirty?

Iot of other specialis I floor space - rrJrorr{aAb

8j

Of course there was no water supply in theWhere did the citizens get water? Why weredemics frequent?

9. Who came to the town on market days? Wfor?

10. How did the shops look?11. What entertainment was organized o mar

days?12. What were most people living in the

gaged in? What craftsmen could youmedieval town?

13. What are trade guilds?14. How did the guiids take care of their

7. Richard the Lion-Heart was the secoirdthe dynasty.Richard the Lion-Heart spent most oftaking part in in Palestine.In the king's uf,",iln"" P"ince John triedthe English throne.

10. In 1215 the king was made to sign a documentcalledIn the Middle Ages monasteries were centres of

The art of printing was brought to England byWilliamA *"diuvul .*i.,r"rsity had four faculties: ,

, and_Round rnany medieval towns there werefilled with water.

king of

his time8.

o

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words andeombinations from the list:

guilds, cru,sades, education, Art, proclaimed,doutn, Plantagenet, Canon Law, Hastings, d.rawbrTheologA, Magna Carta, crowned., Court, wells, rnoaDomesday, to seize, Med.icine, Caxton.1. After Edward the Confessor's death Saxon

Harold King of England..

15. You entered a medieval town by the overthe moat.The wastes often got into the __ from whichpeople got drinking water.Specialists of different trades were united intocorrespoldipg

CHAPTER 'WARS ABRoAD AND AT HoME

townsmeet in

members

on Oc

in Westmi

all thePart 1. England in 14th century.

11.

t2.

13.

14.

16.

t7.

2. There was a great battle at14, 1066.

3. William the Conqueror wasster Abbey.

4. William the Conquerdr cruellybellions.

5.. The Book contained informationeverybody's property.

6. Norman-French was the official language of

By the t4th century the process of centralizationof- the king'g power was completing. The same meth-ods of government were applied to all parts of Eng-Iand. The old contradictiohs between the Normansand Saxons were gradually disappearing.

the

8584

The Norman kings made London their resideIt became the largest town in England. The Londialect of the English language became the centrdialect and was understood throughout the counIt was the London dialect from which the natioIanguage developed.

Other towns were also growing. The townspeopthat is the craftsmen and tradesmen, who later fthe class of bourgeoisie, were becoming an imporsocial force. They became rich by trading withders (a country across the English Channel thatnow called Belgiumr). The English traders shiwool to Flanders, where it was sold as raw materiaFlanders had busy towns, and the weavers who liand worked there, produced the finest cloth. FleishB ports were the world market of northernand commercial rivals of England. Flemish weavewere even invited to England to teach the Engltheir trade.

QUESTIONS.1. What town became the largest and most im

tant one in the 14tr'century?2. What dialect did the national language of

Iand develop from?3. What class was growing and becoming an im

tant social force?4. How did craftsmen and traders become rich?5. How did the English develop their relations wi

Flanders?

Belgium ['bcld3cm] - Eelrrrasraw material ['n: mo'trcrtc[] - crrprt!Flemish ['llcrnrJ] - O;rarvranAcxufi

86

Part 2. The Hundred Years' War.

In the first half of the 14th century the king ofllngland was Edward III. He was a powerful king,nnd he wanted to become King of France as well,because some of the French provinces, such as Nor-rnandy, had once belonged to England and others hadbeen the property of Edward's mother, a French prin-cess. Meanwhile the feudal lords in France were mak-ing plans to seize the free towns of Flanders. Forlingland it would mean losing its wool market. Say-ing that he wished to defend English trade, EdwardIII declared waf on France in 1337. This war is nowcalled the HundredYears'Wer because it lasted overn hundred years.

The Hundred Years'War

87

the French army did not have. Besides, the Eng

archers could shoot their arrows from a distance, w

as the French knights, armed with swords, could

fight in hand-to-hand combatsl. When the thunder

the first cannons had scared the horses of the enen

the arrows of the English archers reached the

knights before they could use their broad swords'

QUESTIONS1. What did Edward III want? On what grounds

he claim2 French territories?

At first England was successful in the war' The

Iish fleet defeated the French fleet in the English (

nel. Then the English also won battles on land'

When did Edward III declare war on France?

did he exPlain his reason?

4. Was England successfut in the war? What

English had certain advantages over the French' 1

hal cannons, which had just been invented and w

What plans were the feudal Iords of France r

ing? How did their plans threaten England?

Part 3. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 .

The ruin of France and the famine that followedcaused an epidemic of the plague. It was so infec-tious that there was no escape from it. People diedwithin twenty-four hours. From France the epidemicwas brought over to England. The English soldierscalled rt the Blaeh Death. By the year 1348 one-thirdof England's population had perished.

The position of the peasants was very hard. Theyhad to give part of their harvest to the lord. Theyalso had to work on the lord's fields regularly. Afterthe epidemic of the Black Death, when the popula-tion of England had diminished by one-third, therewere not enough labourers to work on the lords' fields.So the surviving peasants were made to work on thelords' fields lnuch more. They were paid for theirwork, but the payment was very little.

As years went by, the French feudals united againsttheir enemy, and the English were beginning to losetheir advantage. As the king needed money for thewar, Parliament voted for extra taxesl, which madethe life of peasants stiil harder. In 1381 the peasantsrevolted. Sixty thousand people from the counties ofEssex and Kent marched to London led by Wat Tyler2and Jack Straws. In London they broke open the pris-ons, destroyed many buildings and killed many royalofficials. They came to the royal palace and demand-ed to see the king. The king of England Richard IIwas then a l4-year-old boy. He boldly appeared be-

I voted for extra taxes - rporoJrocoBaJr sa AonoJIHIlTeJrbHbreHAJIOFLIt Wat Tyler ['wct'tarle] - Vor Tafi.rrep

" Jack Straw ['d3rck'str.'r:] - ,(mer Crpo89

2.

3.

the advantages of the English army overFrench armY?

I hand-to-hand combats ['kcmbcts] - pynouarrrrrble cxBarx2 On what grounds did he claim - Ha raxou ocHoBaHI4lI

[peTeHAoBaJI Ha

88

The murder of Wat TYler

fore the crowd of rebels, listened to them and pro

ised to fulfil their demands. But the king didkeep his promise. Wat Tyler rffas treacherously mu

dered and the rebellion was suppressed.

QUESTION S

1. What epidemic broke out in France? Why di

the English soldiers call it the Black Death? Wthe epidemic brought over to England? How diit affect the population in England?

2. Why was the position of the peasants hard? Iwhat way did the epidemic of the plague

this position still harder?3. Why did Parliament vote for extra taxes?

4. When did the peasants' revolt start? How man

people joined the revolt? Who headed the revolt5. What town did the rebels march to? What di

they do in London? Whom did they want to see

6. Who was King of England at that time? Didlisten to the rebels? What did he promise them

90

7. Did the king fulfil his promise? How did the peas-ants' revolt end?

Part 4. The War of the Roses.The Hundred Years' War, in which England lost

practically all its lands in France, ended in 1453, butthere was no peace in the country. Long before thecnd of this war, a feudal struggle had broken outbetween the descendants of Edward III.

When the Magna Carta was signed in 1215, theNorman barons were united with the Saxon noblesund the growing bourgeoisie of the big towns, andthey took part in governing the country. During theflundred Years' War some of the barons, who wereprofessional soldiers, built castles with high wallsand kept private armies of thousands of men. Theywished to lead their armies over to France to seizelands there. These big barons formed a small groupof their own. They thought more about their "familypolitics" than about national politics and were a realthreat to the king's power. Realizing the danger whichthese big barons represented to the Crown, EdwardIII tried to marry his sons to their daughters, theheiresses of these Houses. Thus representatives ofthe royal family became relatives of many big bar-ons. But that did not help to strengthen the positionof the House of Plantagenets. During the reign ofRichard ll (L377-1399), the last king of the Planta-genet dynasty, Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancas-terl, seized the crown and became the first king ofthe Lancaster dynasty, Henry IV (1399-1413).

Henry Bolingbroke ['henrr'b:rlrrlbluk], Duke of Lancaster ['lrr1-ksstc] - fenpux Boaunr6poK, tep4or JfaHxacrepcrcrafi

91

llrc llottEe of Yorkr. The feudal struggle grew intoopon wR1' ltotwrxltt the Lancastrians2 and the York'lilre htrttlttsters had a red rose in their coat of a:

tlre Yorkists had a white rose. That's why the wartween them got the name of theWar of the Rbses"l

war, which lasted for thirty years (1455-1485)' tuinto a bitter struggle for the Crown, in which

lty Ilte bl5 ltnr.orra rrollklotl with the interests of the

el hnt'ottl ntttl tttet'clttrttts of the towns, who supp(

party murdered every likely heir to the throne ofopposite party. It was a dark time for England, a 1

'l'lre ltttet'ort-E of lltn llottsei of Lancaster su

Bosworth ['brz.we0] - BocYoPtHenry Tudor ['tju:dc], Earl of Richmond - lenpux T

rpa$ Pttvtvlon4Elizabeth Ir'lrzoba0] - Eazsaseta

SUESTTONS1. Why were the big barons a threat to the king's

power? How did King Edward III try to neutral-ize this threat?

2. Who was the last king of the Plantagenet dy-nasty? Who seized the crown during his reign?

3. The House of Lancaster was supported by the bigbarons. Whom did the lesser barons and the mer-chants of the towns support?

4. Why did the war between the Lancastrians andthe Yorkists get the name of the War of theRoses? When did the War of the Roses begin?How long did it last?

5. Who was proclaimed King of England when theWar of the Roses ended?

6. Whom did Henry Tudor marry? Why did thismarriage have a great political importance?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

feudal, reuolted, haruest, plague, merchants, Bos-worth, Iesser, social, eombats, descendants, Lancas-ter, collided, conl.nlon, heir, Plantagenet, taxes, uoted,declared war,threat.1. In the towns the craftsmen and tradesmen were

becoming an important force.2. The peasants had to give part of their

to the lord.In 1337 Edward III on France.The ruin of France and the famine caused an epi-demic of theThe French knights, armed with swords, couldonly fight in hand-to-hand

91

The War of the Roses ended with the battleBoswortha in 1485. King Richard III of the House

York was killed in the battle, and, right in the fie

of anarchy, when the kings and nobles were busy figing and murdering each other and had no time tocare of the common people, who suffered greatly'

Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond6, was proclaimed

of England. The war was over at last, and every

sighed with relief.Henry Tudor was head of the House of Lan

A year later, in 1486, he married the Yorkist

York [o:k] - froPrcLancaJtrians [, laeq'kas trr cnz] - cropoHltrrKl4 Aoua JlanxYorkists I jr;krsts] - cropoHHI4KlI AoMa I4oprcoe

coat of arms - reP6

Princess ElizabethT of York. This marriage was

great political importance. It meant the union of tlred rose of the House of Lancaster with the whirose of the House of York.

I

il

I

B

92

UNIT THREEABSOLUTE MONARCHY

During the Tudor period", from 1485 till 1603,Ungland.'s foreign policy chqnged seueral tirnes.

enry VII was careful to remain friend,ly with neigh-bouring coun:tries. His son Henry VIII was more

', gmbitious, hoping to play an important part in Euro-pean politics. He was unsuccessful. Mary aWied, Eng-land to Spain by her m.arriage. Elizabeth and her ad-Itisers consid,ered, trad,e the most important foreignpolicy ntatter, as Henry VII had done. For them a

ry whiclt" was England's greatest trad,e riual wasits greatest enerny. This idea remained" the basis

England's foreign policy until the 79th century.

CHAPTER 6THE NEW MONARCHY

Part 1. Henry Vll.

Henry VII is less known than either Henry VIII or

had the same ideas and opinions as the growing classesof merchants and gentryl, and he based royal power

good relations with these classes.Henry VII firmly believed that business was good

for the state. Only a year after he became king, hernade an important trade agreement with the Nether-landsz, which allowed English trade to grow. Henry

I gentry ['d3entrr] - Me,rrrconoMecrHoe ABoI]flHcrBos Netherlands ['ne6olcndz] - Hr4epJrauAbr

izabeth I. But he was far more important in estab-ishing the new monarchy than either of them. He

95

6. The king needed money for the war, and Parl

ment for extra7. ln 1381 the oPPressed Peasants

against the lords.8. AJter the death of Edward

struggle broke out between

The big barons were a realpower.h,ichard II was the last king of the

'dynasty'

with the interests of the

to the ki

III ahis

9.

10.

11.

U----u-"*"al ___,_ of the towns who

ported the House of York'buring the War of the Roses each party

dered "n"tY likelY to the throne of

opposite PartY.14. Th; king and the nobles had no time to take

of the PeoPle'

in 1485.

UNIT REVIEWWho were these people? What did they do? Wrishort about each of them'

Witliam the Conqueror'Richard the Lion-HeartEdward III

ln fggg Henry Bolingbroke, Duke of Lancas

seized the crown and became the first king ofdYnastY.

12. The interests of the House of Lancas'

13.

15. The War of the Roses ended with the battle

William CaxtonWat Tyler

94

understood that Englfuture wealth wouldpend on internatiotrade. And he built afleet of merchant shiHe also believed thatruined a countty'sffiy, and so he avoiquarrels either withland in the northFrance in the south.

Henry was fortMany of the old nobilhad died or been dein the recent wars,their lands had gone to 1

king. This meant that Henry had more money tearlier kings. In order to strengthen his power'forbade anyone, except himself, to keep armed

Henry's aim was to make the Crown financindependent, and the lands and the fines he tookthe old nobility helped him do this. Of course ithim unpopular with the old nobility, but he keptfriendship of the merchant and gentry classes'

him they wanted peace and prosperity. He crea

new nobility from among them, and men unkbefore now became Henry's statesmen. But theyknew that their rise to importance was compldependent on the Crown.

QU ESTION S

1. Henry VII established a new type of mona

didn't he? What did he base royal power on? Wprinciple did he believe in? What did he

96

King Henry Vll

2. Why was the trade agreement with the Nether-lands important for England?

3. Why did Henry VII build a huge fleet of mer-chant ships?

4. Why did Henry VII have much5. What measure did Henry VII

money?take in order to

strengthen his power?6. What made Henry VII unpopular with the old

nobility?7. Why did Henry VII keep the friendship of the

merchant and gentry classes?

Part 2. Henry Vlll.

Henry VIII was quite unlike his father. He wascruel and wasteful with money. He spent so rnuch onmaintaining a rich court and on wars, that his fa-ther's carefully saved money was soon gone.

Henry VIII wanted to have an important influenceon European politics. But much had happened inEurope since England had lost its lands in France inthe Hundred Years' War. France was now more pow-erful than England. Spain was even more powerful,because it was united with the Holy Roman Empirer(which included much of central Europe). Henry VIIItried to ally himself with Spain against France, thenhe changed sides. When friendship with France didnot bring him anything, Henry started talking againto Charles V2 of Spain.

Problems with the Catholic Church. Henry dislikedthe power of the Church in England: it was an inter-

the Holy ['houlr] Rotnan Empire - Caaulennas Plrvrcraar{MIIeprrflCharles V ['tJo:lz dc'tit0] - Kap;roc V

97

King Henry Vlll

national organization, so he counot completely control it. Thpower of the Catholic ChurchEngland could work against Henry's authority. Besides, Hehad another reason for oPPosinto the authority of the"Church.

In 1510 Henry had maCatherine of Aragonl. But b1526 she had still not had a

who could be the heir tothrone after Henry's death. Hen'r"i; asked the Pope to allow hitc divorce Catherine. But thPope was controlled bY CharV, who was HoIy Roman Emor and king of Spain, and a

Catherine's nephew. For bopolitical and family reasonswanted Henry to stay marrieclCatherine. The Pope did not wito anger Charles V, and he forbade Henry's divorce.

Henry was extremely angryHe persuaded the English bishops to break away from the Catholic Church and establish a

Church in England, the head owhich would be the English monarch. In 1531 the Church of England was established in the coun

I Catherine ['kaeOr'rn] of Aragon ['rcgcrr] - Eriarepuna Aparoncrcaa

try, and this became law after Parliament passed fbeAct of SupremacAt in 1534. Now Henry was free to<livorce Catherine and marry his new love, Anne Bo-leynz. He hoped Anne would give him a son to followhim on the throne.

The Reformation. Henry's break with Rome waspurely political. He simply wanted to control theChurch and to keep its wealth in his own kingdom.He did not approve of the new ideas of ReformationProtestantism3 introduced by Martin Luthera in Ger-rnany and John Calvins in Geneva6. He still believedin the Catholic faith. But when he broke with Rome,lre wanted to make the break legal. Between L532nnd 1536 Parliament passed several Acts, by whichEngland officially became a Protestant country, eventhough the popular religion was still Catholic.

QUESTIONS1. In what ways was Henry VIII unlike his father?

Why did he soon spend all the money saved byhis father?

2. Which European countries were more powerfulthan England? How did Henry try to influenceEuropean politics?

3. Why did Henry VIII dislike the power of theChurch?

4. Why did Henry want to divorce his first wifeCatherine of Aragon? Why did the Pope forbid

I the Act of Supremacy [s.ju'prcrnesr] - Sarcon o rJraBeHcrBeanrar.ritcnoro Kopo,afi HaA rlepxoBbroI Anna Boleyn ['acn'bulrn] - Anna Bo.reftn

' Reformation Plotestantism - Pedropvraqllonr{oe [porecranTcrBo' Martin Luther ['rno:trn'lu:0c] - Maprun Jlrotep' John Calvin ['d3on'krh'rn] - ]Itau Karssnn" Geneva [d3r'ni:vc] - ]Itenesa

99

Catherine of Aragon

Anne BoleYn

him to divorce his wife? How did Henry get outof the difficulty? When was the Church of England established?

5. Whom did Henry VIII marry after the divorctwith Catherine of Aragon? ':

6. Was Henry VIII really a Protestant? Who hatintroduced the ideas of Reformation Pr6testantism? Did Henry approve of the new ideas? ,i

7. When did England officially become a Protestanicountry? rr

;t

Part 3. The Protestant-Catholic Struggle. ,r

Henry died in !547,leaving three children. tvta"ythe eldest, was the daughter of Catherine of Arago$Elizabeth was the daughter of his second wife, An41Boleyn, whom he had executed because she was unfaithful. Nine-year-old Edward was the son of JaniSeymourl, the only wife whom Henry had really iovd,lbut who had died giving birth to his only son. rl

Edward VI, Henry VIII's son, was only a child of Iyears old when he became king, so the country wairuled by a council. All the members of the counciwere representatives of the new nobility created b;the Tudors. They were keen Protestant Reformet'tbecause they had benefited from the sale of monaqtery lands. Indeed, all the new landowners knew thrithey could only be sure of keeping their new lands fithey made England truly Protestant. i

Most English people still believed in the old Careligion. Less than half the English were Protestantbelief, but these people controlled religious matters.1552 a new prayer book was introduced to makeI Jane Seymour ['d3etn'si:rno:] - .(xcefiu Ceiirvryp

100

tholirrnt b1

rrs. Ir) sun

that all churches followed thenew Protestant religion.

Mary. Mary, the Catholicdaughter of Catherine of Ara-gon, became queen when Ed-ward, aged sixteen, died in1553. Mary was unwise andmade mistakes in her policy.For political, religious and fam-ily reasons, she married KingPhilip of Spain. It was a baclchoice. The English people dis-liked the marriage. They wereafraid that this marriage wouldplace England under foreigncontrol. Parliament agreed toMary;s marriage unwillinglyand made a condition thatPhilip would be regarded asKing of England only duringMary's lifetime.

Mary's marriage to Phililr King Edward Vtwas the first mistake of her.unfortu*ate reign. Then she btgaii burning protes_tants. Three hundred people died in this way duringher five-year reign. For these mass executions shewas called Bloody Mary.

QUESTIONS1. How many children did Henry VIII leave after

his death? Who were they?2. How old was Edward VI when he became King of

England? Did he rule the country himself?3. Whom did Mary marry? Why did the English

101

Jane Seymour

people dislike this marriage? What were tuftuia of? On what condition did Parliament ag

4to the marriage?What was Mary's second mistake? Why was

called Bloody MarY?

Part 4. Elizabeth l.

When she became q.u

in 1558, Elizabeth I wanto find a Peaceful answerthe problems of the EngliReformation. She wantedbring together againparts of English socie(Catholic and Protestanwhich were in disagreeAnd she wanted to make

Iand prosperous. As a resulthe Protestantism in En

remained closer to the Catholic religion than to

Protestant groups. But Elizabeth made sure that

church was still under her authority, unlike politi<

dangerous forms of Protestantism in Europe' In a w

she Lade the Church "part of the state machine"'

The parisht, the area served by one church' usue

Iy the .u*" size as a village, became the unit of sta

administration2. People had to go to church on Su

days by law and they were fined if they stayed awa

Elizabeth also introduced a book of sermons3 to

used in church. 'Besides containing texts of the

I parish, lhe .ni n - aAMlturlcrparrrBHafl.eAnH1, a book - c6oprurH nPouoeegeir

102

Queen Elizabeth I

rrlons based on the Bible, thisbook also taught the peoplethat rebellion against the(lrown was a sin against God.

Mary, the Queen of Scots.'l'he struggle between Catholicsund Protestants continued tocndanger Elizabeth's positionl'or the next thirty years. Therewas a special danger from those(latholic nobles in England whowished to remove Elizabeth and replace her with the(lueen of Scotland, who was a Catholic.

Mary, the Scottish queen, usually called Queen ofScofs, was the heir to the English throne because shewas Elizabeth's closest living relative, as Elizabethhad no children. Mary quarrelled with some of hernobles and had to escape to England, where Elizabethkept her as a prisoner for almost twenty years. Dur-ing that time Elizabeth discovered several secret Cath-olic plots aimed at making Mary queen of England.Finally Elizabeth agreed to Mary's execution in 1587.

Many people approved of Mary's execution. TheCatholic plots and the dangers of a foreign Catholicinvasion had changed people's feelings. By 1585 mostIinglish people believed that to be a Catholic was tobe an enemy of England. This hatred of everythingCatholic became an important political force.

QUESTIONS1. When did Elizabeth I become Queen of England?

How did she want to settle the problem of disa-greement between the Catholics and Protestants?What was the result of her efforts?

10)

2. How did Elizabeth ensure that the Church ofland was "pdrt of the state machine"? What ipaiish? How did Elizabeth make the parish a u

of .tut" administration? How were people

ished if they did not go to church on Sunday?

3. Whatchurc

4. What5. Why was Mary the Queen of Scots the heir to

English throne?6. WhV did Mary come to England? Why did Eli

beth keep her a Prisoner??. Why-did Elizabeth finally agree to Mary's exec

tion?8. Why did many people in England approve

Mary's execution?

CHAPTER. REVIEWFill in the blanks with the conect words f,rom

list:HoIy, rnerehant, nobtlity, gentry, plots, serrno

end.an-gered', rebellion, agreernent, forbade, est

lished., sin, political, Reformation, parish, machi

influence.1. Henry VII had the same ideas as the merc

and2. Henry VII made an important trade

with the Netherlands.3. In order to strengthen his power' Henry

anyone' excePt himself, to karmed men.

4. Henry VII created new from a

merchants and gentrY.5. Henry VII built a huge fleet of

104

shi

6. Henry VIII wanted to have an importanton European politics.

7. Spain was a very powerful country because it wasunited with the Roman Empire.

8. Henry VIII's break with Rome was purely

9. In 1531 the Church of England wasin the country.

10. Elizabeth I wanted to find alreaceful answer tothe problems of the English

11. Elizabeth I made the Church part of the state

12. The became the unit of state admin-istration.

13. Elizabeth introduced a book ofused in church.

to be

14. The Church taught theagainst the Crown was a

people thatagainst God.

15. The struggle between Catholics and ProtestantsElizabeth's position.

16. Elizabeth discovered several secietaimed at making Mary Stuart queen of England.

cAr N r N G p ofr?ff lt^irl EXpAN D r N G

Part 1. The New Foreign Policy.

Elizabeth continued Henry VII's work and encour-uged foreign trade. She considered Spain her maintrade rival and enemy. Spain at that time ruled theNetherlands, where many people were Protestant andwere fighting for their independence from.CatholicSpanish rule. To reach the Netherlands from Spain

105

by sea, Spanish soldiersto sail through the EnglChannel. Elizabeth helthe Dutchl Protestantsallowing their shiPs toEnglish harbours frowhich theY could attSpanish shiPs, often withe help of the EngliWhen the Dutch rebelsthe city of AntwerP21585, Elizabeth helPedwith moneY and soldiers.

war on SPain.attacking SPanca loaded with

ver and gold. Aithough these tr)nglish ships belor

to privale people, the treasure was shared withq.rJ"t. These seamen were traderd as well as pirattand adventurers. The most famous of them were Joh

Hawhinss, Francts Drahea andWalter Raleighl'-- itt" Spanish king Philip decided that he had

conquer England if he wanted to defeat the Du

".beis in the Netherlands. He hoped that enough Ca

olics in England would be willing to help him' Hbuilt u g""ut fleet of ships, an Armada6' But in 15-8

Francis Drake attacked and destroyed part of

fleet in Cadiz7 harbour.

I Dutch td,trll - roJrJralrAcxlre2 AntwerP ['irntiva eHs John ffawtins [' Axou Xorlrnct f,.u""i" Drake i @paxcnc APeftx

' walter Raleigh vo.nrep Ponz6 Armada [o:'rno:dc] - APvra,4ar Cadiz [ke'drz] - KaAIac

106

Walter Raleigh

Philip started again and built a new Armada, astill larger fleet. But most of the ships were designedto carry soldiers, and the few fighting ships were notas good as the English ones. English ships were long.er and narrower, so they were faster, and besides,their guns could shoot further than the Spanish ones.

The Spanish Armada was defeated more by badweather than by English guns. Some Spanish shipswere sunk, but most were blown northwards by thewind, and many of them were wrecked on the rockycoasts of Scotland and lreland. For England it was aglorious moment.

A Trading Empire. Elizabeth encouraged Englishtraders to settle abroad and create colonies. This pol-icy led directly to Bri.tain's colonial empire of the17th and 18th centuries.

The first English eolonists sailed to America to-wards the end of the century. One of the best knownwas Sir Walter Raleigh, who brought tobacco back toEngland. England also began selling West Africarislaves for the Spanish in America. By 1650 slaveryhad become an important trade. Only at the end ofthe 18th century this shameful trade ended.

The second half of the 16th century saw the devel-opment of trade with foreign lands. During Eliza-beth's reign so-called chartered companiesl were es-tablished. A charter gave the company the right toall the business in its particular trade or region. Inreturn for this important advantage the charteredcompany gave some of its profits to the Crown. Anumber of these companies were established duringElizabeth's reign: the Eastland Company to trade withI chartered ['tJo:tcd] companies - KoMrraHl{rr, opraHrtsoBaHrrble

Ha ocrroBaHr{r{ rtpaBlrre,rscteeHHofi Kouqeccprr{107

QUESTIONS 3

1. Did Elizabeth I encourage foreign trade? W

Scandinaviar and the Balticz in 1579, the Leuantspanq to trade with the Ottoman Empirea in 1581,Africa Company to trade in slaves in 1588, andEast India Company to trade with Indiab in 1600.

11. What is a chartered company? What right did acharter give a trading company? What did thecompany give the Crown in return for the char-ter? Name four chartered companies which wereestablished during Elizabeth's reign. What dideach of the four companies do?

Part 2. Wales and lreland.Both Henry VII and Henry VIII tried to bring Wales

and Ireland under English control. Wales becamejoined to England under one administration between1536 and 1543. Representatives of local Welsh gen-try were appointed magistratesr, and Welsh repre-sentatives entered the English parliament.

In Ireland the situation was more difficult. HenryVIII persuaded the Irish parliament to recognize himas king of lreland. But when he tried to make theIrish accept his English Church Reformation, he meta stubborn resistance, as the majority of the Irishpopulation were Catholics. Thus Irish nationalism andCatholicism were brought together against Englishrule. It took Henry a long time to destroy the old wayof life and introduce English government in Ireland.

The effect of English rule was greatest in the north,in Ulstef, where many good lands were taken fromthe native Irish population and sold to English set-tlers. Even today most good land in Ulster is ownedby Protestants, and most poor land by Catholics.

QUESTIONS1. What did both Henry VII and Henry VIII try to

do in Wales and Ireland?

rnagistrates ['mcd3r stnts] - vrarracrparbl, Mr{poBbre eyAbldUlster [lrrlstc] - Olsctep

109

4.

country did she consider to be her mainrival and enemy?

2. Why did Elizabeth I help the Protestants inNetherlands? How did she help them?

3. Who were the most famous English seamen tcaused trouble to Spanish ships in the AtlanOcean? Why did Elizabeth support these seamenWhy did the Spanish king Philip decide thathad to conquer England?

5. What did Philip call the fleet which he builtfight England?

6. What were the disadvantages of the Armadain comparison with the English ships? Whatthe result of the sea battle between the Aand the English fleet?

7. What did Elizabeth encourage English tradersdo? What did this policy lead to?

8. What parts of the world did English colbegin to settle?What did Walter Raleigh bring from AmericaWhat shameful trade did English colonistsin West Africa?

t Scandinavia [.skcndr'ncrrjc] - Crcangranaanai Baltic ['bcltrk] - Barrnra3 Levant Ir'vrnt] - Jleganr' the Ottoman Empire ['ctomcn'emparc] - Orrovrancrcafl r4Mue

" India ['rndre] - VIrtAus108

9.10.

2. When did Wales join Engtand under one ad

istration? How was it done?3.

4.

Henry VIII persuaded the Irish parliament toognize him as king of Ireland, didn't he?

did he meet a stubborn resistance? Why?Did it take Henry a long time to introducelish government in Irelandr e

5. What was the effect of English rule in Ulsterthis effect still felt in our times? How?

Part 3. England and Scotland.

For a long time the Tudors were trying toScotland to England. In their attempts tothe independence of Scotland, the Scottish kingsnot get much support from their nobility,Scottish nobility was not united: some of themed closer friendship with England, and othersed to remain loyal to the old alliance withKnowing how weak they were, the Scottishusually tried to avoid war with England. Theya peace treaty with Henry VII, and James IV,Scotland, married Henry VII's daughter MaBut it did not help. Henry VIII made two wars,Scotland. King James IV was killed during thewar. James V, whose army was also badly de

during the second war, died soon after the war.Henry VIII hoped to marry his son Edward

James V's daughter, the baby Queen of Scotsand in this way join the two countries togetherder an English king. But the Scots did not wantmarriage and sent Mary to France, where sheried the French king's son in 1558. However,

I Margaret ['mo:gerrt] - Maprapnta110

French husband died soon after their marriage, andghe returned to Scotland. Mary was a Catholic, butrluring her time in France Scotland had become offi-cially a Protestant country. The Scottish Protestantsdid not want a Catholic queen on the throne. Therewas a struggle, as a result of which Mary had toescape to England, where she was held by Elizabethfor nineteen years and finally executed.

QUESTIONS1. Why couldn't the Scottish kings get much sup-

port from Scottish nobility in their struggleagainst England?

2. Why did the Scottish kings try to avoid war withEngland? Why did the Scottish king James IVmarry the daughter of Henry VII ? Did this mar-riage help to avoid war with England?

3. How many wars did Henrfi VIII make on Scot-land? What were the results of both wars?

4. Why did Henry VIII want to marry his son Edwardto the Queen of Scots Mary? Why didn't themarriage take place?

5. Why wasn't Mary welcomed by many Scottishnobles when she returned from France? Why didshe have to escape to England? What happenedto her in England?

Part 4, A Scottish King for EnglaRd.

Elizabeth I never married and had no children. Herclosest relative was Mary's son, the Scottish kingJames VI, and after Elizabeth's death in 1603, heinherited the English throne. So, after a long strug-gle the two countries were united, but, ironically,

j under a royal dynasty which came from Scotland.111

QUESTIONWho inherited the English throne after Elizabet

death? Why? When was it?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words fromlist:

s t ubb o rm, Dut c h, c hart e re d,, E li z ab e t h, inhe iit e d,recognize, control, to auoid, harbours, encoureign, slauery, profits, destroyed, riual.

1. continued Henry VII's work andforeign trade.

2. Elizabeth considered Spain her main tand enemy.

3. Elizabeth helped the Protestantsallowing their ships to use English

4. In L587 Francis Drake attacked andpart of the Spanish Armada.By 1650 had become an important trDuring Elizabeth's so-call

companies were established.7. The chartered company gave some of i

to the Crown.8. Both Henry VII and Henry VIII tried to b

Wales and Ireland under English9. Henry VIII persuaded the Irish parliame

him as king of lreland.10. In trying to make the Irish aceept his Engl

Church Reformation, Henry met asistance.

11. The Scottish kings usually triedwith England.

12. After Elizabeth's death, James VI of Sco

CHAPTER 8

GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY

Part 1. Tudor Parliaments.

The Tudor monarchs did not like governing throughparliament. Henry VII used Parliament only for in-troducing new laws. Henry VIII used it to raise mon-ey for war and for his struggle with Rome.

The Tudor monarchs were certainly not more dem-ocratic than the kings that had ruled the countrybefore them. In the early 16th century Parliament onlymet when the monarch ordered it. Sornetimes it mettwice in one year, but then it might not meet againfor six years. Henry VIII assembled Parliament tomake the laws for Church reformation. In forty-fiveyears of Elizabeth's reign she only let Parliamentmeet fourteen times.

Only two things persuaded the Tudor monarchs notto get rid of Parliament altogether: they needed moneyand they needed the support of the merchants and land-owners, whose representatives sat in Parliament. Butby using Parliament to support their own policy, theTudors actually increased Parliament's authority.

During the 16th century real power in Parliamentmoved from the House of Lords to the House of Com-mons. The reason for this was simple. The Membersof Parliament (MPs) in the House of Commons repre-sented richer and more influential classes than theLords. In fact, the idea of getting rid of the House ofLords, a question which is still discussed in Britishpolitics today, was first suggested in the 16tr' century.

Parliament did not really represent the people. Themonarchy used its influence to make Parliament sup-

113

b.6.

112

the English throne.

port royal policy. In order to control discussionParliament, the Crown appointed a Speaher.today the Speaker is responsible for good behaduring debates in the House of Commons.

The growing authority of Parliament led toquestion about the limits of its power. MPs wereginning to think that they had a right tomore and rhore questions. By the end of the 16th ceitury, when the gentry and merchant classestheir strength, it was obvious that sooner or l,

Parliament would challenge the Crown. Eventuallyresulted in war.

QUESTIONS.1. Did the Tudor monarchs like governing the

try through Parliament? What did Henry VII arHenry VIII use Parliament for?

2. Did Parliament meet regularly in the 16thtury? How many times did it .meet duringforty-five years of Elizabeth's reign?

3. If the Tudor kings did not like governingcountry through Parliament, why didn't they grid of it altogether?

4. Why did the House of Commons play a moreportant role in Parliament than. the HouseLords? Whom did the MPs in the House of Comons represent?

5. Why did the Crown appoint a Speaker in Parlment? What is the Speaker responsible for in tday's Parliament?

6. What question did the growing authority ofliament lead to? What were the MPs beginn

, to think? What was obvious by the end of t16th century?

tI4

Part 2. Ghanges in the Life of People.At the end of the l5th'century much of the country-

side was still untouched. There were great forests ofoak trees and unused land. There were still wild ani-mals: wild pigs, wild cattle and even a few wolves. QnIya few towns had more than 3,000 people. Most townswere no more than large villages, and the people livingthere worked on their own fields and farms, like in avillage. Even London, a large city of over 60,000 by1500, had fields around it, which its citizens farmed.

In the 16th century, however, this picture began tochange rapidly.'The population increased, the unusedland was cleared for sheep, and large areas of forestwere cut down to provide wood for the growing ship-building industry. England was beginning to facegreat social and economic problems.

The price of food and other goods rose steeply dur-ing the 16th and early 17th centuries. At the sametime real wagesl fell by half2. Another problem wasthe sudden increase in population. In England andWales the population almost doubled from 2,2 lrrIl-lion in L525 to 4 million in 1603. Twice the numberof people needed twice the amount of food. It was notproduced. Great masses of population became poor.

The countryside population divided into two parts.The people who did bests in this situation were theyeoman farmersa who had at least 100 acres of land.They employed men to work on their land and produced

real wages ['wcrd3rz] - peaJrbHafl BaprrJrarafell by half - cHltalrJlacb HauoJroBrrHyThe people who did best - Jlro4u, Koropbre rpeycne.rrr.r 6olrrueBCeXyeoman farmers [Joumen'fo:nrazf - fiomenrr (sa.atuntounwerpepxepw\

115

food to sell. They worked as farmers during thebut were "gentlemen" on Sundays. They were ableincrease the prices of the food they produced, becathere was not enough food in the markets.

Most people, however, had only twenty acresland, or less.

Because of the growing population, it wadfor a man to find work or to produce enough foodhis family.

QUESTIONS1. How did the country look at the end of the 15

century? Was there much difference between tlway of people's life in towns and villages? Whrwas in common?

2. How did the picture change in the 16th centuWhat was the unused land cleared for? Why werlarge areas of wood cut down?

3. How did the price of food change? How did thiwages change? :

4. How did the countryside population divide? Wtilwere the yeoman farmers? What helped thembecome still richer?

Part 3. Economy.

\Mool and Clothmaking Industry. Manyers found that they could make more money frorbreeding sheep than from growing crops. They-cosell the wool for a good price to the rapidly grolt/clothmaking industryr. They needed more landthe sheep to graze, so they fenced off2 land that

I clothmaking industry -cyrcouHas

[poMbrruJlerrnocrb2 fenced off - o6nocuau aa6opou, (oropaxclilBaJlr4D

116

always belongedto the whole vil-lage. This processof fencing offcommon land isknown as enclo-suresr. Enclosureswere often carriedout against thelaw, but becausemagistrates were Spinners at workthemselves land-lords, few peasants could prevent it. As a result, manypoor people lost the land which they had farmed, aswell as the common land where they kept animals.

The production of cloth, the most important ofEngland's products, reached its greatest importanceduring the 16th century. Clothmakers bought raw wooland gave it to spinners. The spinners were mostlywomen and children, who worked in their poor cot-tages for very little payment. After the spinners thewool was passed to weavers. When the cloth was ready,it was sold.

Coal and Steel. In the 16th century people learnedto burn coal in stoves instead of wood. Coal gavegreater heat when burning. By using coal instead ofwood fires, people were able to produce greatly im-proved steel. Improved steel was used to make knivesand forks, clocks, watches, nails and pins. Birming-hamz, by using coal fires to make steel, grew in the 16th

century from a village into an important industrial city.

I enclosures Irn'klougcz] -oroparxr{Bar{rrei Birmingham ['bc:mr4cm] - Bupvrunrenr

117

A coal-mine

QUESTIONS1. Why did many landowners decide to breed sheep?2. What did the big landowners do to get more land

for their sheep to graze?3. Enclosing land was of ten against the law, yet tho

peasants could not prevent it. Why?4. What became the most important of England't

products in the 16th century?5. What did people learn to burn in stoves instead

of wood in the 16th century? What was the ad.vantage of burning coal? What did they make ofimproved steel?

Part 4. The Problem of the Poor.

Enclosures caused great damage. Peasants who losttheir Iand could not provide forl their families. Peo.ple Ieft their homes and went from place to placetrying to find work or food. Many people stole in

I provide for - o6ecue.rueart118

order to eat. In the middle of the 16th century therewere over 10,000 people on the roads. Crime was in-r:reasing. In order to control the growing problem ofwandering homeless people, Parliament passed a lawlorbidding people to move from the parish where theyhad been born without permission. Any person whowas caught on the road homeless and unemployedcould be executed. However, even these severe meas-rrres did not solve the crime problem.

There were years in which the harvest was verypoor, and that made the problem of the poor stillworse. In 1601 Parliament passed the first Poor Law.This law made local people responsible for the poorin their own area. It gave power to magistrates toraise moneyr in the parish to provide food, housing andwork for the poor and homeless of the same parish.

QUESTIONS1. What was the damage caused by enclosures?2. What law did Parliament pass? With what pur-

pose was this law passed? What was the punish-ment for wandering along the roads? Did thesemeasures solve the crime problem?

3. What law was passed in 1601? What is the con-tents of this law?

Part 5. Domestic Life.

Everyday life in families was hard. Most womenhad between eight and fifteen children, and manywomen died in childbirth. About half the childrendied at a young age. No one could hope for a longmarried life because the dangers to life were great.

119

I to raise molley - co6upatb Aeubru

Both rich and poor lived in small family groups.Grown-up brothers and sisters usually did not livewith each other or with their parents. They tried tofind a place of their own. Over half the populationwas under 25 years of age, while only few were over60. Queen Elizabeth reached the age of 7O, but thiewas unusual. Most people worked hard and died young,Poor children started work at the age of 6 or 7,

In spite of the hard conditions of life, most peoplehad a larger and better horne than ever before. Stovegwith chimneys, which before had only been used inthe homes of the rich, were now built in every house.This made cooking and heating easier and more com.fortable.

SUESTTONS1. What facts show that family life in the 16th cen.

tury was hard?2. How long did people live?3. At what age did the children of poor familiea

start work?120

4. What improvements in domestic life appeared inthe 16th century?

Part 6. Language and Gulture.Since the time of, Chaucert, in the mid_fourteenth

century, London Englistt, had become accepted asstandard English. Printing made this standard Eng_lish more widely accepted among the literate public.For the first time people started to think of Londonpronunciation as "correct" pronunciation. Until Tu_<ior times the local forms of speech had been spokenby lord and peasant alike. From Tudor times onwardsthe way people spoke began to show the differencebetween them. Educated people began to speak ,,cor_trect" English, and uneducated people continued tospeak the local dialects.

Literacy increased greatly during the 16th centu_ry. By the beginning of the 16th century about halfthe population of England could read and write.

Renaissance2 is the period in Europe between the14th and 17th centuries, when, after the period ofMiddle Ages during which there had been litile edu_cation, people became interested in the art, litera_ture and ideas of ancient Greeces. This interest causedthe appearance of outstanding thinkers, scientists,artists and writers.

England felt the effects of the Renaissance laterthan much of Europe because it was an island" In theearly years of the 16th century English thinkers be_came interested in the work of the Dutch philosopher

I Chaucer ['rf.r:sc] - t{ocep

' Renaissance [n'ncrsons.l - peaeccanc (anoxa Boepox4eHua)" Greece [gri:s] - fpequa

121

a

A wealthy family in the 16th century

4. What is Renaissance?5. Who was Thomas More? What book did he write?

What did he describe in his book?6. What spheres of life did Renaissance influence?7. What kind of painting did English masters de-

velop?8. What writers were popular in the 16th century?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

dattage, breeding, introducing, rid, gouerning,Speaher, Aeoman farmers, fenced off , responsible, in-creased, amoltnt, royal, influential, challenge, enclo-stlres, to graze, literacy.1. The Tudor monarchs did not like

through Parliament.2. Henry VII used Parliament only for

neW laws.By using Parliament to support their own policy,the Tudors actually Parliament's au-thority.MPs in the House of Commons represented richerand more classes than the Lords.The idea of gettingwas first suggested in the 16th century.The monarchy used its influence on Parliamentto make it support the policy.

7. In order to control discussion in Parliament, the.Croryn appointed a

8. It was obvious that sooner orwould

9. Twicethe Crown.

the number of peopleof food.

3.

4.

5.

6.

later Parliament

needed twice the

127

lar. The plays which they wrote were staged intheatres, and the public enjoyed them' Shake'spedr

popularity, os we know, has not died down until o{

iirr,", and his plays are still staged in many theattt

Erasmusl. One of them,mas More2, wrote a bookwhich he described annation. The book wasUtopia3. It was very PoPuthroughout EuroPe. .

The Renaissance also inenced religion, music a

painting. In painting Englmasters develoPed theirspecial kind of Painting'miniature Portrait.

In literature such namesChristopher Marlowea,

Jonsont and WilHam Shakespeare6, were very

throughout the world.

QUESTIONS1. Since what time had London English become

cepted as standard English?2. Was there any difference between the way

ity and common people spoke before Tudor tiWhen did a difference become noticeable?

3. How did Iiteracy increase during the 16th cen

tury?

I Erasmus Ir'rrezmcs] - EPaarvr2 Thomas More ['tlmcs'mc:] - Touac Mop

'r Utopia fiu'touPje] - Vtonr'r'a

' Christophei ['krrstcfc] Marlowe ['nro:lou] - Kpllcrotpep5 Ben [ben] Jonson ['d3cnsn] - Beg ,{xconcon'r Williaml'u'rljcrnl Shakespeare ['Jerkspro] - VrE'nrsu III122

Thomas More

10. The employed men to work on t

11.land and produced food tcrsell.Many landowners found that they couldmore money fromgrowing crops.The big landowners needed land for thet2.

so they land that had ia

13.

t4.15.

16.

belonged to the whole village.The practice of fencing off comm6n land is

Enclosures caused greatThe Poor Law made localpoor in their own area.

people for

greatly- increased during the 1

century.

UNIT REVIEWWho were these people? \Mhat did they do?'Writeshort about each of them.Henry VII Mary Tudor Mary Queen ofHenry VIII Elizabeth I Thomas More

124

UNIT FOURTHE STt'ARTS

The Stuart ntonarchs were less successful thanlhe Tud.ors. They quarrelled with Parliament and,this reaulted, in ciuil war. One of th.e Stuarts wasexecuted. Another Stuart king was driuen from thelhrone. When the last Stuart, Queen Anne, died. in1714, the monarchy was no longer absolutely pou-crful as it had. been in the Tudor titnes.

These important changes were the result of basicch.angea in society. During the lVh century ecorlorn-lc pouter rnoued, into the hands of the merchant andlandowning farmer classes. The Crown could, no long-er raise rnoneA or govern usithout their cooperation.

CHAPTER 9THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT

Part 1. James l.

Like Elizabeth, James I tried to rule without Par-liament as much as possible. He believed in the di-uine right of hingsl: the king was chosen by Godand therefore only God could judge him. He ex-pressed these ideas openly and this led to troublewith Parliament.

When Elizabeth died, she left James with a hugedebt. James had to ask Parliament to raise a tax2 to

'pay the debt. Parliament agreed, but in return in-sisted on the right to discuss James's home and for-I the divine [dr'varn] right of kings - 6oxecrseunoe npaBo

rcopo.neftI to raise a tax - BBecrr{ IraJIor

125

eign policy. James did ndagree to this, and so hfdid not get the money.

James managed to rul€the country without Parrliament between 1611 and162I, but it was only po!.sible because Britain r€.mained at peace. Jam6lcould not afford the cogt

of the army. In 1618, at the beginning of the ThirtlYears' War in Europe, Parliament wished to go t0war against the Catholics, but James did not agretrUntil his death in 1625 James was alwals euarrolrling with Parliament over money and over its desitlto play a part in his foreign policy.

Parliament against the Crown. Charles 11 quar.relled with Parliament even more bitterly than hlr

father had done. Mor.than once Charles diE.solved Parliament, buthad to recall it again bo.cause he needed money. Iit628, in return for moR.ey, Parliament wantedCharles to sign a doett.ment known as the Petl,tion of Rightsz, whicltwould give Parliament thoright to control state moR.

I Charles I ['tJo:lz dc'fc:st] = =

Kap"r I/the Petition Ipe'trJn] ofRights - flerrrrlza o rpaltal

r,y, the national budget and the law. Charles realizedl,ltat the Petition of Rights was putting an end to aking's divine right. So he dissolved Parliament again.

Between 1629 and 1640 Charles successfully ruledwithout Parliament. He was able to balance his budg-r,ls, he got rid of dishonesty among officialsl andrrrade administration efficient. By 1637 he was at thelrt:ight of his power. It seeined that Parliament wouldlrL)ver meet again.

QUESTIONS1. Why did James I try to rule without Parliament?

What did he believe in?2. Why did James I have to ask Parliament for

money? Did he get the money? Why?ll. Did James manage to rule the country without

Parliament?4. How did Charles I's relations with Parliament

develop? Why did he dissolve Parliament in 1628?5. How did Charles I rule the country without Par-

liament between 1629 and 1640?

Part 2. Religious Disagreement.

The religious situation in Britain was not simple.There were people in the country who disagreed

with the teachings of the Church of England. Theysaid that the services of the Church of England hadbecome too complicated and too rich and took toornuch money. They wanted to make the Church ofl,)ngland more modest, to purify it. These people werer':rlled Puritansz. Charles, who was married to a French

officials [c'lrJclz] - qrrHoBuuFiI{

Puritans ['pjuclrtcnz] - [yprrraHe

King James I

King Charles I

r27

Part 3. The Givil War.

London, where Parliament's influence was stronger,locked its gates against the king, and Charles moved toNottinghaml, where he gathered an army to defeat thoseMPs who opposed him. The Civil War had started.

Most of the House of Lords and a few from theHouse of Commons supported Charles. The Royalistsz,known as Caualierss, controlled most of the northand west. Parliament controlled the east and south-east, including London. At first Parliament's armyconsisted of armed groups of London apprentices.Their short hair gave the Parliamentarian soldierstheir popular name of Roundheadsa.

The forces were not equal. Parliament was support-ed by the navy, by most of the merchants and by thepopulation of London. So it controlled the most impor-tant national and international sources of wealth. TheRoyalists had no money. The soldiers of the Royalist

t2

3

4

Nottingham ['nctrrlem] - HorrunreuRoyalists ['rcrahsts] - pofiJr]rcru (crnoponnurcu rcopona)Cavaliers [,keve'haz] - RaBaJrepbrRoundheads ['raundhedz] - rpyrnoroJroBrre

A Roundhead and a Cavalier

Catholic, disliked Puritans. Many MPs either '

Puritans themselves' or sympathized with themEvents in Ireland. Events in Ireland resul

civil war. James I had continued Elizabeth's po

and had colonized Uister, the northern part of'land. The Catholic Irish were driven off t irwhich were given to Protestant settlers from Er

In 1641, at a moment when Charles badlyperiod of quiet, Ireland exploded in rebellion ag

ihe Protestant English settlers. 3.000 people -women and children - were killed, most of thelUlster. In London Charles and Parliament quarre

over who should lead an army to defeat the ret

Many MPs were afraid to give an army to Char

they thought that Charles would use the army iri

4. What did Charles and Parliament quarrel aH

in connection with the events in Ireland? l

5. Why didn't Parliament want to give an arm'

Charles? ,,

128

der to dissolve Parliament by force and to ruleagain. Charles's friendship towards the CatltC-hurch increased Protestant fears' In 1642 Cha

tried to arrest five MPs in Parliament' Althoug}was unsuccessful, it convinced Parliament and

supporters all over England that they had good;

son to fear.

QUESTIONS1. Why did some people in Britain criticizet

Church of England? How did they want to c

it? What were these people called? Why werg'f

called Puritans?2. Why did Charles I dislike Puritans?

,'i::

3. What happened in Ireland in 1641? . i

army were unpaid, anda result, they eitheraway or stole from I

ed. That was the endthe Civil War. PeoPlethe country-side andthe towns did not wathis war, and theY

The CivilWar happy when it was over.l

8U ESTIONSHow did the Civil War start?Who were Cavaliers and Roundheads?What: parts of the country did the Royalists c<

trol? What parts were controlled by the Parlmentarian armY?

4. What were the advantages of Parliament inCivil War?

5. When and where was the last battle of the Civll':

War fought? What was the result of the battle?

CHAPTER REVIEW ,I

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and word''

combinations from the list:Caualiers, chosen, teachings, rebellion, to recall,

Round.heads, to raise, iud.ge, Puritans, debt, dissolued,

seruices, diuine right.1. James I had to ask Parliament

pay his

I Naseby ['rrcrzbr] - Hefic6tr

130

James I believed in theking was by Godcould him.

of kings:and therefore only

theGod

villages and farms. Inend, at the battle of N

3. More than once Charles I Parliament,but had it again because he needed money.

byr rn 1645, the RoYa 4. There were people in Britain who disagreed with

army was finallY def the of the Church of England.

1.,3.

5. Some people said that the of the Church ofEngland had become too complicated and too rich.

6. The wanted to make the Church of Eng-land more modest.In 1641 Ireland exploded in againstthe Protestant English settlers.The Royalists, known as , controlledmost of the north and west.

9. The Parliamentarian soldiers cut their hair shortand got the name of

CHAPTER IO

REPUBLICANAND RESTORATION BRITAIN

Part 1. Republic in Britain.

Oliver CromwelF. Several MPs had commanded theParliamentarian army during the Civil War. Thestrongest of them was a gentleman farmer namedOliver Cromwell. He had created a new "model" army,the first regular force from which the British armyof today developed. Instead of country people or gen-try, Cromwell invited into his army educated menwho wanted to fight for their beliefs.a tax to

171

lr

I Oliver Cromwell ['olrvo'kromwcl] - Onunep Kpovraenr

Cromwell and his advisers captured the king1645, but they did not know what to do withThis was an entirely new situation in English hry. They could either bring Charles back to the tand allow him to rule, or remove him and createnew political system. By this time most peopleboth Houses of Parliament, and probably in the cotry, wanted the king back. They were afraid ofParliamentarians and of the dangerous behaviourthe army. But some army commanders wereto get rid of the king. These men were Puritans, wbelieved they could build God's kingdom in England.

Two-thirds of the MPs did not want to put tking on triall. They were removed from Parliaby Cromwell's army. The king was accused of trea.son2 and found guilty of3 "making war againstkingdom and Parliament." On 31 January, 1649, KintCharles I was executed.

The Scots were shocked by Charles's execution. ',

They invited his son, whom they recognized as KingCharles II, to join them and fight against the EnglishParliamentarian army. But they were defeated, ard,,young Charles himself had to escape to France. Scot.'Iand was brought under English republican rule. r,

I to put the king on trial - npeAaBarb HopoJIfi cyAy2 accused of treason [tri:zn] - o6guHdH B rocyAapcrseHHofiIISMEHC

'r found guilty ['grltr] of - npr{BHaH BTTHoBHLTM B

132

Cromwell took an army to Ireland "to punish thelrish" for the killing of Protestants in 1641 and forthe continued Royalist rebellion there. He capturedtwo towns. His soldiers killed the inhabitants of bothtowns, about 6,000 people. These killings were prob-ably not worse than the killings of the Protestants in1641, but they remained powerful symbols of Eng-lish cruelty to the Irish.

The Levellersl. There were people at that time whohad new ideas. Their ideas seemed strange to mostother people of the 17th century. These people spokeabout equality among all men. They called themselvesLevellers. By and by the ideas of the Levellers beganto attract more and more people. They also spreadinto the army. There appeared Levellers among theofficers and soldiers. In 1649 the Levellers in thearmy rebelled and put forward their demands. Theysaid that Parliament must meet every two years andthat aII men over the age of twenty-one must havethe right to elect MPs to it. They also demanded com-plete religious freedom, so that all religious groupscould follow their religion in the way they wished.

Two hundred years later such demands were con-sidered as basic citizens' rights. But in the middle ofthe 17th century they had little support among thepeople. The rebellion of the Levellers was suppressed.

The Lord Protector. From 1653 Britain was governed

by Cromwell alone. He became Lord Protector and hadmuch more power than King Charles had had. But hisefforts to govern the country through the army wereextremely unpopular, and the idea of using the army tomaintain law and order in the kingdom has remained

I Levellers ['lcvclcz] - JleBeJrJrepbr' <ypaBulrrreru')B3

unpopular ever since.other innovationsunpopular too: peowere forbidden tobrate Christmasr anEastef , or to playon Sunday

When Cromwell died1658, he was succeeded byhis son Richard. Butchard Cromwell waspoor leader and couldtrol neither the army,Parliament. Nobodyerned the country. It

clear that the situation could be saved only by theration of monarchy. In 1660 Charles II was invitedreturn to his kingdom. The republic was over.

QUESTIONS1. Who was Oliver Cromwell? What new kind of

army did he create?2. When did Cromwell capture Charles? What wag r$

the problem of the Parliamentarians in connec- &

tion with the captured king? What choice did i

they have?Why did most people want the king back? Whatwere they afraid of?Who wanted to get rid of the king? What did thePuritans believe they could do?What was Charles I accused of? What was hefound guilty of? When was he executed?

1 Christmas ['krrsmcs] - Pox4ecteo2 Easter ['i:ste] - flacxa134

6. In what years was Britain a republic? Was therepublic a success? Why?

7. What was the reaction in Scotland to the execu-tion of Charles I? What did the Scots do? Werethey a success?What did Cromwell do in Ireland?Who were the Levellers? What idea did they speakabout?When did the Levellers rebel? What demands didthey put forward? Why was the rebellion of theLevellers suppressed?In what year did Cromwell begin governing thecountry alone? What title did he take?

12. Were Cromwell's efforts to govern the countrythrough the army popular? What did he forbidthe people?

13. Who was Cromwell succeeded by after his death?In what way was his successor different from him?

14. How did the republic in Britain end?

Part 2. Restoration.With the restoration of monarchy, Parliament once

more became as weak as it had been in the time ofJames I and Charles I. However, the new king, CharlesII, did not want to make Parliament his enemy. Hepunished only those MPs who had been responsiblefor his father's execution. Many MPs were given po-sitions of authority or responsibility in the new mon-archy. But in general Parliament remained weak.Charles shared his father's belief in divine right, andhe greatly admired the all-powerful, absolute rulerof France Louis XIVI.

lllil

l]il

rtll[t'rilit

llilit

llt;i[illillil,

i11ir

iii

itl

it

8.9.

10.

11.

3.

4.

D.

I Louis ['lur] XIV - JIyUXIVB5

Charles hoped to makepeace between the differ.ent religious groups that

"

existed in Britain at thattime. He wanted to allowPuritans and Catholics,who disliked the Church ofEngland, to meet freely.But Parliament, whosemembers belonged to theChurch of England, did notwant to allow this. Charlerhimself was attracted tothe Catholic Church. Par.liament knew this, andmany MPs were worriedthat Charles would becomea Catholic.

The first political par-ties. The first political parties in Britain appeared inCharles II's reign.

One of these parties was a group of MPs who be-came known as Whigsl, a rude name for cattle driv-ers. The Whigs were afraid of an absolute monarchyand of the Catholic faith with which they connectedit. They also wanted to have no regular army.

The other party, which opposed the Whigs, wasnicknamed Tories2, which is an Irish name for thieves.The Tories, who were natural inheritors of the Roy-alists of the Civil War, supported the Crown and theChurch.

1 Whigs [wrgz] - Buru2 Tories ['tc:rrz] - Topu

136

'Ihese two parties, the Whigs and the Tories, be-oame the basis of Britain's two-party parliamentarysystem of government.

The Glorious Revolutionl. The struggle over Ca-tholicism became a crisis when James II became kingafter his brother's death in 1685. James II was aCatholic. He tried to revive the importance of theCatholic Church and give Catholics important posi-tions in government and Par-liament. Parliament wasalarmed and angry. The To-ries united with the Whigsagainst James. They decidedthat James II had lost hisright to the crown.

James's daughter Marywas a Protestant, and she wasmarried to the Protestantruler of Holland2, William ofOranges. Parliament invitedWilliam of Orange to invadeEngland.

In 1688 William enteredLondon. James was in dan-ger and fled from England.The English crown was of-fered to William and Mary.

The events of 1688 wentdown into history as the Glo-

1 The Glorious Revolution -CJrasHag peBoJrroqr{ff

2 Holland ['hclend] - foa.naH4ua3 William of Orange ['wtljam

ev'cnnd3] - Bznrrenrrvr Opaucxzfi

King Charles ll

King William lll

Queen Mary ll

arate kingdom, although both countries had theking (James II was James VII of Scotland). Thelish wanted England and Scotland to be united.

rious Revolution. It was not really a revolution:fact it was a coup d'etatr organized by theclass. Now Parliament was much more powerfulthe king. Its power over the monarch was wriinto the Bill of Rights2 in 1689. The Bill ofstated that the king could not raise taxes or keep t

army without the agreement of Parliament.,The uriion with Scotland. Scotland was still a

5. When did the contradiction about religion growinto a crisis? Why?

6. Why did the Tories unite with the Whigs againstJames II ?

7. What important statement did Parliament makeabout James II ? Why did they invite William ofOrange to invade England? How was WiIIiamconnected with the English throne?

8. When did William of Orange invade England?Why did James II flee from the country? Whomdid Parliament offer the English crown?

9. Was the Glorious Revolution really a revolution?10. How was the king's power limited as a result of

the Glorious Revolution?11. Why did Scotland agree to the union with Eng-

Iand? In what year was the union officially com-pleted? What was the new official name of theunited state?

Part 3. Foreign Relations.

During the 17th century Britain's main rivals wereSpain, Holland and France. There was a competitionin trade between England and Holland. After threewars Britain achieved the trade position it wanted.

At the end of the century Britain went to waragainst France. Partly it was because William of Or-ange had struggled with France before he came tothe English throne. But Britain also wanted to limitFrench power, which had been growing under LouisXIV. The British army won several important victo-ries over the French. By the treaty of Utrechll in

I Utrecht I ju:trekt] - Vrpexr

land wanted to remove the limits on trade with Enland from which it suffered economically. TheParliament promised to remove these limits ifScots agreed to the union with England. Finally,l7O7; the union of Scotland and England waspleted by an Act of Parliaments. The state got aname: Great Britain. The separate parliaments ofcountries stopped functioning. A new parliament,Parliament of Great Britain, met for the first

QUESTIONS1. How did the position of Parliament change

the restoration of monarchy?2. What did Charles II do because he did not w

to make Parliament his enemy?What were the contradictions between Charlesand Parliament about Catholics and Puritans?When did the first political parties appear inain? What were they called? What were theprinciples of each of the two parties?

I coup d'etat ['ku:der'to] - Op. fiepeBopor2 the Bill of Rights - Br.r.n.nr o upaBax3 an Act of Parliament - arcr flapaauenta138

3.

4.

B9

I7I3 Britain got possession of the rock oftarl, so now it controlled the entrance to theterranean2 from the Atlantic Ocean.

Colonizing foreign lands was important forrope's economic development. In the 17th cBritain did not have so many colonies abroad asther Spain or Holland, but it had greater variety.had twelve colonies on the east coast of North Aica. In the West Indiess it had new colonies wsugar was grown. Besides, by this time Britain'sIndia Company had established its first tradingtlements in India, on both the west and east

QUESTIONS1.What countries were Britain's main rivals in

17th century?2.What were the reasons of the wars with

and France? What did Britain achieve as aof these wars?

3.What was colonizing foreign lands important fWhat colonies did Britain have in Northin the West Indies and in India?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words andcombinations from the list:

to inoade, Glorious Reuolution, Whigs, accunpopular, two-party, equality, Tories, executed,of Rights, restoration, Protector.1. The king was of treason.2. On January 31, 1649, King Charles ! was

' Gibraltar [d3r'bro:lto] - fu6parrap2 the Mediterranean [,mcdrtc'rernjon] - CpegzaeMHoe Mope3 the West Indies ['wcst'rndrz] - Becr-I,Ingua140

3. The Levellers spoke aboutall men.The idea of using the army to maintain law andorder in the country has remained tothis day.In 1653 Cromwell became LordWith the of monarchy Parliamentbecame weak again.The were afraid of an absolute mon-archy and of the Catholic faith.

8. The supported the Crown and theChurch.

9. The Whigs and theBritain's

Tories became the basis ofparliamentary system of

government.10. Parliament invited William of Orange

England.11. The events of 1688 went down into history as the

12. The stated that the king could notraise taxes or keep an army without the agree-ment of Parliament.

CHAPTER IITHE 17TH CENTURY SOCIETY

Part 1. Reconsidering religious dogmas.

The influence of Puritanism increased greatly dur-ing the 17th century, especially among the classes ofmerchants and the lesser gentry. The new official trans-Iation of the Bible encouraged Bible reading among allthose who could read. Some people understood the Bi-ble in a new way. As a result, by the middle of the 17ih

l4l

among

4.

t.

5.6.

century Puritanism hadled to the formation ofa large number of smallnew religious groups orsects. Most of these Non.conformistL sects lastedonly a few years, but oneis important, that is thesect of people who calledthemselves Quakers2, orFriends. The Quakerlbecame particularly fa-mous for their reform.ing social work in the18tr'century.

The Church of England, unlike the Nonconformietchurches, was strong politically, but it became weak-er intellectually. The great religious writers of theperiod, John Bunyans, who wrote "The Pilgrim'eProgress"a, and John Miltons, who wrote "ParadieeLost"6, were both Puritans.

SUESTTONS1. What fact encouraged Bible reading among tho

people? How did some people understand the Bi-ble? What did it lead to?

2. Which of the Nonconformist sects that appearedin the 17il' century became particularly famous?

I Nonconforrnist ['nrnkcrr't:l:rnrst] - nonnontpopwrncrcxufi,pacKonbHrrqecrcufi

2 Quakers ['ku,crkcz] - FiBaFiepbr:] John Bunyan ['d3rrr'b,rnjcn] - Axon EantRn| "The Pilgrirn's Progress" - <flvrs naJroMHI{Ka>:' John Milton ['d3rn'nrrltn] - .{xoH Mpr.nrron6 "Paradise Lost" ['plcradars'bst] - <llorepannrrft pafi>

142

;1. What was the disadvantage of the Church of Eng-land in comparison with the Nonconformist move-ment?

L Who were the two great religious writers of thecentury? What books did they write?

Part 2. Revolution in Scientific Thinking.

The revolution in religious thinking coincided withthe revolution in scientific thinking.

A new approach to science was established at thevery beginning of the century by Francis Baconl, whowas known for his work on scientific method. Hesaid that every scientific idea must be tested by ex-lreriment, and with idea and experiment followingone another, the whole natural world would be un-rlerstood. The British scientists put Francis Bacon's

' Francis Bacon ['tr-aensrs'berkon] - (Dpancuc Barou

A Quaker meeting

The Royal Observatory in Greenwich founded by Charles ll

London rebuilt after the Great Fire in 1666

ideas into practice, attaching much importanceexperiment and research.

The scientific studies were encouraged by the Stuparts. The Royal Societyl, founded by the Stuart mon.archy, became an important centre where thinkerlcould meet, argue and share information.

In 1628 William Harvey2 discovered the circuh.tion of blood, and this led to great advances in med.icine and in the study of the human body.

In 1666 the Cambridge professor of mathematlolSir Isaac Newtons began to study gravity. He pub.lished his important discovery in 1684. In 1687 hfpublished "Principia"4, or "The Mathematical Prln,ciples of Natural Philosoph7"u, which is considered

one of the greatest books in the history of science.Newton's work remained the basis of physics untilEinstein'sr discoveries in the 20th century.

The greatest British architect of the time, Sir Chris-topher 'Wrenz, was also professor of astronomy atOxford. He is famous for rebuilding London afterthe Great Fire of 1666.

who establisheo ^tf#;t?I"ln," science? whatwas the essenee of his new approach?Did the Stuart Monarchs encourage scientificstudies? What important institution was foundedin their reign?What discovery did William Harvey7628?What is Christopher Wren famous for?What did Isaac Newton study? What is the titleof his famous book?

Part 3. Life in the Stuart Age.

The situation for the poor improved in the secondhalf of the 17th century. Prices fell compared withwages, and fewer people had to ask for help from theparish. The middle groups continued to do well. Manywho started life as yeoman farmers or traders be-came minor gentry or merchants.

Trade in Britain greatly developed in the 17il' cen-tury. Different regions of the country became lesseconomically separated from each other. No place inBritain was more than 75 miles from the sea, and

7.

,

to 3'

4.b.

make in

1

2

3

4

5

The Royal Society - Koporencftoe Hayrrgoe o6rqecrnoWilliam Harvey ['wlljam'ho:vl] - Vn.nravr fapnefiIsaac Newton ['arzrk'nju:ten] - Vcaax Hrroron"Principia" [pnn'slpre] - <Haqa.na>"The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" [0c, m e0 e\netrkal'punsrplz av'nrtJ eral fi' I csafi] - <, Matennerl{qecrctf IHaqaJra HarypaJrbHofi (rr.uocoQun >

144

I Einstein ['arnstarn]2 Christopher Wren - Efinurreiis['krrstcfc'rcn] - Kpucrotlrep Pen

145

very few places were more than 20 miles from a rior canal. These waterways became importantof transport.

Before the 17th century most towns did not hshops. They had market days on which farmersmanufacturers sold their produce in the town squor marketplace. By 1690, however, most townshad proper shops. Shopkeepers travelled around thrcountry to buy for their shops new goods, which drew ipeople from the countryside to see and buy them, gThe towns u'hich had shops grew larger. *

London. London remained much larger than anyfother town. By 1650 more than 500,000 people lived !

in it. The next largest cities, Norwichl, Newcastlel u!and Bristol3 had only 25,000 each.

1 Norwich ['nrrrd3] - Hopragrx2 Newcastle ['nju:ko:sl] - Hrroxac,r'' Bristol ['hrrst:rll - Epucro.us

In London there was a new class of aristocrats. Thesepeople were rich, and most of them were representa-tives of old nobility.

Some of the aristocrats, however, were "new no'bility" who had bought themselves titles for muchmoney. Some of the older Tudor nobility did notwant to accept the "new nobles" as equals. Theycalled themselves squires (which means the rulingclass of the countryside) and looked down uponlthe upstarts2.

After 1650 the rich began to meet in the new cof-fee-houses, which quickly became the meeting placesfor conversation and discussing politics. These cof-fee-houses later developed into present-day clubs,which are so popular in England today.

t looked down rrpon - cMorpeJlu cBF,IcoRa Ha:' upstarts - BbrcKoirKrr

147

A coffeehouse

A house of a wealthy family

146

Family life. In the 17tr' century the authority ollthe father in the family continued to grow. It waethe result of the increasing authority of the Church.The Protestants believed that teaching religion inthe family was important, and put the responsibil.ity on the head of the family. The father always leddaily family prayers and Bible reading. In some wayghe had taken the place of the priest. Absolute obedi-ence on the part ofl his wife and children was expect-ed. Disobedience was considered an act against Godas well as the head of the house.

One result of this growth of the father's authoritywas that children were frequently beaten to breaktheir "sinful" will. A child who was not beaten wasunusual.

I on the part of - co cropoHbr

148

QUESTIONS.How did the life of people improve in the 17ch

century?Trade in the 17th century greatly developed, didn'tit? Why did different regions of the country be-come less separated from each other?How many people lived in London in 1650?What was the new class in London? Who wasthis new class represented by? Who were "newnobility"?What were the coffee-houses? What did they laterdevelop into?Who was considered the person of authority inthe l7th-century family? What was the father ofthe family responsible for? What \Mere his reli-gious duties in the family?What was expected on the part of the wife andchildren? How was disobedience regarded?What was the negative result of the enormousgrowth of the father's authority in the family?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words or wordcombinations from the list:

Royal Society, aristocrats, grauity, disobedience,Quahers, coincided, Puritanism, circulation, discuss-ing, scientific, intellectually, Francis Bacon.1. The influence of increased greatly

during the 17th century.2. The became particularly famous for

their reforming social work.3. The Church of England was strong politically,

but it became weaker

u7

1.

I

3.4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

,J*

A typical farmhouse

149

4.

5.6.

The revolution in religious thinkingwith the revolution in thinking.

established a new approach toIn 1628 William Harvey discovered theof blood.

7. The became an important cen

8.o

10.

where thinkers could meet, argue and shargformation.In 1666 Sir Isaac Newton began to studyIn London there was a new class ofThe coffee-houses quickly became theplaces for conversation and politics,

11. to the father was considered anagainst God.

UNIT REVIEWWho were these people?'What did they do? Wfew words about each of them.

Charles IFrancis BaconIsaac NewtonChristopher Wren

William of OrangeOliver CromwellJohn Milton

UNIT FIVEBRITAIN IN THE 18TH CENTURY

Well before the end of the 78th century Britainhad becofir,e a uerA powerful country. It becamewealthy th.rough trade. The wealJh mad,e possibleboth an agricultural and an industrial reaolution,whieh, rnad,e Britain the most economically a.d,vancedcountry in the world.

Howeuer, there was a reuerse sid,e to jt: while afew people became richer, rn&nV others lost theirland,, their hornes and their way of life. Famitieswere d.riuen off the land, in another period of enclo-Eures. They becanne the working proletariat of thecities. The inuention of rnachinery destroyed, the old,"cottage ind.ustries" artd, created, factories. At thesan'Le time it caused. the glrowth of unernployntent.

This splitting of society into very rich and verypoor w&s a great d.anger to the established. order. InFrance the misery of the poor and. the power of thetrading classes led to reuolution in 1789. Britainwal saved from reaolution partly by the high leuelof local control of the ruling blass in the eountry.-sid,e and, partly by Methodisnt,, a new religious trloue-tnent which offered, hope and. self-respect to the newproletariat.

150 t51

r ECHAPTER 12

CHANGES IN POLITICAL LIFE

Part 1. Politics and Money.

The new dynasty. King James I had a granddaugh'ter, Sophial, who was a Protestant. She married thoElector of Hanover2, also a Protestant. The BritishParliament declared their son, George Hanover3, theheir to the English throne after Queen Anne, whohad no surviving children. When Queen Anne died itt17L4, George Hanover ascended the English throne{

as George I, thus starting a

new dynasty.Georgelwasastrange

king. He was a true Germanand did not try to followEnglish customs. He couldnot speak English and spokoto his ministers in French.But Parliament supportedhim because he was a Prot.estant.

There were some Torieswho wanted the deposedJames II's sotr to return toBritain as James III. Jamesdid not want to change hisreligion, but he wanted the

1 Sophia ['soufa] - Co$lra2 the Elector [r'lekte] of Hanover ['heeneva] - xyp{rropcr fauuoaepa3 George Hanover ['d3c:d3'hanave] - Ieopr lannoaepa ascended Ie'sendrd] the English throne - BcrynuJl Ha

anrrnfr,cxufi upecroa

152

English throne. In 1715 hestarted a rebellion againstGeorge I. But the rebellionwas put down: George'sarmy defeated the Englishand Scottish Jacobitesl, asStuart supporters werecalled.

The Bank of England. Atthe end of the 17th centurythe government had to bor-row money in order to payfor the war with France. InL694, a group of financierswho lent money to the gov-ernment decided to establish a bank, and the govern-ment agreed to borrow only from this bank. The newbank was called the Bank of England. It was giventhe right to print bank notes, u'hich could be usedinstead of coins. The paper money which is used to-day developed from these bank notes.

Robert Walpole2. The power of the governmentduring the reign of George I was increased becauseihe new king did not seem very interested in his king-dorn. The greatest political leader of the time wasRobert Walpole. He is considered Britain's first PrimeMi.nister.

In the other countries of Europe kings and queenshad absolute power. Britain was unusual, and Wal-pole was determined to keep the Crown under thefirm control of Parliament. Walpole developed the

I Jacobites ['d3rkebarts] - sxo6rarrr2 Robert Waipole ['rcbat'wc:lpoul] - Po6epr Vonuon

King George I

Oueen Anne

153

-ET

political results of the Glorious Revolution of 1688,He insisted that the power of the king should alwayrbe limited by the constitution.

The limits to royal power were these: the king couldnot be a Catholic; the king could not remove or changeIaws; the king depended on Parliament for his moneyand for his army.

Lord Chathaml. Walpole wanted to avoid war be.cause it took a lot of money. The most importantpolitical enemy of Walpole was 'William pitt theElder2, later Lord Chatham. Chatham was sure thatin order to be economically strong in the world, Brit.ain should develop international trade. Trade involvedcompetition. France was the main rival of Britainbecause it had many colonies. Chatham was certainthat Britain must beat France in the competition foroverseas markets. When Chatham was in the govern.ment, he decided to make the British navy strongerthan that of France or any other nation. He also decid.ed to seize a number of France's trading ports abroad.

The war with France. The war with France brokeout in L756 and went on all over the world. InCanada the British took Quebecs in 1759 and Mon"treala the following year. This gave the British con.trol of the important fish, fur and wood trades. InIndia the army of the British East India Companydefeated French armies both in Bengals and in thesouth near Madras6. Soon Britain controlled most

I Lord Chatham ['tJrtcm] - Jlopa r{arevr

'z William Pitt the Elder - Vr.r;rr,sm llurr Crapnrzfin Quebed [kwr'bck] - Kee6erI Montreal [.mrntrr'J:l] - Monpea.rrr5 Bengal ['be4gc:l] - Beura.rrus6 Madras [u-re'dro;s] - Ma4pac154

An East lndia Company official with his escort

of India. Many Britons started to go to India tomake their fortunel.

Growth of international trade. During the rest ofthe century Britain's international trade increasedrapidly. By the end of the century the West Indieswere the most profitable part of Britain's new em-pire. They formed one corner of a profitable tradetriangle. Knives, swords and cloth made in Britishfactories were taken to West Africa and exchangedfor slaves. The slaves were taken to the West Indieswhere they worked on large plantabions growing sug-ar. From the West Indies the ships returned to Brit-ain carrying great loads of sugar which had beengrown by the slaves.

Voting. Parliament represented only a very smallnumber of people: in the 18th century voting was notuniversal. Only house owners with a certain income

I to make their fortune ['fo:tJcn] - paa6orarerb, ((cxororrrrbCOCTOffHUe'>

155

had the right to vote. As a result, while the populo.tion of Britain was almost eight million, therefewer than 250,000 voters. Besides, the voterscontrolled by a small number of very richowners, who sometimes acted together as a town

ordinary farmers did not own land: they rented lt'from greater landowners.

I

not done in secret, and no 4'

the wishes of his landlord "!

Other voters voted for the "right man,, for a gift ofmoney: in other words, their votes were ,,bought." In ithis way the great land-owning aristocrats were abloto control those who sat in Parliament and make surothat the MPs did what they wanted. No one could saythat Parliament in those days was democratic.

guES?IONS1. How did the Hanover dynasty come to reign over

Britain?2. What kind of king was George I? Why did par.

liament support him?3. What did some Tories want? When did the Jaco.

bite rebellion start? How did it finish?4. When was the Bank of England established? What

innovation did the Bank of England introduce?What did the present-day paper money developfrom?

5. Who was Robert Walpole?6. How did Walpole develop the political results of

the Glorious Revolution?156

What were the limits to royal power?Who was the most important political enemy ofWalpole?What was Lord Chatham sure of?Why was France the main rival of Britain in in-ternational trade? What was Lord Chatham de-termined to do in this connection?When did the war with France break out? Was itwaged only in Europe? What advantages did Brit-ain achieve as a result of the war?

12. What colony was the most profitable part of Brit-ain's new empire?

13. What was the "profitable trade triangle"? Howdid it function?

14. Was voting universal in the 18th century? Whohad the right to vote?

15. Who were the voters controlled by?16. How many representatives were sent to Parlia-

ment from each town and each county?17. How did ordinary farmers depend on greater land-

o\vners in their voting? Explain.18. How did the great land-owning aristocrats make

sure that MPs did what they wanted? Explain.

Part 2. Developing Public Opinion.

Between l75O and 1770 the number of newspaperspublished in the country increased. Newspapers wereread by many people who could never hope to votebecause they were not rich enough, but who wereinterested in the important matters of the times. Thesepeople were clerks, skilled workers and tradesmen.Newspapers sent their own reporters to listen to Par-liament discussions and write about them. Politics

157

7.8.

9.10.

11.

&

were no longer a monopoly of the land-owning gen-

try. The age of public opinion had arrived.The loss of the American colonies. In L764 there

was a serious quarrel over taxation between theBritish government and the colonies in America.The population of the British colonies in Americawas rapidly growing. In 1700 there had been only200,000 colonists, but by I77O there were already2,5 million. Some American colonists decided thatit was not lawful for the British government to taxthem without their agreement. They said that ifthey paid taxes to the British government, theymust have their own representatives in BritishParliament.

In1773 a group of colonists at the port of Bostonrthrew a shipload of teaz into the sea because they did

Boston ['brstcn] - Boctona shipload of tea - rpya rrafl

not want to pay a tax on it which the British govern-ment demanded. The event became known as the Bos-ton tea-party. The British government answered byclosing the port. The colonists rebelled. The Ameri-canWar of Independence began.

The war in America lasted from 1775 until 1783.The result was a complete defeat of the British forc-es. Britain lost all its colonies in America, exceptCanadal.

Radicals. Many British politicians openly support-ed the colonists. They were called radicals. For thefirst time British politicians supported the rights ofthe king's subjects abroad to govern themselves andto fight for their rights against the king. The war inAmerica brought new ideas of democracy.

QUESTIONSHow did the increased number of newspapers in-fluence public opinion?What did the British government and the Ameri-can colonies quarrel over in L764?Why did the American colonists decide that itwas not lawful for the British government to taxthem? What did they say?What happened in Boston tn 1773? What is theevent called? Why did the colonists throw theload of tea overboard?When did the American War of Independence be-gin? How long did it last? What was the resultof the war?What new ideas did the War of Independence inAmerica bring? Who were the radicals?

1.

2.

ri.

4"

b.

6.

158 159

The Boston Tea-partyI Canada ['kienadc] - Kana4a

Part 3. lreland

not become members of the Dublin Parliament andcould not vote in parliamentary elections. No Catho.lic could become a lawyer, go to university, or jolnthe navy. The Catholics were second-class citizens lntheir own land. It was only natural that hatred bc.tween the ruling Protestant settlers and the ruledCatholic Irish was growing.

In order to increase British control, Ireland walunited with Britain in 1801 and the Dublin Parliq.ment was closed. The United Kingdom of Great Brlt,ain and Ireland lasted f.or I20 years, until 192L, whenthe independent Irish Republic was formed.

QUESTIONS1. What made the position of the Irish Catholiot

miserable? What rights were they deprived of?2. What was done in order to increase British coni

trol over Ireland? When was it done?3. How long did the United Kingdom of Great Brit.

ain and Ireland last? When was the independentIrish Republic formed?

Part 4. Scotland.The Stuarts made more than one attempt to win

back the English throne. The first Jacobite revolt towin the crown for James II's son, in 1715, had beenunsuccessful. In 1745 the Stuarts tried again. James

I Drrblin ['dnblrn] - ,{y6auH160

The rebellion was finished'

t

It

1 Bonnie Prince Charlie ['bcru'prIns'tJo:h] - Kpacunrrfi trpunq

] - <xafi.nerrAepbrt' o6uratelu Bbrco-

TJIAHA'1I{94un6YPr

Culloden [ka'lcdn] - Ka;rno4enInverness [,rnva'nes] - Llnaepxec

The battle at Culloden

161

QUESTIONS1.

.)

When did the Jacobites make the second atto seize the English throne for the Stuarts?Who was Bonnie Prince Charlie? What didin 1745?

3. Who was Bonnie Prince Charlie supportedWhy was his army defeated?

. CHAPTER REVId,WFill in the blanks with the correct words orcombinations from the list:

uoters, profitable, increased, taxation, reporta scended, b ank notes, f ortune, law f ul, limit ed, deracA, democratic, income, Parliament, county.1. The Bank of England was given the right to

2. Walpole insisted that the power of the king sbe by the constitution.Many Britons went to India to make theirBy the end of the century the West Indiesthe mostpire.

part of Britain's new

5. Only house owners with a certainhad the right to vote.

6. The were controlled by a small nof very rich property owners.

7. Each and each town sent twosentatives to

8. No one could say that Parliament in thosewas

9. Between 1750 and 1770 the number ofpers published in the country

L0. Newspapers sent their own

11. There was a serious quarrel overtween thq British government and the coloniesin America.Some American colonists said that it was not

for the British government to taxthem without their agreement.The war in America brought new ideas of

When Queen Anne died in 1714, George Hanoverthe English throne.

CHAPTER T3 . -LIFE IN TOWNAND IN THE COUNTRYSIDE'

Part 1. Life in Towns.

In 1700 England was still a land of small villages. Inthe northern areas of England the large cities of thefuture, such as Liverpooll, Manchester2, Birminghams,Sheffielda and Leedss were only just beginning to grow.

All the towns smelled bad. There were no drains6.The streets were dirty. The towns were centres ofdisease. As a result, only one child in four in Londonlived to become an adult.

During the 18th century efforts were made to makethe towns healthier. The streets were built wider; so

that carriages drawn by horses could pass each oth-

' Liverpool ['lrvspul].- Jlunepnyar' Mancirester 1'mentJrste] - Manvecrep3 Birmingham ['bc:mrqcm] - BupuunrevrI Sheffield ['Jcflld] - IIIetDOu"'I.q5 Leeds [i:dz] - Izgc6 drains - crorrrrbre rpy6rr, KaHaJrLLBaqIdfi

be-

L2.

13.

L4.

'16?162

ten to Parliament discussions.

rer. From L734 London had a street lighting system.After 1760 many towns organized street cleaning.

There were four main classes of people in the eight-eenth-century towns: wealthy merchants, ordinary ,r

merchants and traders, skilled craftsmen, and a largenumber of workers who had no skills and who couldnot be sure of finding work.

QUESTIONS1. Why were the towns of the early 18th eentury

centres of disease?2. What changes were introduced during the 18th

century to make the towns healthier?3. Which were the main classes of people in the 18th-

century towns?

Part 2. Lite in the Countryside.

The countryside changed greatly during the 18thcentury. At the beginning of the century farmingwas still done as it had been for centuries. Each vil-lage was surrounded by large fields, which were notin individual possession. It was common land, andeach villager farmed part of it.

Beginning with the middle of the 17th century farm-ing had become much more profitable. A.number ofimprovements had been introduced in farming meth-ods. Farmers had begun to understand how to im-prove soil. The improvements made it possible to pro-duce greater crops. But it was difficult to introducethese improvements when land was divided into smallparts farmed by individual farmers. Small farmerscould not afford the necessary machinery.

People with money and influence, such as the vil-lage squire, persuaded their MPs to pass a law through164

Parliament allowing them to take over common landand to enclose it. With one large area for each farm;the new machinery and methods worked very well.

The enclosures and the farming improvementsmade agriculture in Britain more efficient than inalmost any other country in Europe. At the sametime, the enclosures were damaging for a lot ofpeople. When common land was enclosed, the vil-lagers had nowhere to grow their crops, so theycould not feed their families. Some of them hadbuilt their houses on commbn land. When the com-mon land was enclosed, their houses were destroyed,and they became homeless.

To help homeless and unemployed people, parishworhhousesl were built, where the poor lived and werefed. Sometimes a local businessman who wanted cheapworkers hired a workhouse. The poor people who werekept in this workhouse worked for the businessman,and he provided food in return for work. This quick-ly led to a system which was little better than slav-ery. In the workhouses children, as well as adults,worked long hours and got so little food that theywere always hungry.

Other people left their village and went to the townsto find work. They provided the cheap working forcethat made possible an industrial revolution whichwas to change2 the face of Britain.

QUESTIONS1. How was farming done at the beginning of the

18th century? What was common land?2. Why had farming become more profitable?

I parish workhouses - [prrxoAcxue pa6otnbre AoMa2 which waS to change - roropofi upeAcroflJro rrsMeu?rrb

165

3. Why was it difficult to introduce improvements'and use machinery in farming when land was di-'tvided into small parts?

4. During the 18ih century most of common landwas enclosed, wasn't it? What does the term "en-'closures" rnean?

5. Who enclosed common land? How did they getithe suppqrt of Parliament for enclosures? )

6. The enclosures, together with the farming im-provements, made agriculture in Britain very ef-ficient, didn't they? What was the negative sideof the enclosures?

7. What attempts were made to help the poor? Whatis a workhouse? What were the conditions of lifein the workhouses?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

Iighting, cotnmon land, worhhouses, healthier, un-employed, wealthy, enclosed, improuements, disease,damaging, afford, shilled, enclosures, influence,

and people.

CHAPTER 14

THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION

Part 1. lndustrial Revolution.

By the early 18th century simple machines had al-ready been invented. With the help of the machines,large quantities of simple goods could be made quicklyand cheaply.

By the middle of the 18th century industry began touse coal for, changing iron ore into good quality iron orsteel. This made Britain the leading iron producer inEurope. Increased iron production made it possible tomanufacture ne\ry machinery for other industries. Oneinvention led to another, and increased production inone area led to increased production in others. In themiddle of the century other countries were buying Brit-ish uniforms, equipment and weapons for their ar-mies. To meet this increased demand, better methodsof production were found, and new machinery wasinvented which replaced handwork. In 1764 a spin-

farming methods.7. Small farmers could not

sary machinery.8. The and the farming

made agriculture more efficient.9. The enclosures were

people.10. When

6. A number of

had nowhere to grow11. Parish

urere introduced in

the neces-

improvements

for a lot of

was enclosed, the villagerstheirwere built to help homeless

crops.1. The towns2. During the

the towns

were centres of18th century efforts were made to make

3. From 1734 London had a street sys-tem.

4. There were four main classes of people in themerchants, ordi-

crafts-18th-century towns:nary merchants and traders,men, and workers who had no skills.

took over com-5.

166

People with money andmon land and it.

'4

167

ning machiner was invent.ed which could do the workof several hand spinners.The weauing machinez in.vented in 1785 revution-ized clothmakings. It al-lowed Britain to makecheap cloth, and Lanca-shire clothsa were sold inevery continent.

Factories supplied withmachinery did not need somany workers as before,and that created a seriousproblem: a lot of workerg

became unemployed. Workers tried to join togetherto protect themselves against powerful employers.Riots occurred, led by the unemployed who had beenreplaced at the factories by machines. In 17gg someof these rioters, known as Ludditess, began breakingup the machinery which had put them out of work.The situation in the country was very tense. peoplewere afraid of a revolution like the one in France.

QUESTIONS1. What was it possible to do even with the simple

machines that existed in the early 18th century?2. When did industry begin to use coal for chang-

ing iron ore into good quality iron and steel?t spinning machine - rrcaqxlrfi crauox2 weaving machine - upaAr4JrEHaff Marur{Ha3 revutionized clothmaking - peBoJrroquonrrBlrpoBaJra cynoHuoe

IIpoIltBBoACTBOa Lancashire ['le4keJra] cloths - rranKaruzpcrrre cyKna5 Luddites ['l,rdarts] - rryAAr{rbr168

lndustrial revolution

4.

5.

6.

7.8.

9.

Rich and poor

3. What did increased iron production make it pos-sible to do?What did other countries buy from Britain inthe middle of the 1Sth century?What advantage did the spinning machine givethe industry?Why were Lancashire cloths sold in every conti-nent? Why were they cheap?Why did unemployment increase?How did the workers try to protect themselvesagainst the employers?Who were the Luddites?

Part 2. Society and Religion.

Britain avoided revolution partly because of a newreligious movement. This movement did not comefrom the Church of England, which was slow to recog-nize change. Many new industrial towns in fact had nochurch or priests or any kind of organized religion.

169

wii 4

rThe new movement which met the needs of thc

growing industrial working class was led by the found.er of the Methodist Churchr John 'Wesley2. He trav.elled around the country preaching and teaching. Hevisited the new villages and industrial towns whichhad no parish church. Soon others joined in his work.

John Wesley's Methodism was above all a person.al and emotional form of religion. It was organizedin small groups, or chapels, all over the country. Ata time when the Church of England itself showedlittle interest in the social and spiritual needs of thegrowing population, Methodism was able to give or.dinary people a sense of purpose and dignity.

By the end of the century there were over 360Methodist chapels, most of them in industrial areas.These chapels were more democratic than the Churchof England.

John Wesley was no friend of the ruling classes,but he was deeply conservative and "had no time forradicalism." He disapproved of the French Revolutionand taught people to be hard-working and honest.

The Methodists were not alone. Other Christiansalso joined them in the movement against social in-justice. One of the best known was Elizabeth Fryl, a

Quaker, who spoke about the terrible conditions in theprisons and called for reform. It was also a small groupof Christians who were the first to act against the evilsof the slave trade. Others tried to limit the cruelty ofemployers who forced children to work long hours.

The influence of these 18th-century religious move-ments continued. A century later, when workers start-ed to organize themselves more effectively, many ofthem were members of Methodist or other Noncon-formist sects.

QUESTIONSWhat helped Britain to avoid revolution?What facts show that the Church of England wasslow to recognize change?Who was John Wesley? What did he do?What kind of religion was John Wesley'sMethodism? How was it organized? What didMethodism give ordinary people?Did John Wesley approve of the French Revolu-tion? What did he teach people?Were the Methodists alone in the movementagainst social injustice? Who supported them?Who was Elizabeth Fry? What did she attractpublic attention to?What other social evils did Christians speak about?

the Methodist ChurchIIepKOBLJohn Wesley ['d3rn'wcslr]

['mcOaclst'tJe:tJ] - Mero4rrctcnan

- Ilrxon Vac.nu1.2.

3.4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

170A Methodist meeting I Elizabeth Fry [r'lrzcbcO'tiar] - 3.nuaa6er tDpafi

171

r llf

Part 3. Revolution in France.

The French Revolution in 1789 alarmed all Euro'pean countries. The ruling classes in Britain werefrightened by the danger of the working class "awak'ening". They saw the danger of revolution in theBritish countryside, where the enclosures were tak'ing place, and in the towns, to which many of thelandless were going in search of work.

Several radicals sympathized with the eause ofthe French revolutionaries, and called for reformsin Britain. Both the gentry and the bourgeoisieaccused the radicals of putting Britain in danger.Tory crowds attacked the homes of radicals in Bir-mingham and several other cities. The Whig Partywas split. Those who feared revolution joined'Wil.liam Pitt the Younger (the son of Lord Chatham),a leader of the Tories, while those who wanted re-form joined the radical Whig leader Charles JamegFoxr. Fox's party was small, but later it formedthe link between the Whigs of the 18th century andthe Liberals of the 19th century.

The British government was so afraid that revolu-tion would spread to Britain that it imprisoned radi-cal leaders. It also formed the so-called yeomanrAforces from among the yeomen and gentry who sup-ported the ruling establishment, and trained them assoldiers in order to use them to prevent revolution.

QUESTIONS1. The French Revolution alarmed all European coun-

tries, didn't it? Where did the ruling classes ofBritain see the danger of revolution?

I Charles James Fox ['tJo:lz'd3ermz'fcks] - rlap;rra lrxemc (Dorc

172

'Were there people in Britain who sympathizedwith the cause of the French Revolution? Whowere they? What did they call for?Who accused the radicals of putting Britain indanger? What did Tory crowds do in Birming-ham and several other cities?Who was William Pitt the Younger?Who was Charles James Fox? What link did Fox'sparty form?What measures did the British government takebecause it was afraid of revolution?

Part 4. The War with Napoleon.One by one the European countries were defeated

by Napoleon, until at last most of Europe fell underhis control. In 1793, after Napoleon's army invadedBelgium and Holland, Britain went to war.

Britain decided to fight France at sea because ithad a stronger navy and because its own survivaldepended on control of its trade routes. The com-mander of the British fleet,Admiral Horatio Nelsonl,won brilliant victories overthe French navy, near thecoast of Egypt2, at Copenha-

9etr3, and finally near Spain,at Traf algal in 1805, where

Horatio [ro'rcrJrou] Nelson Incl-sn] - fopaqno HenrconEgypt ['i:dgrpt] - ErnuetCopenhagen [,koupn'hergorr lKouenrarenTrafalgar [trc'tclgc] - Tpa-$aarrap

2.

3.

4.5.

6.

Napoleon Bonaparte

The battle of Trafalgar

he destroyed'the French-Spanish fleet. Nelson was

himself killed at Trafalgar, but became one of Brit-ain's greatest national heroes.

In the same year as Trafalgar, in 1805, a Britisharmy landed in Portugall to fight the French. Thisarmy, with its Portuguese2 and Spanish allies, was

commanded by Arthur Wellington3.

t Portugal ['pr:tjugct] - Ilopryrallra2 Portuguese [.pc:tju'gi:z] - noptyra.nrcrcraft3 Arthur ['o:0e] Wellington ['welrrlten] - Apryp Belnrznrron

Like Nelson, Wellington quickly proved to be agreat commander. After several victories over theFrench in Spain, he invaded France. Napoleon, weak-ened by his disastrous invasion of Russia, surren-dered in 1814. But the following year he escaped andquickly assembled an army in France. Wellington,with the help of the Prussian armyr finally defeatedNapoleon atWaterlooz in Belgium in June 1815.

QUESTIONS1. When did Britain go to war against Napoleon?2. Why did Britain decide to fight France at sea?3. Who was Horatio Nelson? Where did he win vic-

tories over the French navy? Which was the de-cisive victory? When was it won?

4. When did the British army land in Portugal? Whowas the army commanded by?

5. In what battle was Napoleon finally defeatedin 1815?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words or wordcombinations from the list:

Methodism, auoided, Luddites, weapons, ore, defeat-e d, Lib erqls, W at erloo, une mploy e d, replac e d, qua nt it ie s,

brilliant, ruling classes, equipment, cheaply, steel, sense.

1. With the help of the machines large ofsimple goods could be made quickly and

2. By the middle of the 18th century industry beganto use coal for changing iron into goodquality iron and

Prussian [pr'rJn] armyWaterloo [.wrts'lu:'l -

- upyccKafl apMllfl

BarepnooThe battle of Waterloo

3.

4.b.

6.

1

I

II

i.

8.

9.

Other countries were buying British uniforms,for their armies.

of a new religious movement.John Wesley's was a personal andemotional form of religion.Methodism was able to give ordinary people a

of purpose and dignity.

12. One by one the European countries wereby Napoleon.

13. Admiral Horatio Nelson won

and

began breaking upwhich had put them out of work.

7. Britain revolution

Robert WalpoleHoratio NelsonElizabeth FryBonnie Prince Charlie

In the factories machinery handwork.As a result of introducing machinery, a lot ofworkers became UNIT SIX

THE AGE OF POWER AND PROSPERITY

In the 79th century Britain was nlore powerfuland, self-confident than euer. As a result of the in-dustrial reuolution, 79th-century Britain was the<worhshop of the world,>. British factories were pro-d,ucing rlore than any other country in the world.

Hauing rnanA colonies, Britain controlled large&re&s of the world,. The British had a strong feelingof their importance.

The rapid. growth of the mid.d'le class caused achange in the political balance. The role played, bythe mid.dl.e class in politics and gpuernrnent was in-creasingl! glrowing. BA 1914 th'e aristocracy and'the Crown had little power left.

CHAPTER 1'BRITAIN IN THE FIRST HALF

OF THE 19TH CENTURY

Part 1. Britain's lnternational Policy.

After the defeat of Napoleon Britain enjoyed astrong place in Europe. Its strength was in industryand trade, and in the navy which protected this trade.

Britain's trading position in the world was strong-er than any other country's. To defend its interestsit kept ships of its navy in almost every ocean of theworld. It had its ports on some islands in the Medi-

177

the machinery

partly because

vic-

attories over the French navy.

14. Wellington defeated Napoleon1815.in June

UNIT REVIEWWho were these people? What did they do? Write afew words about each of them.

John WesleyLord ChathamArthur Wellington

'176

terranean Sea, in the Indian Oceanr, in south andwest Africa, in Ceylon2 and Singapore3.

In Europe Britain did not want any nation to be-come too strong. Therefore it was glad that Russia'sinfluence in Europe was limited by Prussiaa and theempires of Austrias and Turkey6. It did not wantRussia to expand southwards by taking over theSlavicz parts of Turkey's possessions in the BalkansEand reach the Mediterranean. So Britain supportedTurkey against Russian expansion.

QUESTIONS1. What was the position of Britain in Europe after

the defeat of Napoleon?2. What measures did Britain take to defend its in-

terests in the world? Where did it have its ports?3. What were Britain's interests in Europe? What

countries limited Russia's influence in Europe?Why was Britain glad of it?

4. Why did Britain support Turkey against Russia'sexpansion? What was it afraid of on the part ofRussia?

Part 2. The Situation at Home.At home the contradictions between the rich and

the poor were growing and becoming dangerous. Dur-ing the wars with Napoleon Britain's factories had

' the Indian Ocean ['rndran'ouJn] - I4uguircxLafi oxeanI Ceylon Isr'lcn] - I-{efiaoa3 Singapore ['sr4gcpr:] - Cunranyp{ Prussia ['prnJc] - flpyccraa5 Austria ['o:strre] - Arctplratt Turkey ['tc:kr] - Typqua? Slavic ['slaevrk] -- cJraBrHcKue8 the Balkans ['bclkanz] - Ba.nranrr178

produced clothes, guns and other necessary war sup-plies to sell to its allies' armies. It had given jobs tomany workers.

All this changed when peace was declared in 1815.Suddenly there was no longer such a need for facto-ry-made goods, and many workers lost their jobs.Besides, 300,000 men from Britain's army and navyhad returned home and were looking for jobs, whichmade the number of the unemployed still greater.

The situation in the countryside was as bad as inthe towns. New methods of farming which were be-ing introduced reduced the number of workers need-ed, and many of them lost their jobs. The starvingfarmworkers tried to catch wild birds and animalsfor food. But almost aII the woods had been enclosedby the local landlords, and new laws forbade huntingin enclosed areas.

The poor people did not receive enough help fromthe government. Only those who lived in the work-houses were given any help at all. The workhouses

r-

The growth of cities. Sheffield in the 19th century

were feared and hated. They were crowded and dirty.The inhabitants had to work from early morning tilllate at night and got very little food.

Many poor people moved to the towns hoping for a

better life there. Between 1815 and 1835 Britainchanged from a nation of country people'to a nationmainly of townspeople. In the first thirty years. ofthe 19th century such cities as Birmingham, Shef-field, Manchester, Glasgowr and Leeds doubled in size.Several towns situated close together grew into hugecities with no countryside left in between. Londonremained the largest city. In 1820 it had a popula-tion of 1,25 million.

QUESTIONSWhat had given jobs to many people during thewars with Napoleon?Why did the declaration of peace in 1815 causean increase of unemployment? Give two reasons.What was the situation in the countryside? Whydid many farmworkers lose their jobs?Did the poor people receive enough help from thegovernment? Why were the workhouses fearedand hated?Why did Britain chhnge from a nation of coun-try people to a nation of townspeople between1815 and 1835?Name some cities which doubled in size duringthe first thirty years of the 19th century. Londonremained the largest city, didn't it? What wasits population in l82O?

I Glasgow ['glo:sgou] - l.rraaro

180

Part 3. Reforming the Parliamentary System.

The Whigs understood better than the Tories theneed to reform the law in order to improve social con-ditions. Both the Tories and the Whigs were afraid ofrevolution. The Whigs believed that the country couldavoid revolution by introducing reforms. The idea ofreforming the parliamentary system had appeared inthe 18th century. Early radicals had started speakingabout reforms under the influence of the AmericanWar of Independence and the French Revolution.

There were serious contradictions between the con-servative Tories and the radicals as to what classesof society should be mostly represented in Parlia-ment and determine the government's policy. TheTories believed that Parliament should represent"property" and the property owners (this idea is stillassociated by some people with today's Tory Party).The radicals believed that Parliament should repre-sent the people. The Whigs, or Liberals as they laterbecame known, were in the middle: they wanted tointroduce some changes in order to avoid revolution,but were not ready for any radical reforms.

The Tories hoped that the House of Lords wouldprotect the interests of the property owners. Whenthe House of Commons passed a billr on reform, it wasturned down by the House of Lords in 1830. LordGrey2 formed a Whig government, and the ReformBill was passed again. In 1832 the Lords accepted it.Of course they accepted it not because they now ac-cepted the idea of refoim. They were frightened by

t abill-BaKoHoIrpoeKT2 Lord Grey [grer] - Jlop.q fpefi

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

181

the riots in the streets and feared that the collapse ofpolitical and civil order might lead to revolution.

The Reform BilI was a progressive step. It gave theright to vote to many people who had previously beendeprived of this right. As a result of. the Reform Billmany people in Scotland, as well as many people in thetowns and cities of England, got the right to vote forthe first time.'Scotland's voters increased from 5,000to 65,000. Forty-one English towns, iacluding the largecities of Manchester, Birmingham and Bradfordr, wererepresented in Parliament for the very first lime. The1832 Reform Bill was a political recognition that Brit-ain had become an urban society.

QUESTIONSWhat was it necessary to do in order to improvethe social conditions in the country? Who under-stood it better: the Tories or the Whigs?What were both the Tories and the Whigsafraid of?When had the idea of reforming the parliamen-tary system first appeared? What world eventshad influenced its appearance?What were the contradictions between the Toriesand the radicals about?Who did the Tories think the Parliament shouldrepresent? What did the radicals believe? Whatwas the position of the Whigs?What hopes did the Tories lay on the House ofLords? How did the House of Lords try to pro-tect the interests of the property owners in 1830?When did the Lords accept the Reform Bill? Whydid they accept it?

' Bradford ['br.edfcd] - Bpe4{rop4182

8. Why is it right to call the Reform Bill a demo-cratic step? How did it tell on the number ofvoters in Scotland? How many towns received theright to vote for the first time?

Part 4. Workers' Revolts.Since 1824 workers began joining together in un-

ions to struggle against employers for their rightsand better wages. The first worhers' unions were smalland weak. The introduction of a cheap postage sgs-tem greatly helped the unions to organize themselvesacross the country: for one penny a letter could be sentto anyone, anywhere in Britain.

In 1838 the workers' unionsworked outr a document called aPeople's Charter2. The Charterdemanded rights that are nowaccepted by everyone: the vote forali adults, the right for a manwithout property to be an MP,secret votings, and payment forMPs. The House of Commons re-fused to meet these demandsa. Asa result, there was a wave ofriots and political meetings. In 1839 fourteen menwere killed by soldiers in a riot in Newports, Wales.Many others were sent to Britain's colonies as pris-oners. The governrnent's severe actions showed how

worked out - paapa6ota.ruPeople's Charter ['tJo:tc] - Hapo4nafl xapr]rgsecret voting - rafinoe roJrocoBaHraerefused to meet these demands - orrcagaJracb BbrrroJrHrrrb r{xrpe6oeauuaNewport ['nju:pc:t] - Hrronopr

187

1.

2.

3.

4.

b.

6.

7.

A postage stamp

much it feared that the poor might take power andestablish a republic.

SUESTIONS1. When did workers begin joining together in un-

ions? What did they organize unions for?2. What innovation greatly helped the workers' un-

ions to organize themselves across the country?3. When was the People's Charter worked out? What

rights did the Charter demand?4. Did the House of Commons meet the demands

stated in the Charter? What was the reaction ofthe workers' unions? What did the government'ssevere actions show?

Part 3. Robert Peel's Reforms.

The government was saved by the skill of RobertPeel, the Prime Minister of the time. In 1846 he abol-

ished the unpopular CornLaw of 1815 which hadkept the price of corn high-er than necessary. As a re-sult, the price of corn, as

well as other food-stuffs,dropped down, and life be-came better. Peel used theimproved economic situa-tion to weaken the Char-tist movementl, whichgradually died.

the Chartist ['tJo:trst] move-ment - 9aprncrcrcoe ABI4-ficeHve

Peel also turned his at-tention to the crime prob-lem. He established a reg-ular police force in Londonin 1829. At first peoplelaughed at the men in blueuniform and top hats1. Butduring the next thirtyyears almost every othertown and county startedtheir own police forces.The new police forces weresuccessful: with time muchcrime was pushed out ofthe larger cities, then outof towns, and then out ofthe countryside, and lifebecame safer.

The aristocracy in Europe admired Britain's suc-cess in avoiding the storm of revolution in 1848.European monarchs wished they were as safe on theirthrones as the British queen was on hers. And Euro-pean liberals wished they could act as freely as radi-cals in Britain did. During almost the whole of the19th century Britain was the envy of the world. Itwas a model of industrial success and of free consti-tutional government.

QUESTIONS1. Who was Robert Peel?2. What law did Robert Peel abolish in 1846? What

was the result of this act? How did Robert Peeluse the improved economic situation?

I

185

Queen Victoria

A street robberyt top hats - qlrrrrrHApbr

T

9.

10.

3.

4.

D.

6.

How did Robert Peel deal with the crime situa-tion in the country? When was the regular policeforce established in London?What was the result of establishing a regularpolice force in the countrY?What did the aristocracy in Europe admire aboutBritain? Why did European monarchs envy theBritish queen? Why did European liberals envyBritish radicals?What was Britain a model of during almost thewhole of the 19th centurY?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

influence, represent, reforms, townspeople, auoid-ing, contradictions, recognition, force, conseruatiue,enclosed, social, feared, property, to expand, ocean,People's Charter.

8. It was necessary to reform the law in order tolmprove conditions.The Whigs believed that the country could avoidrevolution only by introducingThere were serious contradictions between the

Tories and the radicals.11. The Tories believed that Parliament should rep-

resent owners.12. The radicals believed that Parliament should

the people.13. The 1832 Reform Bill was a political

that Britain had become an urban society.14. The workers' unions worked our a document called

a15. Robert Peel established a regular police

in London.16. The aristocracy in Europe admired Britain's suc-

cess In1848.

the storm of revolution in

CHAPTER 16

THE YEARS OF SELF-CONFIDENCE

Part 1. lndustrial Power.

In 1851 Queen Victoria opened the Great Exhibi-tion of the Industries of All Nations in the CrystalPalace in London. The aim of the Exhibition was toshow the world the greatness of Britain's industry.No other nation could produce as much at that time.By 1850 Britain was producing more iron than therest of the world together.

Britain had become powerful because it had enoughcoal, iron and steel for its own industry and could

187

1. Britain was glad that Russia'srope was limited by Prussia,

in Eu-Austria and Tur-

key.2. Britain kept ships of its navy in almost every

of the world.3. Britain did not want Russia south-

wards.4. The between the rich and the poor

were growlng.5. Almost all the woods were by the lo-

cal landlords.The workhouses were and hated.Between 1815 and 1835 Britain changed from a

nation of country people to a nation mainly of

6.7.

186

r

The Great Exhibition

even export them to Europe. Having coai, iron and

steel, it could produce new heavy indust,r'ial goods

like ships and steam engines. It could also make ma-

chinery which produced English traditional goods -woollen and cotton cloth in the factories of Lanca-shire. Britain's cloth was cheap and was exported toIndia, to other colonies and to the Middle East. Brit-ain had the largest fleet in the world.

The railway. The pride of Britain and a great exam-ple of its industrial power was its railway system. Thefirst trains were goods trains, which quickly became

very popular because they made transporting goods

faster and cheaper. The network of railway tracks wasquickly growing and by 1840 their total length was

2,4OO miles. Railways connected not only the indus-trial towns with London, but also economically unim-portant towns. The canals were soon empty, because

everything went by railway. The speed of the railway

188

even made it possible to deliver fresh fish and rasp-berries from Scotland to London in one night.

In 1851 the railway companies provided passengertrain seruice. Passenger trains stopped at all stations.Now people could move from place to place muchmore quickly and easily.

With the introduction of the railway system manypeople began to live in suburbs, from which theytravelled into the city every day by train. The sub-urb was a copy of a country village with all theadvantages of a town.

SUESTTONS1.What exhibition was opened in the Crystal Palace

in 1851? What was the aim of the exhibition?2.Why had Britain become powerful?3.What goods did Britain produce?4.What parts of the world was Britain's cloth ex-

ported to?5.What was the pride of Britain and a great example

of its industrial power? What was the total lengthof the railway tracks by 1840?

6.Why did the first goods trains become popular veryquickly?

7.When was passenger train service provided? Howdid the Iife of many people change with the in-troduction of passenger train service?

S.What do you think: why did many people find itbetter to live in suburbs?

Part 2. The Rise of the Middle Glass.

Before the 19tr'century the middle class was smalland was represented by merchants, traders and smallfarmers, as well as by industrialists and factory own-

189

ers who had joined it in the second half of the 18th

century. In the 19th century the number of peoplebelonging to the middle class greatly increased. Nowthe middle class was made up of people of differentwealth, social position and kinds of work. It includedthose who worked in the Church, the Law, medicine,the civil service, the diplomatic service, banks, andalso in the army and navy. Typical of the middle classin the 19th century were self-made men, who came frompoor families. They believed in hard work, a regularstyle of life, and were careful with money. The middleclass included both successful and rich industrialistsand small shopkeepers and office workers.

guESTroNSWho was the middle class represented by beforethe 19th century?How did the composition of the middle classchange in the 19th century? What new peoplejoined it?What was typical of many representatives of themiddle class? What principles did self-made menbelieve in?

Part 3. Life in Towns.

The towns were still unhealthy. Very few houseshad water supply and sewerage systems. Dirty watercaused epidemics. In 1832 an outbreak of cholerakilled 31,000 people.

In the middle of the century the administration ofmany towns began to appoint health officersl and toprovide sewerage and clean water. These measures

t health officers - caHvIrapHble Bpaqu

190

emod ls pnineve nA

quickly reduced the level of disease, particularly chol-era. In some towns parks were laid outl in newly builtareas, public baths were opened where people couldwash. There appeared Ii-braries and concert halls.

Representatives ofthe middle class usual-Iy lived in houses witha small garden in frontof each, and a larger oneat the back. The housesof workers usually hadonly four small rooms,two upstairs and twodownstairs, and a smallback yard. Still there

' parks were laid out --6uwr pas1urbr [apKr4

1.

2.

3.

Slums

remained many slunx areas inhabited by the poor-est people, where tiny houses were built very close

i

together. !

QUESTIONSWhy were the towns unhealthy?What measures were taken by the administra-tion of nlany towns to improve the condition"b oflife? What did they achieve by taking these meas- 'i.ures? How did the town administration take careof the cultural life?Did the people living in towns have gardens? d

What areas did the poorest people live in?

Part 4. Population and Politics. 1

Both Tories and Whigs understood the economicneed for free trade, as well as the need for social I f

and political reform which would allow the middle I

class to grow richer and to expand. That's why theysupported the liberal movement in the countrieswith which Britain hoped to trade. Britain welcomed r

the liberation movement led by Simon Bolivarl inSouth American Spanish colonies, and helped theGreeks in their struggle for independence from theTurkish Empire. There was yet another reason forBritain to help the Greeks. Russia was also helpingthe Greeks in their struggle against Turkey. BothRussia and Greece were orthodox2 Christian coun-tries, and Britain was afraid that Russia would take I r

control over Greece and expand south to the Medi-terranean Sea.

t Simon Bolivar ['sanncn bo'li:vo:] - Clruon Bo.nrzrap2 orthodox ['r:0cdoks] - [paBocJrasurrrt

192

Palmerston. From 1846 until 1865 the most im-portant political figure was Lord Palmerston, a min-ister, and from 1855 Prime Minister. He had been aTory as a young man, but later joined the Whigs.Palmerston was known for liberalism in his foreignpolicy. He firmly believed that despotic states weretrad for free trade, and he openly supported Euro-pean liberal and independence movements. In 1859--60 he successfully supported the Italian independ-ence movement against Austrian and French interests.

The growth of democracy. After Palmerston's deathin 1865, a much stricter "two-party" system devel-oped in Britain. The two parties, Tory (or Conserva-tive as it became officially known) and Liberal, de-veloped greater party organizations and demandedgreater loyalty from their members. The British po-litical system of today was mostly built in the 1860sand 1870s. Between 1867 and 1884 the number ofvoters increased from 20 per cent to 60 per cent ofmen in towns and to 70 per cent in the country, in-cluding some representatives of the working class"In 1872 voting was carried out in secret for the firsttime. The growth of the newspaper industry strength-ened the importance of public opinion. Democracygrew quickly. The House of Commons grew in sizeand now had over 650 members. The House of Lordslost the powerful position which it had held in the18th and early 19th centuries. Now it could no longerplay an important part in forming the state policy.

Trade unions. After 1850 a number of trade un-ions appeared. In 1868 the first congress of tradeunions, which represented 118,000 members, met inManchester. The following year the new Trade Un-ion Congress established a parliamentary committee,

193

I'

1.2.

3.4.

tltl

the purpose of which was to represent workers inParliament. This wish of trade unions to work with-in Parliament, not outside it, brought trade union-ists into close co-operation with radicals and reform-ist Liberals. Even the Conservative Party tried toattract worker support.

QUESTIONS 1

1. What economic need was understood by both To-ries and Whigs?

2. What liberal movements did Britain welcome andsupport in other countries?

3. What was the reason for Britain to be afraid thatRussia might take control over Greece?

4. Who was Lord Palmerston? What was he knownfor in his foreign policy?

5. Why did Palmerston openly sqpport liberal andindependent movements in Europe?

6. How did both the Tory and the"Liberal Partiesstrengthen discipline among their members?

7. How did the number of voters increase in theperiod between L867 and 1874?

8. When was voting carried out in secret for thefirst time?

9. How did the growth of the newspaper industrytell on the development of democracy?

10. What changes occurred in the House of Commonsand the House of Lords?When did the first congress of trade unibns meet?How many members did it represent?What policy of the trade unions brought theminto close co-operation with radicals and reform-ist Liberals?

11.

t2.

194

Part 5. The British Empire.

In the 19th century Britain was engaged in many"colonial tqars" , the purpose of which was to establishits influence in different parts of the world and toensure the safety of its trade routes. In 1840-1842and in 1856-1860 it waged two so-called Opium Warsagainst Chinal, as a result of whi.ch China had to giveaway some of its territories and to allow Britain tocarry on profitable trade in opium. Historiaris consid-er the Opium Wars to be shameful events in Britishcolonial history.

Fear that Russia would expand southwards towardsIndia resulted in disastrous wars in Afghanistan2(1839-1842), in Sindhs - a part of modern Paki-stana (1843) and in India (1845-1846 and 1848-1849).

Britain also feared that in the Middle East Rus-sia would destroy the weak Ottoman Empires, whichcontrolled Turkey and the Arab6 countries. It mightbe dangerous for Britain's sea and land routes toIndia. So, when Russia and Ottoman Turkey went towar in the CrimeaT in 1853, Britain joined the Turksagainst Russia.

Britain's first colonies in Africa were on the westcoast. Then it took over the Cape of Good Hope8 atthe southern point, because it needed a port there onits sea route to India.

I China ['darno] - Kurailr' Afghanistan [efgaenrsten] - A{rranucr,an" Sindh [srnd] - Cungx'1 Pakistan [.pa:kr'sto:n] - flasucrant' Ottoman Empire ['ctsmen'cnrpara] - Orrouancxafl r{Muepr{fltt Arab ['eereb] - apa6crcuet the Crimea [krar'mre] - Kpuvr8 the Cape of Good Hope - MErc .[o6pofi Ha4enc4rr

195

Reports sent by European travellers and explorersof Africa increased Britain's interest in this conti-nent. The most famous of the explorers was DavidLivingstonel, who was a Scottish doctor and a Chris-tian rnissionary. He made several journeys from theeast coast to the central parts of Africa. Livingstonediscovered areas of Africa unknown to EuropeanF and"opened" these areas to Christianity, to European ideasand to European trade.

Unfortunately, Christianity became a tool forbuilding a commercial and political empire in Afri-ca. The governments of Europe rushed to the " BlachContinent" in order to seize lands. They did it un-der the pretext of bringin g " civilization" to the peo-ple. By 1890 Africa was divided by European coun-tries into " areas of interest" . By the end of thecentury several European eountries had taken overlarge areas of Africa.

Sometimes the interests of different European coun-tries clashed. In South Africa there were disagree-ments between Britain and the Dutch settlers (theBoers2), which led to a war at the end of the century(the Boer'War, 1899-1902).

In 1882 Britain invaded Egypt "to protect interna-tional shipping", as it was officially stated. In fact,Britain protected its own trading interests, its routeto India through the newly dug Suez Canals. Britaintold the world that its occupation of Egypt wouldonly last for a short time, but it did not leave thecountry until it was forced to do so in 1954,

David Livingstone ['dervrd'lrvrqstcn] -,(asuA JlzsuHrcroHthe Boers ['bouez] - 6ypuSuez Canal ['su:rz ka'nzcl] - Cyeqnzft xana.rr

A battle in an African colonyBritain had one more reason for creating colonies.

From the 1830s the population of Britain was rapid-ly growing, and soon the small territory of the Brit-ish Isies would not hold all the population. A solu_tion to.the problem v/as found in the development ofcolonies for British settlers in different parts of theworld. Encouraged by the government, lots of peoplemoved to Canada, Australiar and New Zealandz, set_tled on free land and farmed it. In all these countriesthere rffere native populations. In Canada most of themwere pushed westwards. In Australia British setilerskilled most of the native inhabitants; only a few wereleft in the central desert areas. In New Zealand the

196

' Australia [c:s'trerlje] -. Ancrpa;rua' New Zealand ['nju:'zi:lanclJ "- Hosax BelanArns

197

MaoriL inhabitants suffered less than in Canada orAustralia: not so many of them were killed, but theylost most of their land.

Soon the white colonies were allowed to governthemselves. Officially they no longer depended onBritain. But still, they accepted the British monarchas their head of state.

By the end of the 19th century Britain controlled theoceans and much of the land areas of the world. MostBritish strongly believed in their right to an empire,and were very proud of it. But even at this moment ofgreatest power Britain was already beginning to spendmore on its empire than it took from it. The empirel.ras becoming a heavy load, And by the time when

Maori ['rr-raurr] - Maopu

the colonies began to demand their freedom in the20th century, this load had become impossibly heavy.

QUESTIONS1. What was the purpose of the numerous "colonial

wars" Britain was engaged in?2. What are "Opium Wars"? When did Britain wage

them? What did it gain as a result of these wars?3. Why did Britain wage wars in Afghanistan, Pa-

kistan and India?4. Why did Britain join Turkey in the Crimean War

of 1853-1856 against Russia?In what part of Africa were Britain's first colo-nies? Why did Britain take over the Cape of GoodHope?Who was David Livingstone? What did he do?What excuse did European governments use tojustify their policy of seizing lands in Africa?What areas was Africa divided into by Europeancountries?Where and when was the Boer War waged? Whatwas the reason of ii?Under what pretext did Britain invade Egypt inL882? What was the real reason of this action?When did Britain promise it would leave Egypt?When did it really leave this country?Why did Britain's government encourage Brit-ish people to move to different parts of the worldand start colonies there?How did the existence of the white colonies inCanada, Australia and New Zealand tell on thenative population of these lands?How did many British feel about the BritishEmpire?

199

6.7.

10.

11.

L2.The British Empire at the end of the 19th century

198

Part 6. lreland.

In Ireland the struggle between Catholics and Prot- -

estants became a struggle for Irish freedom from Eng-lish rule. The native Irish population, most of whichwere Catholics,.was cruelly oppressed by Protestants,who were supported by the British government.

In 1845, 1846 and 1847 lreLand suffered t worstdisaster in"its entire history: for three years the potatocrop failedl. Potatoes were the main food of the poor.At the same time Ireland had enough wheat to feed theentire population, but it was grown by the Protestantlandowners for export to England, so the Irish popula-tion did not get it. The situation was tragic. One and ahalf million people (about 20 per cent of the total Irishpopulation) died from hunger in these three years.

Many Irish emigrated. At least a million peopleleft-during these years, and the emigration contin-ued during the rest of the century because of thegreat poverty in Ireland. Most emigrants went to theUnited States of America. Between 1841 and 1920almost five million Irish settled there.

The Irish who went to the United States did notforget their old country and did not forgive Britain.By 1880 many Irish Americans were rich and power-ful and were able to support the Irish freedom move-ment. Today they still have an influence on Britishpolicy in Ireland.

QUESTIONSl.What was the position of the native population of

Ireland in the 19th century?

t the potato crop failed - raprocpenb.Ire ypoArraca (neypoxauraproSeaa)

200

2.What terrible disaster did Ireland suffer in 1845,1846 and 1847? How many people died from, hun-ger in these three years?

8.What country did many Irish emigrate to? Howmany Irish settled in the United States betweent84L and 1920

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

opinion, pretext, waged, self-made, cloth, suburbs,liberalism, health officers, exported, goods, sewerage,independence, hard, orthodox, middle, power, regular,libe ration, pride, outbreah,1. Britain's was cheap and was

to other countries.2. The of Britain and a great example of

its industrial was its railway sys-tem.The first trains were trains.With the introduction of the railway system manypeople began to live in

5. In the 19th century the number of people belong-ing to the class greatly increased.

6. Typical of the middle class in the 19th centurymen who believed in

work and a7. In 1832 an

style of life.of cholera kitled 31,000

people.8. In the middle of the century the administration

of many towns began appointing andto provide and clean water.

3.4.

9. Britain welcomed theled by Simon Bolivar.

movement

201

10.

11.

Britain helped the Greeks in their struggle forfrom the Turkish Empire.

Russia and Greece werecountries.

12. Palmerston was known forforeign policy.

13. The growth of the newspaper industry strength-ened the importance of public

14. Britain two so-called Opium Warsagainst China.

15. The governments ofunder the

Europe rushed to Africaof bringing civilization

to the people.

CHAPTER 17

THE END OF AN AGE

Part 1. Social and Economic lmprovements.

Between 1875 and 1914 the conditions of the poorin Britain greatly improved because prices fell by 40per cent and real wages doubled. As a result, poorfamilies could eat better food, including meat, freshmilk (brought from the countryside by train) and veg-etables. Life at home was made more comfortable. Mosthomes now had gas for heating and lighting.

Public education was given attention to. In 1870 and1891 two Education Acts were passed. As a result ofthese Acts, all children up to the age of 13 had to go toschool, where they were taught reading, writing andarithmetic. In the new industrial cities they startedbuilding redbrick universities. The term redbrich camefrom the tradition of building the new universities ofred brick. It distinguished them from the older, stone-202

Christian

in his

lrrrilt universities of Ox-lbrd and Carnbridge. Un-like Oxford and Cam-lrridge, these neryr r niversities taught morescience and technologyl,o meet the demands ofl]ritain's industry.

There \ryere socialr:hanges as well. Powerin the countryside gradually moved from the countrysquire to new county councilsL which were made up ofelected men and women. Each county council had a

staff of ad.ministratorsz who carried out the decisions

of the council. This system still operates today'

QUESTIONS1. Why did the conditions of the poor improve be-

tween L875 and 1914?2. How did the system of public education improve?

What was provided by the Education Acts of 1870

and 1891?3. What steps were taken to provide higher educa-

tion on a wider scale? Explain the term " redbrichuniuersities". How did the curriculum of the new

universities differ from that of Oxford and Cam-

bridge? Why did the new universities teach morescience and technologY?

4. What changes took place in the administrationin.the countryside? Who were the members ofthe new countY councils?

1 county councils ['kauntl'kaunsrlz] - coBerbl rpatlrctaaa staff of administrators - rurar aAMItHIIcrparIIBHbIx cJIy-

)Kaulux 203

Pupils at an elementary school

Cricket

Part 2. Sport.

By the end of the 19th century two sports, cricketand football, had become very popular with the Brit-ish public. Cricket had started in the 18th century,but only a century later its rules were organized.From 1873 a country championship took place eachyear. With time, cricket was spread to different partsof the British Empire: to the West Indies, India, Pa-kistan, Ceylon, Australia and New Zealand.

The proper rules of Britain's other main game,football, were also organized in the 19th century. Asan organized game, it was at first a middle-class, orgentlemen's, sport, but it quickly became popularamong all classes. Soon it drew huge crowds of peo-ple, who came to watch the professional footballersplay the game. By the end of the 19th century almostevery town of Britain had its own football team. Soonfootball was also exported abroad.

QUESTIONSWhich are the two most popular sports in tsritain?When did people begin playing cricket? Whenwere the rules of playing cricket organized? Iscricket played only in Britain or has it also spreadto other parts of the world?

1.2.

204

3. When were the proper rules of playing footballorganized? How was the popularity of footballgrowing?

Part 3. Ghanges in Thinking.

In t776 the Scottish economist and philosopherAdam Smitht published a book called Enquiry intolhe Wealth of Nationsz.ln the book he expressed theidea that everyone had the right to personal freedom''lhis idea became very popular in the 19th century'Influenced by Adam Smith several capitalist econo-

rrrists declared that government should not interferein trade and industry at all. The growing middle class

readily accepted these ideas.However, it soon became very clear that the free-

dom of factory owners to do as they Iiked led to slav-c'ry and misery for the poor. More and more people

were beginning to understand that government mustinterfere to protect the poor and the weak' The re-

sult was a number of laws to improve working condi-tions. One of them, in 1833, limited the number ofhours that women and children were allowed to work'Another law in the same year abolished slavery inthe colonies of the British Empire.

Robert Owens. There were many factory owners who

tried to avoid obeying the new laws. There were others,who believed that a factory owner should take care ofhis workers if he wanted them to work well' One ofsuch men was Robert Owen, a factory owner in Scot-

Adam Smith ['adcm'smt0] - AAaru CmulEnquiry Itn'kwatort] into the WeaIth of Nations -<,I,Icc.neAosaHrle o IIpIIpoAe I4 nputluHax 6oratctsa HapoAoBD

Robert Owen ['robet'ouon] -Po6ept Oysn205

land. He built his factory in the countryside, away fromthe fog and dirt of the cities. Near the factory ne Uuittgood houses for the workers and a school for their chil-dren. His workers had shorter working hours. Owenproved that his workers produced more in less timethan the workers of other factories who were foreed towork longer hours. Owen also encouraged traderunions.Owen's ideas and example began to spread. There ap_peared other reformers, who took care to improvethe working and living conditions of their *o"k".".One of them was the,euaker Arthur Cadburyr, fa_mous for his Birmingham chocolate factory, who builtfirst-class houses for the workers of his factory.

Still improvements \Mere slow, and B0 per cent ofthe nation were extremely poor. The great writer ofthe 19th century Charles Dickens2 attacked the richand powerful for their cruelty towards the weak and,unfortunate in society. By the end of the centurymost people understood that it was right for the gov-ernment to interfere in factory conditions, problemsof health in towns and education for children.

William Booths and the Salvation Armya. In lgZBWilliam Booth started a new religious movement,called the Saluation Army, the aim of which waS to"m.ahe war" on poverty. Members of the SalvationArmy organized help for the poorest people.

Charles Darvin's theory. In lgb7 Charles Darvinspublished The Origin of Specdes6. His theory of evo_

- Apryp lta46eprarlap.ura flzrrcenc

Vumau Eyrc

- Aprvrza cnaceur{fl9ap.rra .flaPnuu

['spi:Ji:z] - <flpozcxo]KAeHr{e

2ffoo"'

lution was based on scientific observation. Many peo.

;rle saw in Darvin's theory a proof of mankind's abil-ity to find a scientific explanation for everything.llut for churchgoing people it was a shock. Most ofthe churchgoing population believed every word ofthe Bible. They found it difficult to accept Darvin'stheory that the world had developed over millions ofyears and had not been created in si4 days by Godnnd that man had developed from the ape and nothad been created by God in one day. Darvin's theorycaused a battle between faith and reason which last-ed for the rest of the century.

QUESTIONS1. Who was Adam Smith? What book did he pub-

lish? What was the idea expressed in the book?2. What did some of the l9th-century economists

declare under the influence of Adam Smith's ideaof personal freedom?

3. What prgved to be wrong about the idea of per-sonal freedom? What did the freedom of factoryowners lead to?

4. What did people begin to understand about theidea of personal freedom? What was the result ofthis understanding? How did the new laws pro-tect the workers?

5. What was the attitude of the factory owners tothe laws protecting the workers?

6. Who was Robert Owen? Why did he build hisfactory in the countryside? What did he buildnear his factory? How long was the workday ofhis workers? What did Robert Owen prove?

7. How did Robert Owen's ideas and example affectother factory owners? Were there other reforin-ers? Who was Arthur Cadbury?

247

8. What was the contribution of Charles Dickens inthe struggle against the social evils of the time?,

9; What is the Salvation Army? Who was it started by,and when? What was the aim of the Salvation Army?

10. What did most people understand by the end ofthe century?

11. Who was Charles Darvin? What book didrhe pub-,lish? What was Charles Darvin's theory of evo-lution based on?

12. Why was Darvin's theory a shock for.manychurchgoing people? What statements of thetheory was it difficult for them to accept? Didthe battle between faith and reason last long?

Part 4. The Storm Clouds of War., By the end of the 19th century Britain was no long-

er as powerful as it had been. In Europe Germany ,

was now united and very strong. Like the USA it wasproducing more steel than Britain, and it had builtstrong industry and a strong navy.

The danger of war with Germany had been clearfrom the beginningof the 20th centu.ry, and it broughtFrance and Britain together.

By 1914 the political situation in Europe was ex-tremely dangerous. Germany and Austria-Hungaryrhad made a military alliance. Russia and France hadmade another- alliance.

In June LgL4 the Austrian Archduke2 Francis Fer-dinand3 was killed in Serbiaa. Austria-Hungary de-

I Austria-Hungary [':r:strre'hnqgorr] - Aacnpo-Benrpraa2 Austrian ['o:strran] Archduke ['o:tJdju:k] - aacrpuft,cnuftapqrepqor3 Francis Ferdinand ['frensls'fo:drnend] -(Dpanq

(Dep4uHaHAa Serbia ['so:bra] - Cep6ua208

clared war on Serbia. Russia, which was an ally ofSerbia, declared war on Austria-Hungary. Automati:cally, it meant a war with Germany. France was Rus-sia's ally, so it was now also at war with Germany.

In August l9l'4 Germany's troops invaded Francethrough Belgiuml. Britain, which had been Belgium'sally since 1838, immediately declared war on Germa-ny. Thus, practically the whole of Europe was fight-ing. The First World War had started.

QUESTIONS1. What was the political situation in Europe at the

beginning of the 20th century?2. What military allianies were formed by 1914?3. When and how did the First World War start?4. When did Britain enter the war? What caused

Britain to declare war on Germany?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words and wordcombinations from the list:

county councils, fog, alliance, Saluation, interfere,football, irnproued, technology, rniserg, dirt, obserua'tion, to spread, personal, crichet, redbriek, slauery,science, abolished.1. Between 1875 and 1914 the conditions of the poor

in Britain greatly2. In the new industrial cities they started building

universities.3. Unlike Oxford and Cambridge, the new universi-

ties taught more and4. Power in the countryside gradually

the country squire to newmoved from

I Belgium ['beld3om] - Be.nrrus209

7.

8.

5. By the end of the 19th century two sports,and , had become very

popular with the British public.6. Adam Smith expressed the idea that everyone had

the right to freedom.Several economists declared that governmentshould not in trade and industry at all.The freedom of factory owners to do as they likedled to and for the poor.

the colonies9. In 1833 slavery wasof the British Empire.

10. Robert Owen built hisside, away from theof the cities.Owen's ideas beganWilliam Booth started a new religious movementcalled the Army.Darvin's theory of evolution was based on scien-tificBy 1914 Germany and Austria-Hungary had made

ln

factory in the country-and

11.L2.

13.

L4.a military

UNIT REVIEW\Mho were these people? What did they do? Write afew words about each of them.

Robert Peel Robert OwenDavid Livingstone William BoothAdam Smith Charles Darvin

210

UNIT SEVENTHE 2OTH CENTURY

At the beginning of the 20th century Britairl w&satill one of th.e greatest world. powers. In th.e mid,-ille of the century, although it was still one of the"llig Three", it was consid,erably weaker than theIln,ited, States or the Soviet Union. By the end oflhe I97Os Britain was just an ordinary country,un.d econornically poorer than a nuntber of otherlluropean countries.

One of the reasons for Britain's d,ecline in theZ0th centurq was the cost of two world wars. An-ttlher reason was that Britain could. not spend, asnt.uch rnoneU on d,euelopittg its industry as otherin,dustrial natiorus did: at first it needed a lot ofnloneV for keeping up the empire, and uthen theetnpire fell apart, a.s much noneA was needed, tonolue nurrlerotls econorlic problems connected withnt.aintaining friendly relations within the BritishCornrnonwealth of N ations.

CHAPTER 18

THE FIRST WORLD WARAND ITS AFTER-EFFECTS

Part 1. The first World War.

Germany had better trained soldiers and bettercquipment, and in the first few weeks of war in 1914it nearly defeated the Allies, Britain and France. TheGerman troops crossed the border and penetrated intothe territory of France. The French army and thesmall British force managed to stop the German army

211

only at the Riuer Marner deep inside France. Thenfollowed four years of bitter fighting, during whichboth armies lived in trenches.

The war was going on not only in Europe. In the"Middle East the British fought against Turkish troopsin lraq2, tn Palestines, and in the Dardanellesa . There, '

too, the fighting went on for a long time. Only intgLT the'British were able to drive back the Turks.

The war at sea was more important than the waron land, because defeat at sea would have caused'Britain's surrender. Being an island state, Britainhad always depended on imported goods. Beginningwith 1915, German submarines started sinking mer-chant ships which carried supplies to Brifrain. 40 percent of Britain's merchant fleet was sunk during the'war. There was one period in the course of the warwhen for six weeks the British population was on the''point of starvation. When Russia, after the Bolshe-'vik Revolution of 1917 made peace with Germany,the German generals hoped for victory against theAllies. But German submarine attacks on neutral shipsdrew America into the war against Germany. Thearrival of American troops in France ended Germa-ny's hopes, and it surrendered in November 1918.

QUESTIONS1. Why did Germany nearly defeat the Allies in the

very first weeks of war in 1914?2. Where did the French army and the small Brit-

ish force manage to stop the German army?

I the River Marne [mo:n] - p. Mapna2 Iraq [r'ro:k] - llpax3 Palestine ['peelrstarn] - fla.necrlrnaa the Dardanelles [.do:de'nels] - .{apgaxe.nnsr212

In what other parts of the world, besides Europe,was the war going on?Why was the war at sea more important for Brit-ain than the war on land? What had Britain al-ways depended on, because it was an island state?What damage did German subrnarines cause theBritish merchant fleet? How did it tell on theBritish population?What did the German generals hope for whenRussia made peace with Germany after the Bol-shevik Revolution of 1917?Why did the United States enter the war?When was the First World War over?

Part 2. The Rise of the Labour Party.

The Labour Partyr rapidly grew during the war. Ithad begun in the 19th century as part of the traderunion movement, and was formally established in1900. The trade unions themselves grew enormouslyin the 20th century, and by 1918 numbered eight mil-lion members. In that year, for the first time, allmen aged lwenty-one and some women over thirtywere allowed to vote. In the following years thenumber of voters doubled from eight to sixteen mil-lion people, most of whom belonged to the workingclass. As a result of these changes, the Labour Par-ty, which had won twenty-nine seats in Parliamentin the 1906 election, won fifty-seven seats in 1918,one hundred and forty-two seats in 1922, and onehundred and ninety-one seats in 1925. In 1924 thefirst Labour government was created.

I The Labour Party - Jlefi6opuircras naprl4fl

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.8.

21)

The Labour Party was not "socialist". Its leaderswere members of the middle class. Instead of a. socialrevolution, they wanted to develop a kind of socialismthat would fit the situation in Britainl. The Britishworking class was not interested in socialist ideas. Infact Karl Manr2, who spent most of his life in Britainstudying and writing, w4s almost unknown exdept to afew friends. Both he and his close friend Friedrich En-gels3, who owned a factory in Manchester, had littlehope that the British working class would become trulysocialist. The working class people wanted to improvetheir financial situation and to enjoy the advantages ofthe middle class without becoming involved in social-ist beliefs. The trade unions and the Labour Party didnot want to bring downa the existing form of govern-ment; they wanted to change things by aciepted con-stitutional means, in Parliament. So, the effect onB/itain of the tgIT Bolshevik Revolution in Russiawas not great. Some people were interested in Marx-ism and they established a Communist Party, but theLabour Party firmly refused to be connected with it.

As a result of the Labour Party's success in t924,the Liberal Party almost completely disappeared. Lib-erals with traditional capitalist ideas joined the Con-senrative Party, and Liberal "reformers" joined theLabour Party.

QUESTIONS1. What did the Labour Party develop from? When

was it formally established?

' that would fit the sitrration in Britain - xoroprrfi 6rr nogoruii.nK crrryaquu n Bpuranuz

2 Karl Marx ['ko:l'mo:ks] - Kap.n Maprcc \3 Friedrich Engels ['fri:drrk'engolz.f - Qpugpux Enre.nsca to bring down - cBepruyrb214

2. lnwhat year were all men aged twenty-one given

the right to vote? How was the number of votersgrowing during the following years?

g. ihe number of seats in Parliament won by the

Labour Party was constantly growing during the

first two decades of the 20th century, wasn't it?How was it growing between 1906 and 1923?

4. Was the Labour Party "socialist"? Did they wanta socialist revolution in the country? What didthey want?

5. What did the British working class people want?

What didn't they want to be involved in?

6. What was the effect of the Russian BolshevikRevolution on Britain?

7. How did the success of the Labour Party in L924tell on the Liberal PartY?

Part 3. lreland.

Before the beginning of the First World War Brit-ain had agreed to give Ireland self-gouerwnent. There

was a sroup of Irishmen who were not satisfied withthe idea of self-government. They formed a republi-

can party and demanded a full independence fromBritain. in the 1918 elections to the British Parlia-ment the republicans won in almost every area ofIreland except Ulster. Instead of joining the Britishparliament, they met tog'ether in DublinL and started

their own new parliament. They announced that Ire-land was now a republic. Many Irishmen joined the

republic's army and began a guerilla fighting against

thl gritish. As a result, the British government de-

I Dublin['dnbLn] - Ay6nus215

cided to make peace. In 1g21 i.t agreed to the inde-pendence of southern lrelarid. But it also insistedthat Ulster, or Northern Ireland as it became-known,should remain united with Britain.

The Anglo-Irish Treatyl, which was concluded in192L, did not bring peace to Ireland. A civil war start-ed between the Irish themselves, because th epubli-cans insisted that all lreland, including Northern Ire-land, should be an independent republic. A group ofrepublicans formed a new party, Fianna Failz, whichwon the elections of 1932, and in lgBT the new primeMinister, Eamon de Valeras, declared southern Ire-land a republic. The British Crown was .no longersovereign in lreland.

Today Ireland and Britain find themselves in a verystrange position: officially they are entirely separatestates, but by agreement their citizens are not consid-ered foreigners in one another's country. In the Repub-lic of Ireland the majority of population believe thatone day hll Ireland should be united, but without theuse of force. There are some people, however, who areready to use violent means to achieve a united Ireland.

QUESTIONS1. What status had Britain agreed to give Ireland?2. Why did a group of Irishmen form a republican

party in Ireland? What did they demand?3. When did the republicans start their own parlia-

ment in Dublin? What did they announce?4. When did Britain agree to the independence of

southern Ireland?

t The Anglo-Irish Treaty - Anuo-I,Ip;ran4crcufi AoroBop2 Fianna Fail ['fi:ons'f-crl] - Ozaxra @oft-rr3 Eamon de Valera ['i:mcn de va'leero] - I4uos 4e Ba.nepa

216

Did the Anglo.Irish Treaty of. l92L bring peaceto Ireland? What did the republicans insist on?When was southern Ireland declared a republic?Why does today's position of Britain and Irelandseem somewhat strange?

Part 4. Disappointment and Depression.

The cost of the war caused a great increase oftuxes, from 6 per cent of income in 1914 to 25 percent in 1918. Greater taxes led to increasing disa-greement between workers and the government.There were serious strikes, and at times the govern-ment had to use soldiers to break these strikes andforce men back to work.

The discontent of workers was growing and in1926 led to a general strike by all workers. The gen-eral strike lasted nine days. The government widelyused the police force. Many strikers were arrestedand the strike was finally broken, but the under-standing between the government and the workerswas seriously damaged as a result of the cruel meas-ures taken by the government in its -efforts to putdown the strike. Many workers were shocked to seethat the police, whose job, as thby had believed, wasto keep the law, was actually fighting against them:For half a century after that many people remem-bered the general strike with great bitterness. Thesememories influenced their opinion of employers,government and the police.

The Depression. A serious economic crisis knownas the Depression shook Europe and America in L929.The Depression affected Britain most severely between1930 and 1933, when over three million workers,were

217

5.

6.7.

unemployed. The areas most affected by the Depres-sion were Clydesidel, Belfast2, the industrial northof England and south-east Wales. The working classin these areas still lived in poor conditions. Men and\ryomen in working families did not live as long aspeople in richer areas, and more babies died in thefirst year of life. There was little hope for improvingthe conditions of life because nobody wanted to in-vest large amounts of money into industry in theperiod of economic crisis.

Economic recovery. In the middle of the 1930s theBritish economy began gradually recovering. Theprocess of economic recovery \ryas especially noticea-

ble in the Midlands andthe south, where a greatnumber of small hous-es rryere being builtalong the main roadsleading from big citiesinto the countryside. Agreat role in the recov-ery of economy wasplayed by Britain'sgrowing motor indus-try, which was based inthe Midlands. With theappearance of a greatnumber of privately

owned cars, the country around the towns changed:many new houses were built along the roads whichwere suitable for rriotoring. Middle-class people read-

I Clydeside ['klardsard] - Krafi4cafi42 Belfast ['bel'fo:st] - Berfiiacr218

ily moved into quiet new suburbs. Unplanned sub-rrrbs grew especially quickly around London, wheret,lre underground railway system, the Tube, had spreadorrt far into the country.

Another reason of economic recovery was the dan-ger of a new war. By 1935 it was clear that Germany,rrnder its new leader Adolf Hitlerl was preparing tontrengthen its position in Europe, if necessary byI'orce. Seeing this, the British government began re-building its armed forces. It invested a large amountof money in heavy industry, which gave jobs to manygrcople. By 193? British industry was producing weap-ons, aircraft and equipment for war.

QUESTIONSt. Why did taxes increase between 1914 and 1918?

What did greater taxes lead to?2. When did the general strike take place? How long

did it last? What measures did the governmenttake to break the strike?

3. Why were many workers shocked at the fact thatthe government used the police to put down thestrike?

4. What was the Depression? When did it occur?How did the Depression affect Britain?What areas of Britain were most affected by theDepression? Why was there little hope for im-proving the conditions of life in these areas?When did the British economy begin graduallyrecovering? In what parts of the country was therecovering process especially noticeable?What industries played a great role in the recov-ering of economy?

5.

6.

t'fa.

219

I Adolf Hitler ['rcdolfhrtle] - A4o.rrrQ fr'Iuep

8. Why were unplanned suburbs growing especialliquickly around London? l

9. Who was the leader of Germany in the 1What was he preparing to do?

10. How did the danger of a new war help the recov:ery of British economy? l

. CHAPTER REVIEWFilI in the blanks with the correct ivords orcombinations from the list:

guerilla, socialist, depended, self-gouernrnent, suation, submarines, su,rrender, aircraft, d.iseontent"arrned forces.1. Being an island state, Britain had always

on imported goods.2. Defeat at sea would have caused Britain,s

CHAPTER 19

THE SECOND WORLD WAR

Part 1. The First Period of the War.After the First World War Adolf Hitler founded

llrc Nazir Party in Germany. Together with his fol-lowers he began to spread his beliefs. Hitler calledthe German people a superior race, which must rulethe world.

Soon Hitl,er made himself dictator of Germany andbegan preparing for war. The Nazis oppressed any-one whose race, religion or politics they did not like.They built huge coneentration camps. Jews2, Catho-llcs, Poles8 and others whom Hitler considered ene-mies were sent to these camps. In the concentrationcamps people who were strong enough were forced towork as slaves. Those who were too weak to work,children and old people, were killed soon after theyarrived at the camps.

Germany was not the only country in Europe ruledby a dictator. Benito Mgssolinia, who had come topower in Italy, was making plans to revive the gloryof the Roman Empire.

In Asia5, a military group came to power in Ja-pan6. They also believed in the "glory" of ruling overother nations. They wanted to take control of othercountries in Asia and islands in the Pacific OceanT.

I Nazi ['no:tsr] - Haq,rrcrclcaff2 Jews [d3u:z] - euperr'r Poles [poulz] - rroJrarrl1 Benito [be'ni:tou] Mussolini [,muse'li:nr] - Eexuro Myccorunz' Asia ['erJa] - Aaua'r Japan [d3e'pan] - ,flnonvs' th; pacific-Ocean [pe'slfik'ouJn] - Taxutrr oKearr

221

3. In 1915 Germanchant ships.

started sinking mer-

'4. For six weeks the British population was on thepoint of

5. The British working class was not interested inideas.

6.

7.

8. The

Before the beginning of the First World War Brit_Irelandthe republican army andhting against the British.

strike in 1926.of workers led to a general

9. The British government began rebuilding its

10. By 1937 British industry was pro4ucing weap_ons, and equipment f6r war.

220

In the 1930s Germany, ttaly and Japan formedalliance called the Axisl. Britain and France ledalliance of European countries called the Allies.Allies opposed the Axis.

Japan was the first nation to use military might.1931 the Japanese2 army invaded a part of Chinas

almost all their weapons' At Dunkirkl' a small French

port, the British armYprlvate boats which crosrying the soldiers overrlans said, Dunkirk was

*ititurv disaster2. Britain,s new prime Minister, sirWtrrrtot Churchills, played a great role in keeping

up the fighting spirita of the British people' He per-

euaded the nation that Dunkirk was a victory of cour-

iS" ""a determination at Britain's darkest hour'

Manchuriaa. ln 1935 Italy invaded parts af AfricaGermany seized Austria and part of Uzechoslouahias.

On September 1, 1339, the German army inPoland6. The Polish government asked BritainFrance for help. On September 3, 1939, BritainFrance declared war on Germany. That was the be- 1.

2.

ginning of the Second World War.The Poles fought bravely, but the German army;

conquered the country in less than three weeks. TheGermans used a new tactics called ablitzkrie,g? (light-.ning war). The attack was so swift that Poland's al-.lies, Britain and France, had no time to come andhelp Poland.

In the spring of 1940 Germany turned its atten-tion to western Europe. The Germans invaded Den-rnark, Norways, the Netherlands, Belgium and, Lur-ernbourgls.,The French army was thought to be verystrong. But, with the help of Italy, Germany defeat-ed the French in a few weeks. The British who werefighting in France were driven into the sea losing

I the Axis ['aksrs] - Ocr2 flnoncxzft3

4 - Manvrxypua5 le'vrekre] - {exocaoBarclrfl6 Poland ['poulsnd] - florsrua

? blitzkrieg ['blrtskri:g] - Hein. MoJrHrrenocsas softHaE Norway ['nc:wer] - Hopnerua0 Luxembourg ['l,rksembe:g] - Jhoxcevr6ypr222

QUESTIONSWhat party did Adolf Hitler found in Germany?

What aia ft" say about the German people?

Who was oppressed in Nazi Germany? What were

concentration camPs?What was the Axis? When was it formed?

What alliance opposed the Axis?What lands werelnvaded by Germany' Italy and

Japan in the 1930s?Wiren and how did the Second World War start?

Wftut tactics did Hitler use in Poland? Why did

BritainandFrancehavenotimetohelpPoland?What countries did Germany invade in 1940?

How long did it take Germany to defeat the

French? Wttut happened to the British forces

people after Dunkirk?I

2 poMr l-cgpVuncronrleP'uuurr

3.4.5.

6.7.

8.9.

4 fighting sPirit - 6oeaofi lYx22)

tried to fight off the German planes.Hitler's plan was to break the spirit of t e Briti

Paft 2. Alone against the Nazis.

By June 1940 Britain stood alone against the Nzis. German planes made bombing raids against Briish cities, railways and factories. All night longbombs dropped.'The pilots of the British air f

By 1943 the Soviet army was pushing the Ger-rnans out of the USSR, and Britain had driven Ger-man and Italian troops out of North Africa. In July1943 the Allied troops landed in Italy.

D-Day. Meanwhile a huge invasion of France wasbeing prepared. A large army and thousands of shipsnnd boats were gathered on the southern shore ofGreat Britain. The day of the invasion went downlnto history as D-Day. On the night of June 5, L944,the Allied Army boarded ships in Great Britain. Agiant fleet of 600 warships and 4,000 smaller boatsearried 176,000 Allied soldiers towards France. Thesoldiers were from the United States, Britain, Cana-da, France, Poland and many other nations. In thesky 11,000 Allied planes bombed the German posi-tions in France. Early in the morning of June 6, theAllies landed on the French beaches. By nightfall,the Allied army was in France.

The invasion of France by Allied forces was thebeginning of the end for Germany. Four monthslater France and Belgium were freed. Then the bat-tle for Germany began. In May. L945 Germany sur-rendered.

Japan continued to fight until Britain and the USAdropped two atom bombs on the cities of Hiroshimaland Nagasakiz in August 1945. 110,000 people per-ished immediately, and nlany thousands more diedlater from the after-effects. It was a terrible end tothe war, and bitter memories are still living in thehearts of people all over the world.

and destroy Britain's ability to defend itself. Tthe Germans would cross the English ChannelFrance. They would invade and take control of Briain. But the British Royal Air Forcer shot downGerman planes, and Germany was not able to fulits plan of invading the country. The battte of Briain was the Allies' first victory.

QUESTIONS1. How did Germany fight Britain in the air?2. What was the purpose of German bombing raid

against Britain? What did Hitler hope for?did his plan fail?

Part 3. The Mistakes of Germany and Japan.The End of the War.

In 1941 Germany and Japan made two fatal mis_takes: Germany attacked the Soviet Union and Japanattacked the United States of America. Thus the Axisof Germany, Italy and Japan forced onto the batile-field two of the most powerful nations in the world.Germany now had to fight on two fronts: in the eastand in the west.

I the British Royal Air ForceBOerrHo- BosAyrrrrrbre cr4Jrbr

224

- Bpurancnl{e KopoJIeBcKr4e1 Hiroshima [,hrra'ji:me] - Xupocrnra2 Nagasaki [,nega'so:kr] - Haracaxz

225

QUESTIONS1. Which were the two fatal mistakes of Ger

and Japan in 1941? Why can wd call theirmistakes? What did Germany have to do now?

2. What was the situation on the Soviet-Germafront in 1943? What were Britain's successesNorth Africa?

3. When did the Allied troops land in Ital ?

4, What is D Day? How was the invasion of Fracarried out?

5. What followed the invasion of France by Al. forces? When did Germany surrender?6. Did Japan surrehder together with Germany?

did Britain and the USA make Japan surrender

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words orcombinations from the list:

rescu,e, to breah, alliance, Nazi, dropping, raids,bitter, declared, threat, to fight off, inuaded, dictator,air force, spirit.1. After the First World War Adolf Hitler founded

party in Germany.2. The actions of Germany, Italy and Japan brought

the of another war.Hitler made himself of Germany.

Japan formedIn the 1930s Germany, Italy andan called the Axis.

5. On September 1, 1939, the German army. Poland.

6. On September 3, 1939, Great Britain and Francewar on Germany.

B. Winston Churchill played a great role in keepingup the fighting of the British people.

9. German planeb made bombing on Britishcities, railways and factories.

10. The pilots of the British triedthe German planes.

11. Hitler's plan wasBritish.

the spirit of the

12. atom bombs on the Japanese citieswas a really terrible end to the war, andmemories are still living in the hearts of people.

CHAPTER 20THE AGE OF UNCERTAINTY

Part 1. The United Nations.

At the end of the war the victorious Allies createdthe United Nations Organizationl in order to protectpeace and democracy in the world and prevent newwars. The idea was to settle local and global problemsby discussion within the Organization and not byfighting in battlefields.

But from the very start this new world organiza-tion faced great difficulties. The idea of the four AI-lies (Soviet Union, United States, France and Britain)workihg together for the recovery of central Europedid not work. Europe became divided into two, theeastern part under communist Soviet control, and thewestern part under the control of Britain, France andthe United States.

t the United Nations Organization - Opranzaaqr{.n o6re4unt!u-nrrx naqraft

227

3.4.

T.Dunkirk was a miraculoustary disaster.

226

from mili-

1.

2.

3.

In 1948- 49 the Soviet Union tried to capture WestBerlin and blocked all road and rail traffic to it, andit was only saved by constant supplies from the westbrought by air. As a result of the strugglp for WestBerlin, two opposite alliances were formed: the NorthAtlantic Tleaty Organizationr of the western nations,and the 'Warsaw Pact2 of the eastern bloc.

QUESTIONSWhat important international organization wasformed at the end of the Second World War?With what purpose was this organization formed?Did the idea work? Which two parts was Europedivided into? Do you understand why it happened?Which two alliances were formed in Europe as aresult of the struggle for West Berlin?

Part 2. A Change of Britain's Roleon the lnternational Arena.

Britain still considered itself to be a world power,but it was clear that its internatio,nal position wasweakening. It was most obvious in Egypt. Until 1956Britain had controlled the Suez Canal, but in thatyear Egypt decided to take it over. Britain, togetherwith France and IsraelE, attacked Egypt. But the restof the world, in particular the United States,.loudlydisapproved of Britain's action and forced Britain toremove its troops from Egypt.

The events in Suez showed the world that Britainwas no longer a Great Power, and after Suez many

t the North Atlantic Treaty Organization - Oprarrraaqr{flCeaepo-Ar.naHruqecKoro AoroBopa2 the Warsaw ['wc:sc:] Pact - Bapuraacxuft ,4ororop3 Israel ['rzrerel] - I4apanar

228

weaker countries in Asia and Africa, particularly theArab countries, began to challenge Britain's author-Ity more openly.

QUESTIONS1. How was Britain's international position chang-

ing after the Second World War?2. What happened in Egypt in 1956? Why did Brit-

ain attack Egypt? What was the reaction of theworld to Britain's attack? What was Britainforced to do?

3. What did the events in Suez show? How did theseevents affect many weaker countries in Asia andAfrica?. .'

Part 3. The Welfare State.

In one of his speeches during the Second WorldWar Winston Churchill had said, "'We are not fight-lng to restore the past. We must plan and create atroble future."

After the war the government concentrated on work-ing out reforms aimed at doing away with socialwrongsr in British life. The reforms which were intro-duced by both the Conservative and Labour govern-ments gave importance to people's happiness and well-being. In t944 the government introduced free2secondary education for all. In 1946 everyone was giventhe right to free medical treatment. Two years later,in 1948, the National Assistance Act provided finan-cial help for the old, the unemployed and those unableto work through sickness. Mothers and children also

aimed at doing away with social wrongs - HanpaBJrerrrrhre Haro, uto6rt [oKoHqI{Tb c coqrlaJrbnblM oJroMfree - ad. 6ecularnoe

229

Primary school childredin an art class

Secondary school studentsworking on a woodwork project

Working people now had a better standard of livingthan ever before. There was enough work for every-one. Wages were about 30 per cent higher than in1939, and prices had hardly risen at all.

People had free time to enjoy themselves. At week-ends many watched football matches in large new

I welfare state['welfee.stctt] - rocyAapcrBo,6.narococrogHl{r{ cBor{x rpa)r(AaH

2 the MarshalI ['mo:Jal] Aid ProgrammeMaprua.n;ra lto oKaoar{I{n rroMolrg4 crpauaM,Bo BpeMfi Btopofi vrr,rpoaofi sofiHrr

230

received help. Both theConservative and La-bour Parties agreed onthe need to keep up thewelfare statel, in par-ticular to avoid unem-ployment. Britain be-came a country inwhich both main partiesshared the idea thatproviding the basic hu-man rights to the pop-ulation was the matterof the first importance.

Like much of post-war Europe, Britainhad become economical-ly dependent on theUnited States. Thanksto the US Marshall AidProgramme2, Britainwas able to recoverquickly from the war.

aa6orauleeca o

- flporparvrvrarrocrpaAaBrur4M

Going on a holidaY

rrtirtliunis. In the eve-rrings tireY could go totlre cinema. TheY beganl,o go away for holidaYsLo Iow-cost holidaY(:ilmps. In 1950 car Pro-<luction was twice whatit had been in 1939'nnd by 1960 cars wereowned not onIY bY rich-cr people but manywith a lower income. Itseemed as if the sunshone on Britain. Asone Prime Ministersaidr "YoLl'ue neuer hadit so good", a remarkthat became famous.

It was also the age

of youth. Wages for

Holidaymakers on a beach

At a country Pub

those who had just started work had risen, so youngpeople had more money in their pockets than everbefore. As a result, the young began to influence fash-ion, particularly in clothes and music. The youthfulpop culture of the sixties was best expressed by theBeatles, a group of working-class boys from Liver-pool, whose music quickly became i.nternationallyknown..

QUESTIONS .i

1. What had Winston Churchill said in one of hisspeeches during the Second World War?

2. What task did the British government concen-trate on after the war?What did both the Conservative and Labour Par-ties agree on? What idea was shared by both par-ties?What international programme helped Britain toquickly recover from the war?Why did working people have a better standardof living than before the war? How had the wagesand prices changed in comparison with the lastpre-war year?

6. How did people enjoy themselves in their freetime?How did car production change in post-war time?Did the cars become cheaper? What makes youthink so?What remark of one Prime Minister became fa-mous?Why is it right to say that the post-war tirne wasalso the age of youth? Why did young people havemore money now? What fashions did young peo-ple begin to influence?

10. Who are the Beatles?232

Part 4. A Popular Monarchy.l)uring the 20th century the monarchy became still

nr()re popular than in the times of. Queen Victoria inl.lrc 19th century. George V, the grandson of Victoria,lrrrtl started a tradition of attending the annual foot-lnll Cup Final match atWembley Stadiuml. On Christ-lrrrrs Day, t932, he spoke to the people of Britain andllre Commonwealth on the radio. Since then the Christ',t,os speech of the monav'ch has also become a tradi-l,irrrr. During the Second World War George VI andlris wife won great admiration of the British peoplel'or refusing to leave Buckingharn Palace2 even after

' Wembley Stadium ['wcmbh'stcrdjem] - craArron Vau6.nr' llrrckingham Palace ['blkr4ern'prclrs] - Eyrcunremcrer'rft ABopeq

o.

4.

D.

7.

8.

9.

The Royalfamily in the 1980s

I

I

it had been bombed.. Since t952, when Elizabeth Ibecame queen, he popularity of the monarchybeen steadily growing.

QUESTIONS1. Is the monarchy still popular in Britain?2. Which two new traditions were started

George V? 4 .

3. What step of George VI brought him greatration of the British people during theWorld War?

4. Who is the present monarch of Britain? Ispopularity of the monarchy still growing?

Part 5. The Loss of Empire.

At the end of the First World War theEmpire was bigger than ever befoie and covered e

quarter of the entire land surface of the world. However, there were signs that the empire was coming toan end. Public opinion was changing, and more amore people were beginning to realize that colonial-ism was wrong and that all nations had the right forself.government. The independence movement in col-,onies was rapidly growing.

The United Nations Charter in 1945 also calledforl progress towards self-government.

In India there was a powerful nationalist move-ment skilfully led by Mahatma Gandhiz. By 1945it was clear that British rule in India could notcontinue. It became impossible for Britain to rule300 million people without their co-operation. InI called for - nprroLrBaJra2 Mahatma Gandhi [me'hrctme'grendr] - Maxarlra lar4rz

274

lg47 the British finally left India, which dividedlnto a Hind.ur state and a smaller Muslitn2 state€clled Pakistan. Ceylon became independent the fol-lowing year.

In the 1950s, after Suez, Britain began to give upg

Itc other possessions. Between 1945 and 1955 500

Frlllion people in former British colonies became com-pletely self-governing.

Britain tried to keep international ties with itsformer colonies through a new organization calledtho British Commonwealth of Nationsa. AII the formercslonies were invited to join the Commonwealth as

free and equal members. This system of co-operationhrts proved to be successful, because it is based on

the kind of friendship that allows all members tofollow their own policies without interference.

QUESTIONS1. How large was the British Empire at the erid of

the First World War?2. How wr{s public opinion changing about the idea

of colonialism in the 20th centurY?3. What movement was growing in the colonies?4. What did the United Nations Charter o,f' L945

call for?5. Who was the leader of the nationalist movement

in India? What was impossible for Britain? Whendid India get independence? Which two stateswere formed on its teiritorY?

I Hindu ['hrndu:] - r{HAyrrcrcxoe2 lVluslim fmushm] : MycyrrbMancxoe

'r to give up - orAaBarbI the British Commonwealth ['kcmanwel0] of Nations - Bpraran-

cnoe coApyr(ecrBo narlr,rrt .-

n5

6. When did Ceylon become independent?7. How many people in former British colonies be-

came independent between 1945 and 1965?8. What new organization was formed to help Brit-

ain keep international ties with its former colo-nies? Why has this system proved to be success-ful? What principle is it based on?

Part 6. The Situation in Northern lreland.

When Ireland was divided in t92I, the majorityof the population in Northern Ireland (Ulster) wasProtestant. Northern Ireland was a self-governingprovince, and most of the population were satisfiedwith this system. There were other people, howev-er, mostly Catholics, who considered that their sys-

Struggle in Ulster

lr,rn of government was unfair. These people sup-ported the party of republicans who wanted to unitellrt: whole of Ireland.

Suddenly, in 1969, some people in Ulster, both(irrtholics and Protestants, began to gather in thesl,r'eets and demand full independence from Britain.'l'lris movement was very strong and soon turned inton rrationalist rebellion against British rule.

'[o keep law and order, the British government sentr:oldiers to help the police, but many Catholics sawllrem as a foreign army with no right to be there. Inngrite of the attempts of the British government andllre local administration of Ulster, fighting in North-trn Ireland is still continuing. Young people in North-r,r'n Ireland cannot remember a time when there waslx)ace in the province.

QUESTIONSl. When was Ireland divided into the Irish Repub-

lic and Northern Ireland (Ulster)?2. What is the political status of Ulster?lJ. What movement began in Ulster in 1969? What

did this movement grow into?4. How did the British government try to keep

Iaw and order in Ulster? Were the attemptssuccessful?

5. What is the situation in Northern Ireland now?

Part 7. The Years of Discontent.

Beginning with the 1970s Britain was graduallyialling behindr its European neighbours economical-

' was gradually falling behind - nocrerenuo orcraBaJra

237

rly. It happened as a result of rising prices and growing unemployment. The government did not khow to solve the problem. In L9TB Britain joinedEuropean Communityr (Common Market2) with thope that it would help to raise its economic wealthBut it did not happen.

Britain also faced new social problems afterarrival. of immigrants in the country. The first blacimmigrants started to arrive from the West Indies ithe 1950s. They were looking for work. By 1960 the

' the European Community fiuero'prcn ke'mju:nrtr] - Erponeficroecoo6ulecrao2 Common Market - O6qzft pbrnor{

238

Unemployment

were 250,000 coloured immigranin Britain, and tfirst signs of trouble with younwhites appeared.

Later, Asian im-migrants started toarrive from Indiaand Pakistan, andblack immigrantsfrom East Africa.Most immigrantslived together inpoor areas of largecities.

The relationshipbetween the col-oured immigrantsand the white pop-

rrlnl,ion of Britain was not easy. There were whitepc'ople, mostly young, who blamed the immigrantsfnl growing unemployment. They were wrong, be-rrilnr{(}, in fact, it was often the immigrants who werewllling to do dirty or unpopular work in factories,ltnrrpitals and other workplaces.

I lnemployment increased rapidly at the end of theI l)70s, and by 1985 the number of unemployed peo-

lrlr. r'eached 3,5 million. In many towns 15 per cent ornrr)r'e of the working population was out of work.'l'lrirrgs became worse as steel millsr and coal mines2wlre closed. In 1984 the miners went on strike pro-lesling against the closing of mines. Only after awlrole year of violent fighting with the police thecl,r'ike was put down3.

I nflation made the situation more difficult. With-Itr a short period of only thirty years, between 1954nrr<l 1984, prices multipliedo by six. In these condi-lions it was almost impossible to make sure that allworkers received fair wages.

QUESTIONSWhen did Britain begin falling behind other Euro-pean countries economically? Why did it happen?Why did Britain join the Common Market inL973? Why was it disappointed?What new social problem did Britain face? Whendid the first immigrants begin to arrive in Brit-ain? Where did they come from? What were theylooking for?

steel mills - craJre[poKarnbre BaBoAbrcoal mines - yroJrbnbre ruaxrbrthe strike was put down - aa6acrosKa 6rua no4an.nenamultiplied ['mnltrplard] by six - yBeJrr{ru4Jrrrcb B lrrecrb pag

t.

.)

3.

B9

r-4. How many coloured immigrants were there

Britain by 1960?5. What other countries did immigrants come fro6. Where did most immigrants live?7. What did some white people blame the immigran

for? Why were they wrong?8. What was the number of the unemployed by 19859. Why did the miners go on strike in 1984? W

did they protest against?10. How did inflation affect the situation in

country? How did the prices change betw1954 and 1984?

Part 8. Margaret Thatcher.

Britain's first woman Prime Minister MargThatcherl the leader of the Conservative Party, welected in 1979 because she promised a new beginning for Britain.

Margaret Thatcher called on the nation for2 hawork, patriotism and self-help. She attached greatimportance to free trade at home and abroad and individual enterprises, and insisted that governmentinterference in economy should be minimal.

As a result, the old Conservative-Labour agree-ment on the guiding principles of the weifare statewas gradually breaking down. In the ConservativeParty there had been a strong movement to the right,and in the Labour Party there had been a similarly

I Margaret Thatcher ['mo:9orrt'OrctJ"] - Mapraper Tervep2 called on the nation for - [pr4BbIBaJIa Haqr4ro K3 individual enterprise [, rndr'v rdjuel'cntaprarz] - u*AvrBvr4yaJrbuoeIIp eAIIp rr Hr,rM aT e,rr b cT B o

240

rl,r'orrg movement toIlrr. left. Both par-Uee moved further -

Awlry from the "cen-I,r'r." of British poli-llr:s than they hadrlolre before.

ln 1981 four sen-lor right-wing mem-lrr.r's left the Labourl'rrrty and formedI,lrcir own Social-l)crnocratic Party,lrr alliance with therurrrall but survivingl,iberal Party. ByMrrrch L982 the newprrrty was gaining ground both from the Conserva-t,ive and Labour Partiesr.

Thatcher succeeded in returning a number of na-tionalized industries to the private sector. By 1987I tlccornmunications, gas, British Airways, BritishAcrospace and British Shipbuilders had all been putinto private ownership.

In the 1983 elections Thatcher was returned topower. However, there were many people in Britainwho were dissatisfied with the Thatcher government.'fhatcher had promised to stop Britain's decline, butby 1983 she had not succeeded. Industrial produc-tionz since 1979 had fallen by 10 per cent, and man-

I was gaining ground both from the Conservative and LabourParties - recHr{Jra rcarc KoncepBarlrBuyro, rar n Jleft6opr{cr-cKylo [apTI,IIII Industrial production - npoMbrrrrJreHrroe [por4oBoAcrBo

241

Margaret Thatcher

ufacturing productiont by 17 per cent. Uhad risen to over three million. But the mostaccusation against the Thatcher government wasit had created a more unequal society, a society"two nations", one wealthy and the other poor.number of very poor, who received only a veryamount of government help, increased frommillion in 1979 to over sixteen million by 1983.

The black community also felt separated from riBritain. Most blacks lived in the poor city areas,unemployment among blacks by 1986 was twidehigh as among the white population.

In spite of these problems, Thatcher'stive Party was still more popular than any otherty in 1987. In the national elections that yearConservative Party was returned to power withmajority of IO2 seats.

Thatcher's victory caused concern for both otion parties. The Labour Party did better than manhad expected2, and won the majority in the 1997 elec.tions. Tony Blairs became Prime Minister.

QUESTIONS1. When did Margaref, Thatcher become Prim

Minister of Britain? What did she promisenation?

2. What did Margaret Thatcher call on the natifor? What did she attach great importance toWhat did she insist on?

I manufacturing production - [por{BBogcrBo rrpeAMeroB rro-rpe6.nenua

'z did better than many had expected - 4o6u.nacr ryqIuuxpeSyJrbTaToB, rreM MHorr{e oxtlrAaJr*r3 Tony Blair ['tounr'blee] - Toxra Bnap

242

B.

4.

6.

6.

How did Margaret Thatcher's policy affect theold Conservative-Labour agreement on the guid-

ing principles of the welfare state?How was the new Social-Democratic Party formedin 1981?What industries did Margaret Thatcher returnto the private sector?Were the British satisfied with Margaret Thatch-er's policy? What was the most serious accusa-

tion against the Thatcher government?

?. Why aia tne black community feel separated fromricher Britain?

tl. Why was the Conservative Party returned topower during the 1987 elections in spite of manypeople's dissatisfaction?

g. What party won the majority in the 1997 elec-

tions? Who beca-me Prime Minister?

Part 9. Britain TodaY.Ties with the Past and Thoughts of the

Future.

Britain has more living symbols of its past thantnany countries. It still has a royal family and anmall nobility. Its capital,. other cities and coun-

I the Knights [narts] of the Garter ['go:te]flo4naaxn

- Prrqapu oPAeHa

247

George's Day. These symbols are a true represention of the glorious past.

As to the country's present and future, there isdifference of opinion among the British peopleas to what home policies Britain should pursue.people are sure that most important for nationalnewal is material wealth. Others believe thatemphasis on material wealth encourages selfiand a retreat from an ideal of community to afor personal gain. They are worried by theing of the "welfare-state" principle, particularlythe reduction of government aid in the educationrhealth services.

QUESTIONS1. What are the living symbols of the past that Bri

ain has preserved?2. What do the opinions of the British people differ

about?3. Do all the people agree that material wealth

most important for national renewal? What danger do some people see in the emphasis on marial wealth? What are these people worried aboutWhat do you think? Would you put emphasismaterial wealth? What in your opinion is mimportant for national renewal?

244

CHAPTER REVIEWFlll in the blanks with the correct words and word@mbinations from the list:

eecondary, Christrnas, immigrants, well-being, topntlect, to challenge,Aid, Cotnmon, economically, pre-ge n l, C o rn rno nw e alt h, s elf - he lp, une tnploy me nt, e nc our -

Eferu. dissatisfied, strike, majority, called on, to recou-Qr, material, falling behind.1. The United Nations Organization was created in

order

2. After Suez many weaker countries in Asia andAfrica began Britain's authority.

8, In 1944 the British government introduced freeeducation for all.

4. The reforms introduced by the government gaveimportance to people's happiness and

6.

6.

Much of post-war Europe becamependent on the United States.Thanks to the US Marshall Programme,

world and

Britain was able7. The

Britain facedrival of

peace and democracy in thenew wars.

quickly from the war.speech of the monarch has be-

new social problems after the ar-in the country.rapidly at the end of

' Pfo-

.. 245

de-

come a tradition.8. All the former colonies were invited to join the

as free and equal members.9. Beginning with the 1970s Britain was gradually

its European neighbours economically.Britain joined the Market in 1973.10.

11.

12.

13.

increasedthe 1970s.In 1984 the miners went ontesting against the closing of mines.

16.

14. Margaret Thateher the nation fhard work, patriotism and

15. There were many people in Britain who

SECTTON THREE

PRESENT-DAY BRITAIN

CHAPTER IBRITISH OR ENGLISHI

Some people find it difficult to distinguish betweenrrch names as British and English, between Britainnnd England; and the names the British Isles and theIlnited Kingdorn add to the difficulty. What exactlyrlocs each of these names mean?

Part 1. The British lslesl.

This is the geographical name that refers to all thelllands situated off the north-west coast of the Euro-lrcan continent: Great Britainz, the whole of lrelandg( Northern and Southern), and all the smaller islandsnituated between and around them: the Isle of Wighta,llrc Orkneyss, the Hebridest, the ShetlandsT, the Islesol Scillys, the Channel Islandse and the Isle of ManLo.

I The British Isles ['brrtlJ'aizl - Bplrrancxne ocrpoBat Great Britain ['grert'brrtn] - Benraro6prrraul4fl' Ireland ['aralend] - Llp.nan4uaI the Isle of Wight ['arl ev'watt] - ocrpon Vafir'' the Orkneys ['o:knrz] - OpxneficrcI{e ocrpoBa" the Hebrides ['hebndi:zf - le6pu4u

the Shetlands ['Jetlend] - TTTslrsH,qcKr,Ie ocrpoBa" the Isles of SciIIy ['arlz.av'stll] - ocrpoBa Cqunnrr" the Channel Islands ['tJeenal'allandzl - Hopuan4cxue ocrpoBai" the Isle of Man ['atl ev'men] - octpoa Man

1997 elections.17. Some people are sure

national renewal is18. Some Britons think

rial wealth

that most important fwealth.

that the emphasis onselfishness.

with the Thatcher government;The Labour Party won the in tl

UNIT REVIEWWho are these people? What have they done? Wa few words about each of them.

Winston Churchill Margaret Thatcher

246 247

QUESTIONS1. What does the name British Isles refer to?2. What smaller islands are situated between a

around Great Britain and Ireland? Can you sthem on the map?

Part 2. Great Britain.

This is the name of the largest island of the Briish Isles. It is historically divided into threewhich were once independent states: England, Scot-land andWales. The people who live in EnglandEnglish, the people who live in Scotland are Scofs,the people who live in Wales are Welshl. At the sametime all these people are British because they live inBritain. As to the word Great in the name of theisland, it was first introduced by the French to dis-tinguish the island from the area in the north ofFrance called Britanngz (the French language has thesame word for Britain and Britanny)"

I Welsh [rvelJ] - yaJrbcqbr2 Britanny ['brrtonr] - Bperaur248

QUESTIONSWhat is Great Britain? What three parts is it tra-

rl t l,ionally divided into?

Part 3. The United Kingdom.

'l'he United Kingdom (or UK) is an abbreviationnl' the United Kingdom of Great Britain and North'rt'tt Irelandl, which is the political name of the coun-Irv consisting of England, Scotland, Wales and North-nrrr Ireland (sometimes called Ulster2\. Southerntrcland is a completely independent state: the Repub-lir of Ireland (alsorrr lled Eire?).

Lt took centu-rics and a lot ofrrrnred struggle toI'orm the UnitedKingdom, In-the| 5th century aWelsh prince Hen-rv Tudor, becameKing Henry VII ofldngland. Then his

the United King-dom of Great tsrit-arn and Northern['nc:6an] Ireland -O6re4unrinuoe Ko-poJreBcrBo Be;ruxo-6puraulrn u Ceeep-uofr LTpnannuwUlster [',rlsto] -O.nrcrepEire ['cera] - 3fipe

The lsles of ScillY

The United Kingdom

son, Henry VIII united England and Wales underParliament in 1536. In Scotland a similar thingpened. The king of Scotland inherited the crown oEngland and Wales in 1603, so he became King JameI of England and Wales and King James VI of Scotland. The Parliaments of England and Wales wenunited a century later, in t7O7. i:

The"Scottish and Welsh are proud and indepeent people. In recent years there have been aat devolutionr in the two countries, particularlyScotland where the Scottish Nationalist Party wavery strong for a while. However, in a referendum i1978 the majority of the Welsh people rejectedlution, and in 1979 the Scirts did the same. Ntheless, most Welsh and Scots sometimes compthat they are dominated by England, and of cothey don't like to be referred to as English2.

The whole of Ireland was united with Great Britrain from 1801 till 1921. In L921 it was divided intwo parts. The larger southern part formed thependent Republic of Ireland (Eire), while NortheIreland (Ulster) became part of the United Kingdonof Great Britain and Northern Ireland.

QUESTIONSWhich is the full name of the county situated

the British Isles? Which four parts does the UniKingdom consist of?

t devolution - orAeJrenrne (ot 4pyroft crpanrr)'z they don't like to be referred to as English - orr{ ne .nto6fft,

KOIAa rrx HaSbrBaroT aHrJllrararraMr4

250

Part 4. Forming the Nation.

About 2,000 years ago the British Isles were in-habited by the CeltsL, who had originally come fromeontinental Europe. During the next 1,000 yearstltere were many invasions. The Romans came fromItaly in AD 43. The Angles and, Saxons came fromGermany, Denmark and the Netherlands in the 5th

eentury and gave the country the name England(Angle-land). The Vihings2 kept coming from Den-flark and Norway throughout the 9th century. In1066 (the date in history which every British schoolehild knows) the Normans invaded from France.All these invasions drove the Celts into Wales andBcotland, and of course they also remained in Ire-land. The present-day English are the descendantsof all the invaders, although they are more Anglo-Saxon than anything else. These various originsexplain many of the differences which exist betweenEngland, Wales, Scotland and Ireland - differ-ences in education, religion, the legal systemss andln language.

QUESTIONS1. What people were the British Isles inhabited by

about 2,000 years ago?.2. When did the Romans settle in Great Britain?3. When did the Anglo-Saxons come?4. When did the Normans invade Britain?5. In what spheres of life do differences still exist

between England, Scotland, Wales and Ireland?

Celts [kelts] - KeJrbrbrVikings ['varkrqz] - Br4xrrHrrrrlegal systems - cyAorrpor4oBoAcrBo

251

Part 5. Language.

The Celts spoke CeIticL, which survives today ithe form of Welsh, Scottish Gaelicz and Irishic. Welsh, Scottish Gaelic and Irish Gaelic are stispoken by some people, although they have suffered from the spread of English. However,, all thlanguages are now officially encouraged and taughat schools.

English developed from Anglo-Saxon and it islanguage of the Gerrnanic groups. All the invadipeoples, particularly the Norman-French, inflthe English language, and we can find many woin English which are French in origin. NowadaysWelsh, Scottish and Irish people speak English (eif they speak their own language as well), buthave their own special accents and dialects, socan tell what part of Britain a person is from as sooas they begin to speak. Sometimes the differences iaccents are so great that people from differentof the UK have difficulty in understanding one an-other. The southern accent is generally accepted asstandard English.

QUESTIONSHas the Celtic language survived? In what form?What did present-day English develop from? Whyare there many words of French origin in present-day English? What accent is generally acceptedas standard English?

t Celtic ['kcltrk] -KeJrbrcKLIfi sarrx

2 Gaelic ['gelhk] - raeJlbcxlrfi sarrx3 a language of the Germanic [d3a'manrk] group - flsbrr repMax-

cxofi rpyuurr252

Part 6. lmmigrants in Britain.

Itt'cently there have been many waves of immigra-t lrrrr into Britain. Many Jews, Russians, Gerrnans and.Ittilt's have come to Britain during political changes1l l,lrc rest of Europe. There are also many immi-;r rrrrls from different countries of the Commonwealth.thl'ore the Second World War these immigrants weretlrrrnlly white people from Canada, Australia, NewEt'ulund and South Africa. In the 1950s the BritishIr)vornment encouragedr people from the West In-illt'x, India, Pahistan, Bangladesh2 and Hong Kong!l,o rrome and work in Britain. Today two million Brit-lxlr people are of West Indian or Asian origin andnvr.r' 50 per cent of them were born in Britain. Thegovernment encourages the immigrant communitiesto r:ontinue speaking theirrrwn languages as well asliirrglish. The children oflrrrrnigrants are oftenl,rrrrght their own languag-t'H nt school, and there areagxrcial newspapers, mag-nzines and radio and tel-r,vision programmes forl,he immigrants.

The latest wave of im-rrrigration has caused se-

I encouraged Irn'knrrd3d] -IIooulpfJro' Banglldesh [,beqgglo'.1.1] -BanraaAeru' Hong Kong ['hor1'koq] -fonrconr

1.2.

rious problems. There is a certain racial tensionracial prejudice in Britain today. In spite of lapassed to protect them, there is still discriminaagainst Asian and black people, many of whomunemployed or have low-paid jobs. Settling thecrimination problem is an important task which Briish society faces today.

QUESTIONS1. Where did immigrants eome to Britain from?2. How many British people today are of West

dian or Asian origin?3. How does the British government encourage

immigrant communities to continue speakintheir own languages?

4. What problem has the latest wave of immigtion caused?

Part 7. The Union Jack.

The flag of the United Kingdom, known as fUnion Jack, is made up of three crosses. The uprigred cross is the cross of St George, the patron saiof England. The white diagonal cross (with the

St Andrew, the pa-tron saint of Scot-land./The red diag-onal cross is thecross of Sf Patrich,the patron saint ofIreland.

QUESTIONSWhat is the state flag of the UK sometimes called?

Wlrnt do the crosses on the flag stand for?

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words from thellrl.:

uccepted, off , discrirnination, Wales, Ulster, Cont-ntonwealth, inherited, historically, Eire, Germ.anic,gatgraphical.l. Northern Ireland is sometimes called

2. Great Britain isthree parts.

it. The British Isles is therefers to all the islands situatedthe north-west coast of Europe.

is the name of the Republic ofSouthern Ireland.In 1536 Henry VIII united England andunder one Parliament.

6. After the death of Elizabeth tr King James VI ofScotland the crown of England.

group.AS

standard English.Many immigrants came to Britain from differentcountries of theToday British society faces an important task ofsettling the problem.

divided into

name that

going into the cor- English is a language of theners) is the cross o The southern accent is generally

4.

5.

9.

10.

7.8.

2i4 255

CHAPTER 2HOW THEY LIVE

Part 1. The Way of Life.In recent years there have been many changes

family life. A typical British family ,r""d to "Irr.of mother, father and two children. Since the

made it easier to get a divorce, the number ofvorces has considerably increased: one marriageevery three now ends in divorce. As a result, thar9 a lot of one-parent families. Society is now mrtolerant of unmarried couples and single parents.

The increased number of divorces, however, dnot mean that marriage and the family are not polar: the majority of divorced people marry again, rthey usually take responsibility for the children

son for reunions, and relatives often travel many min order to spend the holiday together.

ple's Homes, which may be state-owned or private.The individual and the family. The rllations

their second family.Members of a family - grandparents, aunts, u

cles, cousins - keep in touch, but they see each oter less than before, because people often move awfrom their home town to work, and so the famjbecomes scattered. Christmas is the traditional

thnrocratic than they used to be. Many parents treatllrrrir children more as equals, and ihildren have moreflr.cdom to make their own decisions. The father givestrr)re time to bringing up children, often because thenro[her goes to work. Although the family holiday isclill an important part of family life, many childrenepcnd their holidays away from their parents, oftenwiLh a school party or another organized group.

QUESTIONSl. What is the result of the increased number of

divorces in recent years?2. Does the increased number of divorces mean that

marriage and the family are no longer popular?Explain.

ii. Do all members of a family usually live togetheror apart? What is the traditional time for a fam-ily reunion?

4. What is the number of old-age people in Britain?How does the government help the old people whohave no families?

5. What facts show that the relations between themembers of a family have become more democratic?

Part 2. Education.

In most schools boys and girls learn together. Inthe first stage, which is called primary education, allchildren are educated according to the same pro-gramme. As they grow older, differences in abilityand attainment become very marked, so it is consid-ered necessary to offer different programmes.

There are three stages of education: prima.rA, orelementary, education, secondary education and htghereducation.

Taking care of the older generation. There areten million old-age people in Britain, of whom a

sion. More than half of alr ord people are looked afterhome. Old people who have no families live in OId p,

750,000 cannot live entirely independenily. The goverment gives them financial help in the form ofu p"

tween the members of a family have become mo256 257

Primary education is given to childrenand 11 years of age. A primary school is subdivinto an infant schoal for children aged b to T ajunior school for children aged 7 to 11. In scountry places both the infant department andjunior department may be combined under theof one school.

1Secondary education embraces the children

QUESTIONSAre all children educated according to the saprogramme or different progiammes?Which is the first stage of education?Which is the second stage of education? Which

.the three main types of secondary schools until re-cently? Do these three types of schools still exist?

11 years of age to 16 years of age. Until recenthere were three main types of secondarygran?mar schools, technical schools and m.odeschools. Children were sent to one of these three tof school according to their abilities. These threeof school still exist, but their number is decreasinThey are being replaced by the so-called comprehsiue schools. The comprehensiue schools are the mmodern development in secondary schools. The maiadvantages of the comprehensive schools are thatschools are open to children of all types of abilifrom the age of 11; they are large schools which gia much wider range of subjects than smaller schooso that teenagers can choose a course of studiescording to their individual inclinations and abilit

Part 3. Culture, Leisure, Entertainment.Annual drama are very,pop-

gtar in Br e famous not only inBritain, b

Burns' night. January 25 id the birthday of Scot-land's greatest poet Robert Burnsr. There are hun-dreds of Burns clubs not only in Britain, but alsothrougho,ut the world, and on the 25th of January theyell hold Burns Night celebrationS. In banquet halls.ofEdinburgh, in workers' clubs of Glasgow, in cottagesOf Scottish villages, thousands of people drink a toastto the immortal memory of Robert Burns. To the soundsof bagpipes there appear on the tables the traditionaldishes of the festival dinner: chicken broth, boiledaalt herring, and haggis - a typical Scottish dish madefrom the heart and other organs of a sheep. It is eatenwith boiled turnip and potatoes. The dinner is fol-lowed by dancing, pipe music, and reciting selectionsfrom Burns'lyrics. The celebration concludes with sing-ing the poet's famous Auld Lang Synez.

Shakespeare's Birthday. Every year the anniversaryof the birth of William Shakespeares is celebrated inStratford-upon-Auona, where be was born on April 23,1564. Flags are hung in the main street, people \Mearsprigs of rosemarys (for remembrance) in their button-holes. A long procession goes along the streets to thechurch where everyone in the procession puts a wreath

Robert Burns ['rcbct'be:nz] - Po6ept BepncAuId Lang Syne ['c:ld lae4'sarn] - <Ba6rrrr Jrr{ crapyrc nro6osb)( mpa0u4uoHHa,fl womJtanl c rca,a J dc moilbH &a nec na )William Shakespeare ['wrljcm'Jcrkspre] - Vu.nrsm IllexcnnpStratford-upon-Avon ['straetfed opcn'ervsn] - Crpa,qQopA-rra-Efisorresprigs of rosemary ['rouzmon] - aerourc[ pooMapvua

259

1.

1.3.

4. Which is the most modern development in sec-ondary schools? What are the main advantagesof this type of schools?

258

or a bouquet, or just one flower at the poet's graveqthe evening there is a perfot'mance of the chosen Birday Play in the Rayal Shakespeare Theatrer.

In London, the Aldwych Theatrez which hasties with the Royal Shakespeare Theatre in Stfbrd-upon-Avon, holds interiational Shake spearetiva;ls, during which famous companies fr abrincluding the Corn&ie Francaises from paris,

International Festival6 is held annually duringweeks in late August and early September. Theval is quite international in its character, as it givesivaried representation of artistic production from man

Moscow Art Theatre, the Schilter Theatre of Berthe Abbey Theatre from Dublin, and others, perforShakespeare's plays. 't

The Edinburgh International Festival. The

countries. Leading musicians of the world and

260

in ruins, and it seemed a good idea to shift people'iattention from everyday needs to eternal values. ;

war year. All over Euroile rationing and restrictiwere the order of the day, and hundreds of towns

The first Festival was held in 1942. And since ttime the Edinburgh International Festival has firmlestablished its reputation as one of the imevents of its kind in the world.

the Royal shakespeare Theatre - rcopoaeacxllft IllercmrpoB-crcnfi rearp

famous theatre companies always take part in it.The idea of the Festival originated in the first

e^44 r'EdlPthe Aldwych OJrgyr.r :

the Comddiethe schiller Kouegra (DPanceo

'lm] - Eep;ruucxraftIlLnntepoacrcufi rearpThe.Edinburgh ['edrnbera] International Festival _ g4uu6ypr_cxnri uexgynapo4nuft $ecrnna;rr

I

I

2

3

4

5

r The weekend. People in Britain work five days ak, from Monday to Friday. From Friday eveningMonday morning they are usually free. Leaving

on Friday, people usually say to each other,Haue a nice weehend", and on Monday morning they

$k, "Did Aou haDe a nice weehend?"Saturday morning is a very busy time for shop-

plng, as this is the only day when people who are attork can shop without hurrying. On Saturday after-iloon the most important sporting events of the weektake place z football, rugby (in summer - cricket andlennis), horse-racing, car and rnotor-cycle racing and'Other sports. A lot of people go and watch the sports€vents, others stay at home and watch the sports pro-

lrammes on TV. In the late afternoon the sports re-lults are announced on TV.

Saturday evening is the best time for parties, danc-cs, going to the cinema or theatre.

Having gone to bed late the night before, manypeople don't hurry to get up on Sunday morning, so

they usually have a late breakfast. Some people liketo have breakfast in bed. While having breakfast,people start reading the Sunday papers. It is quiteusual for a family to have two or three Sunday pa-pers, and some families have more. These people havelittle time for anything else on Sunday morning.

Sunday dinner (some people call it Sunday lunch),which is at 1 o'clock or at 1,30, is traditionally themost important family meal of the week. Most peoplehave a joint (a piece of meat roasted in the oven)which is served with roast or boiled potatoes, someother vegetables, and gravy. Then comes the pud-ding and finally tea or eoffee. This heavy meal makesmost people feel sleepy and passive, and they sit talk-

26t

3.

QUESTIONS

the Aldwych Theatre in London?

How is Shakespeare's birthday cele\"uted in Straford-upon-Avon? How is his birth6ay marked t

Part 4. Sport.

British people are fond of sports, perhaps morethan any other nation in the world. Almost

rybody is actively engaged in this or that kindsports. Among the most popular sports are foot-ll, of course, then crichet, boat racing and

horaeracing.Football. Football is a very popular sport in Brit-

lltr, played between August and May (the footballl€ason). Many people support a particular team andoften watch the games that their team plays. Profes-tlonal football is controlled by the Football Associa-tbn (the FA). Teams play regularly against othertoums according to a fixed programme. A very im-portant competition.is the FA Cup. The FA Cup iselso open to amateur teams that belong to the Foot-ball Association. The two teams which are the win-ners of the FA Cup competition, play in the FA Cuptr'inal at Wembley Stqdiunz in London. This is a verylmportant national sporting event, and it is alwayswatched by mi-llions of pbople on TV.

Cricket. Cricket is another very popular sport inBritain, played mainly in summer (May - Septem=ber). Many people consider cricket to be England'snational game and to be typical of the English styleof behaviour, which includes above all a sense of hon-our and fairness.

The Boat Race. The Boat Race is a rowing race onthe River Thames held every year at the end of Marchor the beginning of April between teams from Ox-ford University and Cambridge University. It is apopular national event and is shown on TV.

5.

6. To* is Sunday morning usually spent in mostfamilies?7. What is the most important familn meal of the

week? What does it consist of?8.How do mo'st people spend their Su\day evening?

262 263

rThe Henley Regatta. The Henley Regatta is a

ing for races between rowing boats at HenleyL, aon the Thames. It is an important social eventupper-class and fashionable people.

horse race held at Epsoms in England in May or Jon a day which is known as Derby DaA.

1

is professional football controlled by? Whatplay at Wembley Stadium?

3. When is cricket played? What does the Engstyle of behaviour include, according topeople?What is the Boat Race? Wh6n is it held?teams take part in it?What is the Henley Regatta?What is the Derby? Where is it held?What event is held at Ascot? Why is itRoyal Ascot? What kind of hats do womento wear at Ascot?

Part 5. Young Peoplds Groups.

When the new trend in music, Rnck-n-Roll, appearedthe 1950s, it immediately became very popular

hns had an enormous effect on people's lives, andpecially on the kind of clothes they wear

Ulations of Edward): long jackets with velvet collars,rdrainpipe" trousers (so tight that they looked like

tlon in fashion: before the Teddy Boys came, youngpcople had usually worn the same kind of clothes astheir parents. Now they wore what they liked.

In the mid-60s the Mods (so called because of theirmodern style of dressing) becam6" the new leaders ofteenage fashion. Short hair and smart suits were pop-ular again. The Mods rode bcoofers, which they usual-ly decorated with a lot of lights and mirrors. Theyo:ften wore long green coats.with hoods, called parhas.

The Mods'greatest enemies were the Rockers, whodespised the Mods' scooters and smart clothes. Likethe Teddy Boys, Rockers listened mainly to roch-n-roll. They rode powerful rnotor-bihes, had long untidyhair, wore thick leather jackets, and drank alcohol.

Throughout the 1960s, on public holidays duringsummer, groups of Mods and Rockers used to travelto the sea-side resorts of south-eastern England,.

265

The Derby. The Derbyz is a very important ann h the young people. Qver the last forty years or so

The Royal Ascot. It is a four-day horse-ricing eheld at Ascota, a suburb of London, every June,

The first group, which appeared in the late 1950s,the Teddy Boys. Their elothes were an imitation

is one of the most important race meetings in ll the clothes which were worn in Edwardian Eng-ain. It is especially popular with upper-class - the time of the reign of Edward VII; lhe be-Members of the royal family always attend it. Onel ning of the 20th century (Ted and Teddy are abbre-the days is called Ladies' DoA, and some of theen like to wear very big and unusually looking ha

QUESTIONSrainpipes) and brightly coloured socks. Their shoes

Which are the most popular sports in Britain had very thick rubber soles and their long hair was

When is the football,season? What organiza ifwept upwards and backwards. This was like a revolu-1.2.

4.

D.

6.7.

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Hippies

their hair very long. They often lived together in larcommunities, sharing their possessions. It was theprotest against the materialism of the 1960s.

The 1970s saw the appearance of the Skinheads,who got their name because they cut their hair ex-

' California [.k.rlr'f-c:njc]266

Mods

- Ka,rz(ropnrza

where they got intotles with the police awith each other.

Towards the endthe 1960s a newappeared, whose idstarted in Californialthe USA. This newwas the Hippies. Tpreached a philosophypeace and love, wopecklaces of coloubeads, and gave flto surprised strangersthe streets. The naHippies comes fromfact that drug-takersAsia and in the Farused to lie on one hwhile smoking opiumHippies did not use opium, but they smomarijuana and tookerful drugs called ,LSDHippies wore simplclothes, blue jeansopen sandals, and

ttr,rrrr,lv short or even shaved it all off. They worernr v short trousers, enormous boots and braces. TheHftlrrhcads blamed the immigrants for the unemploy-Htlrrl, in the country. They attacked Asian and blackirlrrrigrants in the streets and in their homes. ManyHhlrrlreads joined the National Front, a political par-tv wlrose slogan is "Britain for white people only",

'l'owards the end of!lrr, l{)70s another styleruf rrrrrsic and dressingE;r;rcirred - the Punks,arrrl it is still very pop-irlrrr'. The word Punkrtr)nros from Americanliirrr{lish and is used torlr,r;cribe someone who isIrrrrrroral or worthless.'l'lrr. Punks sing songsulrorrt anarchy and deul,r'rrction and use badlrrrrguage. Their music islorrcl, fast and tuneless.

ln recent years many new bands have emerged; andeorrre old ones have reappeared. A new trend is NewWavel music, which totally rejects the ideas of the Skin-lroads. Many of the bands contain both black and whiterrrrrsicians, and anti-racism concerfs have been organized(l,lrey are known as Rack against Racism\. West Indianrrrrrsic has also played a large part in forming people'srrrrrsical tastes. Many new British bands combine tradi-li<rnal rock music with West Indian reggae beat2.

' New Wave - Hosaa BoJrHa' reggae beat ['reger'bi:t] - [ouyJrflpHafl prrrMr{qecnaflus Bec:r-I{nAralr

MysbrKa

267

Many of the new bands make use of the ctechnology to develop their music. Computerizedmachines, synthesizers and other electronic'rqents are now just as popular as the electric

QUESTIONS1. When did Rock-n-Roll appear? What effect

have on people? t2. When did the Teddy Boys first appear? Why

they called Teddy Boys?3. What group became the new leaders of

fashion in the 1960s? How did they cut their hHow did they dress? What did-they ride on?Who were the enemies of the Mods? 'What

the difference between the Mods and the Rocin the way they wore their hair or dressed?

6.

5. Where and when did'the Hippies first aWhat philosophy did the Hippies preach?did they dress?What new group appeared in the 1970s?details of their clothing distinguished them fother people? Why were they called SkinWhat'was characteristic of their behaviour?was the slogan of the political party whichShinheads joined?

7. When did, the Punks appear? What does thepunk mean? Will it be right to say that the Punlive up to their namel? Why?

8. What is the new trend in music called? Hodoes Nep Waue music promote friendship amonpeople?

t live up to their name - oupaBAbrBaror csoii uilr,fi

268

rw Year. New Year is not such an important hol-

tn nngland as Christmas. Some people don't cel-

Part 6. HolidaYs.

it at all.

4.

any people have New Year parties' A party usu-

L"gi"t at about eight o'clock aTd g9.e: on, untily ii tft" morning. At *idttight they listen to the

n". of Big Ben, Jrink a toast to the New Year and

lS Auld Lang SYne-

i-n l,ottaott ""o*dt usually gather round !|e s-tltue

bros in Piccadilly Circus and welcome the New Year'gt. Vtt"rrtine's Day. St. Vatentine is considered a

oa arra patron of lovers. For centuries St' Valen-

'B Day, February 14th, has been-a day for *"o:;sweet"hearts and exchanging Valentine cards' AlLaValentinecardwashand-made'withlittletings of hearts and flowers, and a short verse

oorld by the sender. In the 19th century Valen--Jne-

cards appeared in shops, complete with verses

lrd deeorations. briEhtly coloured and gilded' The

hurd-boiled egg painted in different colours' Easter

n-gg, "t" traJitional Easter presents for children'

N"owadays Easter eggs ateusually made of chocolate'

Doeted and received everY= Easter. Easter is a Chrfp.if , *fr"t, Christians remernber the death of Christ

lna ftit return to life. The holiday is marked-by go-

ing t. church and then having a celebration dinner'

Eoster is cgnnected in people's minds with spring'

*itf, tfr" coming to life o1 Uh" earth after winter' The

mo"t popular emblem of Easter ts the Easter :gg',:

269

Children get chocolate Easter eggs, and also cIate Easter rabbits. They are either hollow or hafilling, and are usually covered with brightlyoured silver paper.

Each year, on Easter Sunday, London greetswith a traditional spectacular Easter Parade tntersea Park. The Parade is a great procession ofrichly decorated floats, that is large movingforms on wheels, on which actors and amateursform shows. The most beautifully decoratedmoves at the back of the procession and carries fEaster Princess and her attendants.

May Spring Festival. The May Spring Festiwhich is celebrated on the 1't of May, has toextent retained its old significance - that of a

g*t npring f estiual. Nowadays it is celebrated mostlyby rlrildren and young people in many schools in dif-fcrerrt parts of Britain. It is celebrated with garlandsEf I'lowers, dancing and games on the village green,lrlrprc they erec1." a maypole - a tall pole decoratedrillr flowers and ribbons. The girls put on their bestEurnner dresses, put flowers in their hair and roundttreir waists, and wait for the crowning of the MayQurt'n. The most beautiful girl is crowned with agollrrnd of flowers. After this great event there isdurrcing, and the dancers wear fancy costumes repre-cetrt,ing characters from the Robin Hood legends.

Slrring Bank Holiday. Spring Banh Holiday is cel-eblrrted on the last Monday in May. It is an officialliulirlay, when all the offices are closed and peoplerlrrr't go to work. Many people go to the country ontlils day and have picnics.

l,ate Summer Bank Holiday. It is another official;rtrlrlic holiday, and it is celebrated on the last Mon-dnv in August. During the August Banh Holidaylownsfolk usually go to the country and to the sea-Fonst. If the weather is fine, many families take apicnic lunch or tea with them and enjoy their meal intlrc open. Seaside towns near London are invaded byllrousands of Londoners, who come in cars and trains,orr motor-cycles and bicycles.

'lhe August Bank Holiday is also a time for bigcports meetings at large stadiums, mainly all kindsol' athletics. There are also horse raies all over thelountry, and, most traditional, there are large fairswith swings, roundabouts, Punch and Judy showsr

Punch ancl Judy shows ['p,tntJ end'd3u:dr'Jouz] - flanv u ,{xy4rz( rcyrc,nat, 0eitcnt.ayrcut,ue Jluula flpJvtapouHoao 6anazaua )

271

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\-.

.ffi-E

-.-v.-.-

270

The Maypole

F-i:: .,.

i4--t'

and every kind of other entertainments. Tradit;on this day is the farnous Henley regatta. :

Guy Fawkes Night, Guy Fawhes Night isthe most popular festivals in Britain. It comrates the discovery of the so-called, Gunpowderand is widely celebrated all over the country.

The story goes that there was a plotHouses of Parliament and kill King James I dthe ceremony of opening Parliament on Novem1605. The plot was organized by a group ofCatholics. In 1604 the conspirators rented anear the House of Lords. From this house theytunnel to a vault below the House of Lords andinto the vault 36 barrels of gunpowder. The plotdiscovered because one of the conspirators wletter to his relative, a member of the House ofwar4ing him to stay away from the House ofon the 5th of November. On November 4, a searchmade of the parliament vaults, and the gunwas found, together with Guy Fawhes, whoset off the explosionl. Guy Fawkes was hanged.

The historical meaning of the event is no loimportant, but this day is traditionally celebrawilh fireworks and a bonfire, on which the figua man called Guy is burnt.

November 5 is a day on which children are alunder proper supervision, to let off fireworks2, to mra bonfire and to burn on it a guy made of old clotstraw and - if possible - one of father's old hats.the days before November 5, one may see groups

I who was to set off the explosion [lks'plougn] -AoJr)rceH 6rr.n npouaaecrrlr BBpbIB2 to let off fireworks ['farewa:ks] - aauycrcarr Qeftepaeprc

272

lldren going about the streets with their faces black-ed and wearing some fancy clothes. Sometimes they

have a little cart with a guy in it. They ask the pas-to give them a pennA for the guy. With this

they buy fireworks for the festival.Christmas. Christmas is the main public holiday

ln Britain, when people spend time at home withir families, eat special food and drink a lot. Christ-

ilas is a Christian festival to remember the birth ofJosus Christ.

Long before Christmas time shops become verybusy, because a lot of people buy Christmas presents..A lot of money is spent on the presents, but manypeople enjoy it. Every day television andnewspaperslay how many days are left before Christmas. People'also buy Christmas cards to send to their friends andrelatives. The cards have the words Merry Christmasand pictures of the birth of Christ, Santa Clausr, aChristmas tree, a robin, or scenes of old-fashionedChristmases.

In churches people sing Christmas carols - spe-cial religious songs. Sometimes groups of people walkabout the streets and sing carols at the doors of hous-es. One of the well-known carols is "Silent Night".

Houses are usually decorated with lights andbranches of needle.leaf trbes2. Many people have adecorated Christmas tree in their houses.

Young children are told that Santa Claus will bringthem presents if they are good. Before going to bedon Christmas Evea the children hang stockings at the

I Santa Claus ['sento'klc:z] - Canta Klayc'r needle-leaf trees - xsoftHbre AepeBbfi'r Christmas Eve ['krtsmes'i:v] - KaHyH Poncgecraa

273

back of their beds, for Santa Claus to put thein when he comes in the middle of the night ththe chimney.

Ot Christrnas Eue (the 24rh of December) someple go to a special church service called MMassr which starts at t2 o'clock at night.

Christmas is the day when people stay at hofen their presents and eat and drink to ether.most'important meal is Christmas dinner. Thecal meal consists of turkey with potatoes andvegetables, followed by a Christmas pudding.traditional foods include a special Christmas cakemince pies - small round cakes filled with a mixof apples, raisins and spices.

The day after Christmas, the 26th of Decemberalso a public holiday. It is called Boxing DaA.name goes back to the old tradition: some timefore Christmas, boxes were placed in churchesthe people to put some money or presents forpoor. On the day after Christmas, the 26th ofber, the priest opened the box and gave the contenaway to poor people.

QUESTIONS1. How do people celebrat€ the New Year? What

people do in Piccadilly Circus?2. What is St. Valentine's Day? When is

ebrated? What is a Valentine card?3. Who celebrates Easter? What do people ce

ebrate on this day? How is Easter celebraWhat is Easter connected with in peopleminds? What are Easter eggs? How is London'Easter Parade held?

I Midnight Mass [mes] - flo.rrynouHaf, Mecca

274

When and how is the May Spring Festival cel-

ebrated?When is the Spring Bank Holiday celebrated?

What is the traditional wayof celebrating it?

, When is the August Bank Holiday celdbrated?

What events are organized on this day?

, What does the holiday of Guy Fawkes Night com-

memorate? When is it marked? Why do childrenfeel especially happy on Guy Fawkes Night?

6. Christmas is {he main holiday of the V€ar' isn't it?- Why are the shops busy long before Christmas?

Wtrat are Christmas carols? Where do people sing

them?0. How do people usually decorate their houses for

Christmas?lf. on theback

istmas?

12. consist of?

Part 7. Traditions'

Clubs. One of English traditions is clubs' A club is

an association of people who like to meet together to

retu* and discu"" tn1ttg.. These people are usually

upper-class men or men connected with the govern-

ment or other powerful organizations which control

p"Uif" hfe and suPPort t f soci-

[tv. no*"ver, there'are nnect-

eiwith the ruling circles, clubs'

whose members are actors, painters, writers and crit-ics and their friends. In a word, clubs are organiza-

tions which join people of the same interests' A club

r.""ffv .*n" u Urrhaing where members can eat' drink'and sometimes sleeP.

275

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'Gardening. Gardening is very popular withpeople in Britain. Most British people love gaand this is one reason why so many peoplelive in houses rather than flats. In suburbanyou can see many small houses, each one withown little garden of flowers and shrubs. Forpeople.gardening is the foundation of friendly rtions'with neighbours. Flower-shows and vegetashows, with prizes for the best exhibiis, arepopular.

Traditional ceremonies. Many traditionalnies have been preserved since old times and areregularly observed.

Changing of the Guard. The royal pqlace istionally guarded by special troops who wearuniforms: scarlet tunics, blue trousers andcaps. The history of the Foot Guards goes back to Lwhen King Charles II, during his exile in Hollanrecruited a small body-guardl. Later this smallguard grew into a regirnent of guards2. Changingthe guards is one of the most popular ceremonies.takes place at Buckingham Palace every day at 11.8!The ceremony always at.tracts a lot of spectatorsLondoners as well as visitors - to the British caoir

Mounting the Guards. Mounting the Guard is aother colourful ceremony. It takes place at the HGuardsa, in Whitehalls, at 11 a.m. everyand at 10 a.m. on Sundays. It always attracts sig

I a small body-guard [go:d] - xe6o.rrnroft orpfiA reJrox2 a regiment of guards - noJrx oxpauLr3 Changing of the guard - Cuena KapayJraa the Horse, Guards ['hc:s'go:dz] -IIIra6 KoEHorBanoJIKa ,5 Whitehall ['warthc:l] - Vaftrxonn

276

, The Guard is a detachmentr of Caualry troops2consists of. the Royal Horse Guards and the Liferds. The Royal Horse Guards wear deep-blue tu-

r and white netal helmets with red horsehairmesa, and have blach sheep-skin saddles. The Liferds wear scarlet uniforms and white metal hel-a with'white horsehair plurnes, and have white

shin saddles. Both the Royal Horse Guards andLife Guards wear steel cAirassesa - body armourt reaches down to the waists and consists of a

plate and a backplate fastened together. Themony begins with the trumpeters soulding thet'. The new guard arrives and the old guard is

. The two officers, also on horseback, saluteh other and then stand side by side while the guard

changed. The ceremony lasts fifteen mirfutes ands with the old guard returning to its barracks.

The Ceremony of the Keys. The Ceremony of theleys dates back 700 years and has taken place everyltght since that time. It was never interrupted evenduring the air-raids by the Germans in the last war.Fvery night, at 9.53 p.m. the Chi.ef Ward.erT of theYeornen Warders (Beefeaters,)E of the Tower of Lon-don lights a candle lantern and goes, accompanied by

a detachment [dr'tatJment] - orp,ngCavalry troops ['kavalrr'tru;ps] - rcaaaneprfiorue soficxahorsehair plumes ['ho:shee'plu:mzl - cyJlranbr (nlrouaxcu) ueKOHCKOTO AOJIOCA

cuirasses [kwr'rastz] - JIarbIreaches down to the waist -

gaKpbr-BarcT Bepxxlorc tlacrbTeJIa AO IIOfiCaThe ceremony begins with the trumpeters sounding the call -IJ,epeuonus Haqunae3cs c roro, uro ropxficrrr rpy6nr crIrHaJIthe Chief Warder ['di:fwc:de] - Irassbrft crpa*cthe Yeomen Warders (Beefeaters) - Crpaxcn Tayepa

277

The Tower of London

his Escorl, towards the Bloody Towerr.In histhe Chief Warder carries the keys, with whichlocks the West Gate2 and then the Middle ToweThen the Chief Wa.rder and his Escort return to IBloody Tower, where they are stopped by the seztThen comes the following dialogue.

SENTRY. HaIt!5 Who goes there?CHIEF WARDER. The keys.S. Whose keys?CR. W. Queen Elizabeth's keys.S. Advance, Queen Elizabeth's keys; all's well.

' the Bloody Tower ['bl,ndr,taue] - Kponanas 6aruns2 the West Gate - Sana4nrre Bopora3 the Middle Tower - Cpe4naa 6aurns'l sentry -

-racosoft5 Halt! [hc:lt] - Crofi!

278

I lrr ving received per-Illuriirrn to go on, the Chiefll'ttrtler and his Escortwn lli through the Arch-tYrrv trf the Bloody Towererrrl I'ace the Main Guardul llte Touser, who givestlrr rrrder to present armsL,wlrich means to hold awrnl)on upright in frontnf the body as a ceremo-trlrrl greeting to an offic-er' <rf high rank2. Thel'ltir'IWarder takes off his'l'rrrlor-style cap and cries,"( ltxL preserue Queen Eliz-uln'l lt.!" "Amen7", answerthr Main Guard and the Escort.

'l'he Lord Mayor's Show. The local power4 of the('itv of London is headed by the Lord Mayof who isplr'<:ted every year from among the most prominentllt,izens. The splendid ceremony of election known as

Ittt' Lord Mayor's Show dates back more than sixlrrrndred years. It is al-wnys watched by manyllrousands of people, who

Lo present arms - B3flTr,opyllcl{e (Ha IcapaYJI')irn officer of high rank -txpzqep Brrcoxoro pauraAmen ['o:men] - Auunr'fhe local power - MecrHaflI]JIACTb

the Lord Mayor ['lc:d'mee] -nopA Map The Lord Mayor's show

Mansion House

crowd the streets of theof London on the secondurday of November toand admire its interesprocession. The cerebegins at the GuildhallL,seat of the municiPalernment2 in the CitY ofdon. Starting from thedhall at about 11.30 a.

the newly-elected Lord Mor travels in a gildedwhich dates from theeighteenth centurY.body-guards is a comPan/Pikemens arrd MusketeeThe long, colourfulsion, made up of livefootmenT and coachmemoves along the narstreets of the CitY. Atnoon the Lord Magor arci

' the Guildhall ['grldhc:l] -XOJIJI2 the seat of the municiPalernment -MyHr{III{[aJIbHOrO ynpaBJle

3 body-guard ['bcdrgo:d] -xpaHrrTeJrr{a acompany-pora5 Pikemen - xouefiuluxll

6 Musketeers [,m,tskr'tloz] -xeriipu7 liveried footmen ['Lvnd'futmcn]nrnpeftnrre JIaKen

al lha Royal Court of Justicel, where he takes therrrrl,lr2 before the Lord Chief Justices and Judges ofthr ()ueen's Bencha to perform his duties faithfully.'l'lrr. bells of the City ring out as the festive proces-nlorrr' leaves the Court of Justice after the ceremonynrrrl heads for the Mansion Hou.se6, the official resi-rlt'rrce of the Lord Mayor. During the evening thetlrrrlitional BanquefT takes place at Guildhall. Thel\unrluet is attended by many of the most prominentlrrople of the country, and is usually televised. Thel'rime Minister delivers a political speechs, and a toastio proposedn by the Archbishop of Canterburyto.

QUESTIONSl. What is a club in Britain? According to what

principle are people joined in clubs? What do themembers do in their clubs?

2. What part does gardening play in the life of Brit-ish people?

:1. Which are some of the most traditional ceremo-nies that have been preserved since old times?

I the Royal Court of Justice ['rcral'kc:t av'd3,rstrs] - KopoJreB-cxuft cyg

'' takes the oath [ouO] - gaiir x.natry'' the Lord Chief Justice - JropA Inaaurrfi cyAbn' Judges ['d3nd3rz] of the Queen's Bench - Cygr,n xopoaencrcoft

CKAMbLI'' the festive procession - [paoAHl4rrrrafi flpoqeccr{fl" the Mansion House - Monruea Xayc (petuderuu,ua aop1'mapa)' Banquet ['br4kwrt] -6anxern delivers a political speech - [por{sHocrrr rroJrr{rr{qecKyro peqb" and a toast is proposed_ - upeAJlaraercfl rocrr" the Archbishop ['o:dbrJap] of Canterbury - Apxraeur,rcrou

Kenrep6epr,riicrufi281

The Lord Mayor in his coach

280Guildhall

ability, preached, cornprehensiue, recerrt, incli t's ago as a Roman fortification at a place where ittions, anti-racist, enorrnou.s, trend,, tolerant, bla possible to cross the River Thames. A+ound theyears there have been m town the Romans built a wall for defence. After the

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the correct words fromlist:

1. Inchanges in family life.

2. Society is now morecouples and single parents.

3. Rock-n-Roll has had an

CHAPTER 3

LONDONf,ondon is a very old cit1z. It began life two thousand

rman Conquest there was a long period of peace,during which pmple began building outside the walls.

is building continued for a very long time, especiallyto the west of the city, so that in a few centuries Lon-don covered a very large territory. In 1665, duringtlrc terrible plague in London, many people left theelty and escaped to the villages in the surroundingeotrntryside. In 1666 the Great Fire of London endedtlrc plague, but it also destroyed much of the city.After the plague and the Great Fire London was rebuiltatrd people returned to it, but never again were there sonany Londoners Iiving in the city centre.

Today, also, not many people live in the eity cen-tre, but London has spread further outwards into thecountry, including surrounding villages. Greater Lon-don now covers about 1600 square kilometres andthe suburbs of London continue even beyond this area.Some people travel over 150 km every day to work inI,ondon, while living far away from the city in thecountry or in other towns.

It is difficult to speak about the centre of Londonas of one definite place. As a matter of fact, it has anumber of centres, each with a distinct character:the financial and business centre called the City (speltwith a capital C), the shopping and entertainmentcentre in the West Erid, the government centre inWestminster. Some places on the outskirts of Lon-don have kept their village-like character.

2g7

of unm

effect

6.7.

people's lives.4. The Hippies a philosophy of

and love.5. The Skinheads immigrants f

the unemployment in the country.New Wave is a newM4ny New Wave bands have organizedconcerts.

schools are the most modern dvelppment in secondary schools.Comprehensive schools are open to childrenall types of

10. Teenagers can choose a eourse of studies according to their individual and abili

8.

9.

282

QUESTIONS1. When did London begin life? Why did the

mans build a wall around the city?2. Where did people begin building their houses

ing the long period of peace which followedNorman Conquest?

3. What great disasters befell London in 166b1.666?How large is the territory of Greater LondonWhy is it difficult to speak about the centreLondon as of one definite place? What is thenancial and business centre of London? Whatits entertainment centre? Where is thement centre?

Part 1. The Gity.Tradition. The City is not the whole of cen

London: it is just a small area east of the centre,site of the original Roman town, so it is thepart of the capital. The City has a long and excihistory, and it is proud of its independence andditional role as a centre of trade and commerce. TCity's administration is headed by the annuallyLord Mayor, whose official residence is the ManHouse. Once a year, in November, the Lord. Mayor'Show takes place. It is a eolourful street parade i:which the newly elected Lord Mayor travels alothe streets of the City in a golden coach, whichover 200 years old. In the evening a splendid meal iserved in the Guildhall, to which the prime Miniand members of the government are invited.

Commerce and finance. The City of London is oneof the biggest banking centres of the world, and you284

€atr I'ind the banks of many5n l, io ns in the f amousThn'udneedle Streetl andthe rrrrrrounding area. Here,tgrr, vou will find the Banhaf l')ngland. Nearby is theEtorlt Exchange2, which ishko ,r busy market, excepttlrnt, here not food butlllttrt'st in commercial com-parries are bought and sold. A little further along, inLrurlenhall Street, is Lloydsa, the most famous in-Eunlnce companys in the world.

'f'he Old Bailey. The Central Criminal Courto ofthe country is also to be found in the City, in thewest,ern part of it. It is called the Old BaiIeyT, aftertlrr. street in which it is situated. Some of Britain's[rost famous murder trials have taken place here.Nt,rrrby is the area known as the Temples - a groupol' lruildings where many lawyers have their offices.

'l'he press. Fleet Streete is famous as the home of thennt,ion's newspapers but, in fact, only two of them -'l'he Daily Express and the Daily Telegraph - arexlill in Fleet Street. HoweVer, people still say FleetHlreet when they mean the press.

' 'l'hreadne redni:dl,stri:t] - Tpe4nug.n Crprr' lhe Stock s'tJernd3] -

(Don4oaac 6raprxa' shares [jeI l,loyds flcrdz] - JInofip,n insurance company Irn'Juerens'klmpenr] - crpaxoBaff RoM[aHr{E" 'lhe Central Criminal Court - I]enrpansnrrri yroaounrrfi cy4

the Old Bailey ['berlr] - OaA Befi.nu" the Temple [templ] - Teuulr" Fleet Street ['fli:t,stri:t] - @.nr,rr Crprar

285

4.c. Barristers in Old Bailey

The British are a naof newspaper readers.of them even have a dpaper delivered to thomes in time for breakfBritish newspapers candivided into tWo grouquality and popular.ty newspapers are more

There is a large selectionof newspapers

at any newsagent's

rious and cover homeforeign news thoughtfurvhile the popular npers like shocking, pe

al stories. These two groups of papers can be diguished easily because the quality newspaperstwice the sizel of the popular newspapers.

QUESTIONSWhich is the oldest part of London?Who is the City's administration headed by?is the official residence of the Lord Mayor? Wis the Lord Mayor's Show?

3. What important buildings are located in or nthe famous Threadneedle Street?

4. What is the Old Bailey? What is the Temple?5. What is Fleet Street famous for? Which

groups can British newspapers be divided into

Part 2. The East End.

The East End is the industrial part of London.grew with the spread of industry to the east ofCity and the growth of the port of London. ItI twice the size - B ABa paaa 6olrure286

E wlrlr: area, and there are many wharfs and ware-hurr,',," along the river banks.

'l'lrc [.]ast End is one of those areas of London where$lplc from abroad have come to find work. For cen-tut'ir.ri foreigners have made London their home. Somehnv,' lrad to leave their country for religious or polit-if'rl rcasons. Others have wanted to find a better life.Eititrr,' have brought new skills and started new indus-tr'lt,r. The immigrants have also brought their cus-tnrrri, traditions and religion into the East End, soynu (:an see a mosquer, a church and a synagoguez[ul very far apart.

'l'1re East End markets are famous throughout the*lllrl. Petticoat Lane markets takes place every Sun-dnv rnorning and has become one of the sightsa ofLunrlon. The street-salesmen here will offer you allhlrrrls of goods and promise that they are of the high-set <luality and much cheaper than those you can buyIrr the West End.

'l'r:aditionally, someone born in the East End ishrrown as a cochneys, although this name is now giv-etr to anyone who speaks like a Londoner. Cockneystrlrrrngle certain vowel soundso so that the vowel soundlt "late" becomes more like that in "light": that isIlrcy say [art] instead of [ert]. They pronounce "day"nn [dar] instead of [der], "may" as [mar] instead off rrrcr], and "rain" as [rarn] instead of [rern]. Another

lr mosque [mcsk] - Merrerbrr synagogue ['srnagcg] - cr{Haroral)etticoat ['petrkout] Lane market - prruor Ha yJrrrqe flerru-rioyr JIeftnone of the sights - oAHa rra Aocrorrpr4MerrareJrbr{ocrefta cockney ['kcknr] - KoKrrr4vowel [vaual] sounds - rJracubre sByxr4

287

1.2.

peculiarity of cockney pronunciation is dropping['etJrz] at the beginning of words, so that "he" sotlike [i:], "heq,d" like [ed] and "how" Iike [au].and other peculiarities of cockney pronunciationvery well described by the great British playwriBernard Shawr in his Pygmaltonz.

QU ESTIONS1. What is the East End of London?2. How do you explain the fact that in the East

you can find a Christian church, a synagoguea mosque situated very near one another?

3. What is a cockney? What are the peculiaritiescockney pronunciation? What famous Briplaywright described the peculiarities ofpronunciation?

Part 3. The West End.

The West End is the name given to the areacentral London between the Malls and Oxford StIt includes Trafalgar Squarea, the main shoppiareas of Oxford Street, Regent Streetb and BoStreet, and the entertainment centres of Soho6,cadilly CircusT, Leicester Squares and ShaftesbAvenuee. The name West End is associated with gour and bright lights.1 Bernard Shaw ['be:ned'Jc:] - Bepnapg IIIoy2 Pygmalion [prg'merljen] - <flzrMaJrrront3 the Mall [mael] - y.rrzrla Mann'1 Trafalgar Square [tra'felge,skwee] - TpaQarrbrapcKafl' Regent Street ['ri:dgcnt.stri:t] - Pu4xeHr crprlr6 Soho [sou'hou] - Coxo7 Piccadilly Circus [.prka'drlr.se:kes] - rrJrorqaAb fltrxa1utluE Leicester Square ['lesta,skwee] - uaouqa4r Jlecrep cKBep0 Shaftesbury Avenue ['Jo:fisbarr.rvanju] - Illa@rc6epr,r anen

288

Trafalgar Square - a traditional meeting place

llrafalgar Square. Trafalgar Square was built atllrc beginning of the 19th century to commemorate!lte Battle of Trafalgar.Admiral Lord Nelson's stat-rrt: stands on top of a column in the middle of Tra-I'nlgar Square. The large square is a traditional placel'or people to meet: all sorts of protest meetings arelrcld in Trafalgar Square. At Christrnas time carolningers gather round a huge Christmas tree whichis sent to Britain from Norway every year. BehindNelson's Column is the building of the National Gal-loryr, a rich art gallery in which you can find manyold masters.

Haqrona.nrHafl ra Jrep e rr

289' the National Gallery ['neJncl'grelerr] -

Shopping. Most of London's big departmentare situated in Oxford Street and Regent Street. Tare always crowded, but especially at sale timesr,January and July, when there are so manyhere that it is difficult to move.

Entertainment. Piccadilly Circus is the centrenight life in the West End. The square is quite smaand many people are disappointed when they see

for the first time because they imagined that itbe much bigger. To the north of Piccadilly CircusSoho, which has been the foreign quarter of Losince the 17th century. Now it is famous for itstaurants, which offer food from different countrEspecially popular are Chinese2 and Italian foods.

I at sale times - B rrepr{oAbl pacnpoAa?Ku2 Chinese [tJar'ni:z] - riurarlcrcas

l,orrdon is famous for its theatres. In the WestEtrrl there are over thirty theatres within a squareIrtllr.. 'lhey offer a great variety of shows to chooseff rrrrr: opera, musicals, drama, comedies, whodunnitst,€lttl l;o on.

SUESTTONSI , What area of London does the West End embrace?

What is the name West End associated with?!f , What does Trafalgar Square commemoraie? What

rnonument stands in the centre of it?il, What tree is placed in Trafalgar Square at Christ-

uras time every year? Where is it sent from? Whatnrt museum is situated in Trafalgar Square?

.1. Where are most of London's big departmentstores? When are the department stores especiallycrowded? Why?

h. What place in the West End is the centre ofnight life?

ll. What is Soho famous for?

Part 4. Westminster.

Itrvery day, when people in the UK and overseasnwitch on their radio to listen to BBC radio news,llrcy can hear one of the most famous sounds in Lon-rltn: the chirnes of Big Ben on the tower of the Hous-r,r; of Parliament.

'fhe Houses of Parliament occupy a magnificentlrrrilding on the left bank of the Thames in a part ofl,ondon called Westminster2, that has long been con-rrccted with royalty and government.

whodunnits [fru'd,tnrts] - AereKrrrBHbre ubecbr (om nezpamom-ttoeo who Ihas] done it? )Westminster ['westmrnstc] - Bectnnr{Hcrep

291

Piccadilly Circus

Westminster

King Edward the Confessorr built a palacethe River Thames in the 11th century. His sucmade the palace their main residence. GradualWestminster became the centre of government.first Parliament was organized to help the monarule the country. The monarch called representatiof different groups of people together; so theof Lords represented the Church and aristocracy, athe House of Commons represented the rich laowners who expressed the views and interests ofown town or village. In the course of centuries,er gradually passed from the monarch to Parliamen

According to the long:sfst4ing tradition, thestill opens the new session of Parliament each atumn by reading the Queen's Speech in the HouseLords. Another tradition is that the Queen isallowed to enter the house of Commons. This tradi

t Edward ['cdrvcd] the Confessor [kan'fcso] - Egyapg llcuoaegrur292

The Houses of Parliament

ilon goes back to theiltrre of Charles I, moretlrun three hundredycurs ago, and remindseverybody that theInonarch must not tryl,o govern the country.

Westminster Abbey.Opposite the Houses ofl)rrrliament standsWestminster Abbeyr. Ar:hurch has stood hererince Saxon times, when

I Westminster Abbey['wcstmrnste'rcbr]Becrvrraucrepcroe a6-6arcrso

it was known asWrMonasterA (Wminster), becauseits position to twest of London'stre. Since WilliamConqueror's tiBritish monarchave been crowthere, and since13th century thhave been buri

Central London

there. Many otfamous peoplealso buried in Wminster Abbey.

Whitehall. The street called Whitehall stretches fParliament Square to Trafalgar Square. Whitehalloften associated with the government of Britain.

Downing Streetr, which is a small side streetWhitehall, is the home of the Prime Minister who liat number ten. Next door, at number eleven, lives tChancellor of the Exchequef, who is responsible ffinancial planning and the British economy. Juaround the corner, in Whitehall itself, are all the iportant ministries: the Foreign Offices, the Minof Defencea, the Home Offices and the Treasuryo.

I Downing Street.['daunrr;,stri:t] - .(ayuuHl crprrr2 the Chancellor ['tJo:nsela] of the Exchequer Irks'tJckc] - Mprn$r,rnancoa

lrr the middle of Whitehall is the Cenotaphr, alllonrrment to the fallen2 in the two world wars of the8(l'r't'entury. According to tradition, on RemembranceDny", the Sunday nearest to November 11, the Queenlnyu a wreath of poppiesa at the Cenotaph. People ofHt'il,uin remember their dead from the two world warsby wearing a red paper poppy.

QUESTIONSl. [n what part of London is the building of the

llouses of Parliament situated? What is Big Ben?!1, Which two parts does British Parliament consist

of?il, l{ow does the Queen open the new session of Par-

liament each autumn?What is the origin of the tradition aecording towhich the Queen is not allowed to enter the Houseof Cornmons?What English king built Westminster Abbey?What is Westminster Abbey famous for?What important buildings are situated in or nearWhitehall?What is the Cenotaph? What ceremony is held atthe Cenotaph on Remembrance Day?

Part 5. Royal London.

When you are in London, you are always remindedrl' Lhe city's close connection with the Crown. There aretryll ouluces, royal parks and colourful ceremonies.

I t,he Cenotaph ['seneto:fl - renoracfr' nronument to the fallen - rraMfiTHr{K rraBrrrr.rM

' ll,t-'membrance Day - .{enr rraMflTruII lrrys a wreath [ri:d] of poppies ['pcprz] - BosJlaraer BeHoKilrJ MaKa

295

't.

f).

0.

nt.

:r the Foreign Office ['frrrn'rfis] - MunlrcrepcrBo rruocrpaurrbrx'' the Ministry of Defence ['mrnrstrr cv dr't-ens] - Munuctepcr

o6oponrr5 the Home Office - MunucrepcrBo Br{yrpeHHrrx AeJr6 the Treasury ['tre3err] - focy4apcrBeuHoe Hasna.rerlcrso294

The Queen Mother, Queen Elizabeth ll, Princess Diana,the Prince of Wales, Prince William and Prince Harry

The most important building in London, thounot the most beautiful, is Buckingham Palacer, whiis the official residence of the Queen. It stands inJames's Parkz. Running through the park fromfront of Buckingham Palace to Trafalgar Squarethe Mall, a wide tree-lined avenue.

St. James's Park is one of ten so-called royal parsituated in or near London. These parks officbelong to the Crown, but are open to the public fof charges. These large parks are very good pfor people to escape from traffic jamsa, crowdedand the city noise. Each park has its own charHyde Parks was originally a hunting forest and

I Buckingham Palace ['b,rkrqcm'pa;hs] - Byrranreracxurl2 St. James's Park [snt'd3crmzrz'po:k] - Cenr ,{xceftMc rrapK3 free of charge - 6ecuaarnoI traffic jams - rpaHcroprHrre npo6xr.r

" Hyde Park ['hard.po:k] - lafi4 uaprc

296

el tll popular with horse-riders. Regent's Park, whichwrr irlso originally a hunting park, is now the homegf l,orrdon Zoo, and an open-air theatre which stagesFlllr li cspeare's plays.

guESTroNSL What places and ceremonies remind one of Lon-

rlon's close connection with the Crown?ll Name three of London's parks. What do you know

rrhrout each of them?

Part 6. Knightsbridgel.'l'[ris area is a part of London where you can find

ilrurv foreign embassies, Iarge glarn-orous hotels, andtlrc rtepartment store that is the symbol of expensivenrrrl high-class living - Harrods2.

I'eople say you can buy anything in Harrods, in-r,lrrtling wild animals - they even have a zoo whichwrll seII you lion cubs as well as more common petsrrr(:h as dogs, cats or parrots.

Another place of interest here is the Albert Hall3,n lruge concert hall which gives festivals of popularllrrssical music concerts every summer.

Museums. Three of London's most interesting mu-Hr,rrms - the Victoria and Albert Museuma, the Sci-orrce Museum5 and the Natural History Museumo -nro also in this area. The Natural History Museum

Knightsbridge ['nartsbrrd3] - Hafirc6pu4xcllarrods ['heercdz] - Xappo4cLhe Albert ['relbet] Hall - Alr6ept xor,rlhe Victoria and Albert Museum - Myaefi Bnrropura rA,r16eprathe Science Museum - Myaeft HayKrrLlre Natural History Museum - Myeefi ecrecrBeuHoir ucropuu

297

has exhibits of birds, anirnals and reptiles, as wrlife-size reconstructions of prehisto;ic ani;;;,Victoria and Albert Museum includes exhibitsalmost every place and period, including c6st.from the theatre, and paintings. The Scienceseum covers every aspect of science and technoand its collections are coirstanily beinE enlarsed.4.'' ruD uuuecrlons are constanily being enJarged.musegm is always crowded. In many of tt " ".there are machines and computers which the visiican work themselves.

QUESTIONS1. What is Harrods?2. What festivals are held in the Albert Hall

summer?3. Which are the three of London,s most in

ing museums?

CHAPTER REVIEW/VfFill in the blanks with the correct words fromlist:

to commemorate, residence, financial, horserid,ef ort if ic at io n, s pre a d., f alle n, d e liu e re d,, ir ruro r" n, gliour, cochneA.1. London began as a Roman

River Thames.2. The and business eentre of Londoi

is called the City.3. The official of the Lord Mayor ojthe City of London is Mansion House.4. Lloyds is the most famous

pany in the world.5. Many British people have a daily paper

to their homes in time for breakfast.

298

at

com-

The East End grew with thelndustry to the east of the City.Traditionally someone born in the East Endkttown as aTlre name West End is associated withand bright lights.Trafalgar Square was built

of

IS

Admi-ral Nelson's victory over the French navy.The Cenotaph is a monument to theln the two world wars of the 20th century.

, I,Iyde Park is still popular with

PLAcES'FBTJEI,( r*,to,*Part 1. Stonehenge.

The great stone monument of Stonehengel is theknown and most remarkable of prehistoric

in Britain. It has stood on Salisburyz Plaint 4,000 years. No written records exist of

gin, and it has always been surrounded by mys-y. There have been many different theories, but

Itill nobody knows why it was built.One theory is that it was a place from where

Itars and planets could be observed. It was discov-lred that the position of some stones was relatedtorr the movements of the sun and moon, so thatthe stones could be used as a calendar to predictstrch things as eclipses.

Stonehenge ['stounhend3] - CtoynxegxcSalisbury ['sc:lzbarr] - Conc6eprathe position of some stones was related to - pacnoJro?$enlleHeKoropblx raunefi rrueer cBflBb c

299

re-forits

Stonehedge

At one time people thought that Stonehenge wabDruid temple. The Druids were a Celtic religiousbefore the Norman Conquest. Some people believethe Druids were a group of priests who prachuman sacrificel and cannibalism.

Another theory is that the great stone circleused to store terrestrial energy2 which was thenerated across the country through the so-called

lines, which are invisibchannels for a skind of power.

Besides the theoriesscientists, there arelegends. One of them telthat Stonehenge wasby the devil in a sing

human sacri-f ice ['saknfars]qCTOBEIICCKI4E'ICEPTBOII

IIOIUCHIIflto store terrestrial egy - sarracarb seMHySHepruIo

r[. He flew forwards and backwards between Ire-nnd Salisbury Plain carrying huge stones one by

nnd setting them in place. As he worked, he laughedIrlrrrself. "That will mahe people thinh. They wiII

r hnow how the stones ea,rne here!" But a friar wasng in a ditch nearby. The devil saw the friar and

a stone at him which hit the friar on the heel.i Thc stone which the devil threw is known as the

stone, and people will show it to you lying byHide of the road.

QUESTIONS!, Which is the best known prehistoric monument

in Britain?f, What theories exist about the origin of Stone-

lrenge?I, What does the legend say about the building of

Stonehenge?

Part 2. The Lake District.

'l'he Lake Districtl is a mountainous area in thefiorth-west of England, and it has some of England'sfirost beautiful scenery. Some admiring visitors calledIt " A paradise of mountain scenery and magical light" "

Fk:turesque lakes lie in deep hollows dug out by thellncier which covered Britain during the Ice Age'.tlreen hills, herds of sheep, and solitary farms scat-tnred here and there are typical of thislremote and:lrrprisingly beautiful part of England.

'lhe Lake District is a National Parh, which meansllrnt special care is taken to make sure that the beau-

101

| 'l'he Lake District - Oadpnrrfi rcpaftI l,he Ice Age - oloxa oJreAeHeHufl

f Ffl people whottglr t that industrial-lotr could spoil the

tr l,r'yside and ancientllrlings of England

Wules. The Nation-l't'rtst members con-trl,ly keep an eye onr'Ious gardens, wholelnges, farms, wind-

llls and watermills,hns and hills, abbeys, A country house protected

by the National Trusthistoric and Romanil<1uities.

QUESTIONSWhere is the Lake District situated?What organization takes care of preserving thenatural beauty of the Lake District?

Part 3. Ganterbury.

Canterbury2 is a townItr Kent3 with a popula-tlon of about 120,000. Itls the religious capital oftngland because its ca-thedral is the seat of the

keep an eye on - [pucMa-'rpr4BaroT 3aCanterbury ['krcntabarr] -Kenrep6epzKent [kent] - Kenr

The Lake Didtrict

ty of the countrYsis not spoiled. Theple who are resble for preservingLake District's nabeauty arethe National Trust

The National Tis a public organitionl which is fiby ordinary peowho pay to becomembers. The Trwas set up in 1895

I a public organizationo6ulectaeruraff opra3aqr4.flThe Lake District

Thomas Becket and Henry ll

Archbishop of Caburyl who is headChurch of England.

From the 12ih to15th centuri.es itplace of pilgrimThousands of pcame to pray at theof a former Arcof Canterbury whomurdered in thedratr in 1170. Hiswas Thomas Becket

During the 1ztilry King Henry IIed that the Churchtoo much power. Inhe made his friendmas Becket Archbiof Canterbury thithat he would helpto weaken the positithe Church.

Henry was amawhen Becket begandefend the position ofChurch against theThe relations between

I the Archbishop ['o:Canterbury - Apcxou Kenre

2 Thomas Becket ['tc'bekrt] - Tovrac Eener

l.he Pope lpoup] - nana(ieoffrey Chaucer ['d3efrr'rlr:sel

- AxceQrbpra tlocep'l'he Canterbury Tales -< Kenrep6epuftcnne pac-('Ka3bI )

Pilgrims going to Canterbury

305

Arclrbishop and the king became very bad, and Beck-el lrrrrl to leave England because he was afraid that hetrrlglrt be killed. He lived in exile for five years untilHr,rrrv asked him to come back, because the PopelIrrrrl insisted that the king should ieturn the Arch-trlrr lrop of Canterbury.

When Thomas Becket returned to Canterbury in1 l7O, the serious contradictions between hirn and thehlrrg continued. Finally, one day, four of flenry'shrrights entered Canterbury Cathedral and munderedtlrr, Archbishop on the steps of the altar.

'l'hree years later, in 1173, Becket was made a saint,nrrrl his tomb became the destination of thousands oflrllgrirns for three centuries.

( lhaucer's Pilgrims. The best-known Canterburypllgrims are probably those who are described in thehrrok by Geoffrey Chaucer2, The Canterbury Taless.I'lrc book was written in the 14th century, when thegrllgrimage had become a rather pleasant holiday fortlrr. groups of people who travelled together for pro-lrt' [ion and companionship.

'l'he Canterbury Tales rsH r:ollection of stories toldbv the members of a groupol' pilgrims. Through theel,ories we get a vivid pic-lrrre not only of the narra-lors themselves but also of

the religioussocial life of14th century.

In the 16th

ry, when kingry VIII sefrom the RoCatholic Chuand establishedChurch of E

Pope John Paul ll on a visitto Cantebury

he declared tBecket was nosaint, and hiswas destroyed.

The most famous modern "pilgrim" is certainlyJohn Paul II1. His visit to Canterbury in 1982 wasimportant historical event, because it showed theof understanding that exists now between the RoCatholic Church and the Church of England.

QUESTIONS1. Why is Canterbury considered the religious ca

tal of England?2. With what purpose djd pilgrims come to Can

bury in the 12th-15th centuries?3. What famous writer gave a very vivid picture

pilgrimages to Canterbury and the people wtook part in them?

4.

5.

Who is the most famous "pilgrim" of modernWhen did he visit Canterbury? Why can hisbe considered an important historical event?What is the story of Thomas Becket?

Part 4. Windsor Castle.

Windsor Castlel, standing on a rock overlookingthe ltiver Thames, was founded by William the Con-

luenrt and was later fortified and enlarged by al-Fiost, every monarch since the Norman Conquest.fftlli,,rn and his early successors needed to secure

tlrcil rnilitary position. William put the castle to guard

thc river crossing at Windsor. Henry II built theftiannive Round Tower - every child's image of for-tfpru;, and his grandson Henry III added some fortifi-€elirrrrs. Still later, the famous St. George's Chapel2

ilnn ndded by the kings Edward IV, Henry VII and

llur,.y VIII. Henry VIII also added a fortified gate-

Wav. Charles II and later monarchs continued to makeAllr,r'ations to suit the needs and fashions of the day,itrr:lrrding the laying out of the Great Park as theirpersonal estate. Nowadays Windsor Castle is a com-fnltable country place within an hour's drive fromtlu, capital, where the Royal family can relax.

QUESTIONSl. Who began building Windsor Castle? With what

purpose did he build it?2. How far from London is Windsor Castle situated?

Part 5. Hampton Gourt Palace.

Hampton Court3 is a royal residence which is asso-linted with Henry VIII. Cardinal Wolseya, Henry'sI'r'iend and.adviser, was a brilliant politician and dip-

Windsor Castle ['wtnze'ko:sl] - Brzugeopcrcraft saMoxSt. George's Chapel [snt'd3c:d3rz'tJrpel] -

qacoBufl cBflroro leopraHampton Court ['hanptsn'kr:t] - 4aopeq Xamnroa KoptCardinal Wolsey ['ko:dtnel'wulzll - KapAITHaJI Vo.ncra

)07

1 Pope John PauI II ['poup'd3on'pc:l 6e'sekend]flaser II

)06

- nana I,Ioa

Iomat. He began building this grand palace inbrick in 1514. In 1526 Wolsey presented the uished place to his king, and Henry continued theuntil Hampton Court was one of the largestbuildings in Europe.

During tke CivilWar Oliver Cromwell usedton Court to hold King Charles I under home aAfter the king's execution, he lived there himself,rather un-Puritan stylel.

The gardens surrounding the palace, withtennis court, the orangery, and, the famous rlaze,all relics of the pleasures and pastimes of those dwhich attract thousands of tourists every year.

In 1689 William III commissioned Sir ChristoWren2 to rebuild and extend the palace, so thatis a mixture of styles in its architecture. The GGate built in Henry VIII's time presents a Tudorwhile Wren's south and east fagades are perfin classical style.

Like many Englisli old castles and palaces,ton Court is haunted3. According to a legend, onethe galleries is haunted by Henry's fifth wife Carine Howarda, who was executed on a charge of idelitys. Another legend says that Jane Seymouro,third wife, also walks here in the palace where sdied giving birth to the future Edward VI. Some

I in rather un-Puritan style - B AoBoJrbHo rrenyprrraucxoM cr2 Sir Christopher Wren ['krrstefe'ren] - cap I{pzcroQep Pen3 Hampton Court is haunted [ho:ntrd] - s XaMnroHBOAfi TCff IIPITBIIAEIII4A

a Catherine Howard ['kreOrrn'hauod] - Kerpran loaapg5 on a charge of infidelity [,lnfi'delrtr] -no o6suneuuro sIIOCTII6 Jane Seymour ['d3ern'si:mo:] - ,{xcefin Ceftrvryp

308

King Henry Vllland his wives

rne of Aragon Anne of Clevesdivorcedtlivorced

Atttrc BoleYnexocuted

King Henry Vlll

Catherine Parrlived longerthan Henry

errcls tell that the ghost of Anne Boleynl, Henry'ssr.cond wife, who was also executed, sometimes walksnlong the ramparts2 of the Bloody Tower. Henry him-nr:lf , however, rests quietly: his ghost has never been

ruren by anybody.

I Anne Boleyn ['aen'buhn] - Anna Bonefts' ramparts ['rrcmpo:ts] -KperrocrHble

BaJrbr

+

Jane Seymourrlred in childbirth

109

1., QUESTTONS

In what years was Hampton Court PalaceWhat is the palace surrounded by?

t Why is there a mixture of styles in the architure of Hampton Court Palace?How is Hampton Court Palace connected with3.names of Henry VIII, Charles I and OliClomwell?

Part 6. Oxford.

The first written record of the town of Oxdates back to the year 912. Oxford University, toldest and most famous university in Britain,founded in the middle of the 12th century, and1300 there were already 1,500 students. At that tiOxford \fras a wealthy town, but by the middle of14th century it was poorer, because of a declinetrade and because of the terrible plague, which kimany people in England. The relations betweenstudents and the townspeople were very unfriendland there was often fighting in the streets.

Nowadays there are about 12,000 students inford and over 1-000 teachers. Outstanding scientiwork in the numerous colleges of the Universiteaching and doing research work in physics,istry, mathematics, cybernetics, literature,and ancient languages, art and music, philosophypsychology.

Oxford Univefsity has a reputation of a privilegschool..Many prominent political figures of theand present times got their edueation at Oxford.

t Oxford ['okfo:d] - Orccgop4

310

Oxford

'l'he Oxford English Dictionary is well-known torlrrrlents of English everywhere. It contains approxi-trrrrlely 5,000,000 entries, and there are thirteen vol-lurrr:s, including a supplement.

Oxford University Press, the publishing houselwlrich produces the Oxford English Dictionary hasn special department called the Oxford 'Word andl,lnguage Service (OWLS for short). If you have arlrrestion about the meaning of a word or its origin,vorr can write or telephone, and the people therewill help you.

QUESTIONSl. Why is the town of Oxford famous all over the

world?2. How does Oxford University justify its reputa-

tion of a privileged school?i|. What is Oxford University Press?

' publishing house - rraAareJabcrBo

311

Part 7. Ca

Cambridgel isthe best-knownin the world, andprincipal reason forfame is its Unithe second oldestversity of Britwhich was foundedthe 13th century. Tthere are more ttwenty colleges inbridge University.

The oldest collegePeterhouse, which

founded in 1284, and the most recent is RobinCollege, which was opened in 1977. The most famis probably King's College, because of its macent chapel. Its choir of boys and undergraduatesalso well known.

The University was only for men until 1871.1871 the first women's college was opened.was opened two years later and a third in 1954. In1970s, most colleges opened their doors to bothand women. Nowadays almost all colleges are mix

The Cambridge Folk Festival. Every year, in sumer, one of the biggest festivals of folk musicEngland is held in Cambridge. Thousands ofarrive in Cambridge for the Festival. Many offans2 put up their tents to stay overnight. The Cabridge Folk Festival is always very well organi

: Cambridge ['kermbrrd3] - Kervr6pugx2 fans - rIoKJroHHr{Krl

312

€trrl llrcre is always;llrl order. How-€Vlr', some peopleillro live nearby doflrrl lil<e the Festi-Vtrl, 'l'hey say thattlrlr',' is too muchho ir;c, that toohlrrr:lr rubbish islpl'l ,rn the ground,Strrl that many oft lr r. f ans takedlrrgs. On the oth-Ft' lrrrnd, local shop-fnr,pers are glad, because for them the Festival meansg lrig increase in the number of customers.

QUESTIONSWhat is Cambridge famous for?How many colleges are there in Cambridge Uni-versity? Which is the oldest college? When wasthe most recent college opened? Which is the mostfamous college? What is it famous for?

ll. What festival is held in Cambridge every summer?

Part 8. Liverpool and the Beatles.Liverpooll is situated in Lancashire2, at the

irrrrrrth of the Riuer Merseys, where it empties intolhe Irish Sea.

The settlement of Liverpool was first mentionedtrr 1191, and in L2O7 it got the status of a town.

I l,iverpool ['lrvcpul] - Jftaaepuy,rr' Lancashire ['laeqkcJrc] - JlaHxarulrp' the River Mersey ['me:zr] - pexa lVlepcei"r

The Cambridge Folk Festivalir-.:ir.ili, . il!ii:i;ti-i:"|1.ii,ir..":..:!i;-.,:.r.:i.::::i, ::.: i:.

The Chapel of King's College

)13

The Beatles

Since the 13th century it has been a port. In theond half of the 17th century it began playing anportant part in the trade with the English coloniesAmerica. At present it is the second largest (London) sea-port in Britain.

For a lot of people, not just in Britain but evwhere, Liverpool is first of all associated withBeatlesr, probably the most famous and spop-group the world has ever known.

On October 24, t962, the song Loue Me Dozsung by a then unknown group of four working-clads from Liverpool, John Lennons, paul Mreyo, George Harrisonb and Ringo Starro, who call

t the Beatles [bi:tlz] - Bur.rrrr2 Love Me Do - <Jho6u MeHff)rr John Lennon ['d3c:n'lcnon] - ,{rnon Jlennon4 'ko:tnr] - flo.n Manxaprnnt hrcrrsn] - .(xopglx fappracon6 - Pranro Crapp

)14

tlrerrrr,'lves the Beatles. It was the first of a numbertf his hits that brought them world fame.

'i'lrc road to success was not easy. John and Paul$erl rpent many afternoons listening to AmericanStnrrr like Chuck Berryl and Elvis Presleyz beforethov were able to write the famous Lennon andfrr('nrtney songs.

lf rrring the 1960s the Beatles were at the heightgf llreir glory: newspaper headlines, films, and*rrrlrl-tours. Their new style of singing and theirHtrrrrrral haircuts - Beatles mops! - immediatelybF,',,"," the latest fashion.

A I'ter a decade of successful music and films, theEentles had some disagreements, and finally decidedto lrrcak up in the early seventies. Many people hopedtlint there would be a reunion, but it became impossi-blc rrl'ter the tragic murder of John Lennon in Newtlrrl< in 1980.

QUESTIONSl, Where is Liverpool situated?ll. When did Liverpool begin playing an impor-

tant part in the sea trade? Is it still a largeport? How large?

ll. What is Liverpool associated with for manypeople?

{. When were the Beatles at the height of theirglory? What immediately became the latest fash-ion? When did the group fall apart?

(lhuck Berry ['tj,tk'bcrr] - 9ax Beppul,llvis Presley ['elr,,rs'prczlr] - Dnnzc flpecnr,r

315

4.

CHAPTER REVIEWFill in the blanks with the comect words fromlist:

picturesque, reputation, mountainous, second,grirns, temple, glory, haunted, Royal, glacier,sacrifice.1. At one time people thought that Stonehenge

a Druid2. Some people believe that the Druids practiced

man3. The Lake District is the central

in the north-west of England.lakes lie in deep hollows dug

by the which covered Britain ding the Ice Age.

5. Canterbury is the capital ofland.

6. Canterbury are best describedGeoffrey Chaucer.

7. Windsor Castle is a comfortable country placefamily.

8. Legends say that many rooms and galleriesHampton Court Palace areof Henry VIII's wives.

by the g

9. Oxford University has aleged school.

10. The oldest university of BritainCambridge.

11. During the 1960s the Beatles were at the heiof their

SECTION FOUR

FAMOUS BRITONS

KING ALFRED THE GREAT(s4e-8ee)

Atfred the Greatl, who is considered the first

ol'learning.Alfred's interest in education was encouraged by

his stepmother Judith2 and his teacher, and Iater by

i,i. bi&rapher Asser3, a bishop from Wales' Alfred

Alfred the Great ['rlfred Oe'grett] - Anrtfrpe4 Beanxraft

Judith ['d3u:drO] - ,lJ,xtY4urAsser ['aesc] - AcceP

T7316

learned to read and write Latin and English. Heied passages from the Bibler and translated theinto English.

The duties of the king constantly interruptedfred's education. His entire reign was spent inwith the Danes.

He became king of Wessex2 in 871. Bythat ti:the Danes had been present in the British Isles forleast a hundred years, and the eastern lands of Briain were in their hands. They made constant raidsWessex, and people had to pay tributea to them.ing the first four years of his reign, until 875'fred bought peace for his people by paying tributethe Danes. At first the invaders seemed satisfbut in 875, after collecting their tribute they didleave Wessex as they had done before. In a few yeaAlfred gathered a strong army. He defeated the ivading Danes and forced them to leave Wessex.

However, the Danes still inhabited Britain: Nortumbriaa, East Anglias and parts of Merciao werein their hands, and they constantly threatWessex. Alfred built several new fortified ciwhere great groups of people could gather fortection, and reorganized his army. FinaIIy, inAlfred took the initiative himself and attackedDanish-held city of London He forced the Danesof London and captured the city. In the words ofbiographer Asser, all the "Angles and Sarons tur

I the Bible [batbl] - Bra6lus2 Wessex ['wcseks] - Veccexc3 to pay tribute_[tnbjut] - uaarurB AaHba Northumbria fnc:'0,tmbrro] - Hoptyrvr6pus5 East Anglia^[i:st'rqgho] - Boctoqua.n Anrnug6 Mercia ['me:Jlo] - Mepcur318

willingly to King Alfred and submitted themselues tshis lordship". At this point, in thd historians'opiq-lon, Alfred rightly earned the title " King of Ene-land" , though in reality he governed perhaps a quar-ter of the land which is now known as England.

When he,had brought peace to his land, Alfredbegan to introduce his reforms. 'He believed that t\slnvaders represented punishment from God for thedecay of education. So he actively supported educa-tion in the country. The ability to read was so impor-tant to Alfred, that he began to demand that othernobles of the land should learn to read. He openqdschools for them and brought many Latin scholarsfrom the continent to teach at these schools. He hirn-gelf translated several works from Latin. He startsdthe Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which was a record efevents in his kingdom and may be called the firsthistory of England. He also established a code of la"wrbased on the Bible.

The last years of Alfred's life were more peagefuland devoted to learning. When Alfred died in 8gg,he left a culture which would be remembered for cen-turies.

319

I a code of law [c:] - RoAeKc BaKoHoB

QUEEN ELIZABETH I

(1s33-1603)Queen Elizabeth I1, the last of the Tudor

archs, was the daughter of Henry VIII. Shean excellent classical education. She could readand Greek and spoke French and Italian fluently

People rejoiced when Elizabeth became queenter her elder sister Mary's death in 1558. Etiwas an intelligent, courageous and determinedan. People often called her Good Queen Bess.

Elizabeth made her first task the settlementEngland's religious affairs. She was determinedstop religious struggle. She tried to gradually sProtestant religion, without offending the Cattoo much. However, the struggle between Catand Protestants continued and endangered Eliza

loxition. Some Catholic nobles wished to remove EIiz-h and replace her with the queen of Scotland,

ry Stuartr, who was a Catholic. Mary, usuallySrllcd Queen of Scots, was the heir to the English

t'orle because she was Elizabeth's closest relation.nrv had powerful enemies in Scotland and had to

rpe to England. Elizabeth kept her in the Towerff l,ondon as a prisoner for nearly twenty years.prrring that time several Catholic plots were discov-€t'r'tl, which aimed at making Mary queen of Eng-larrrl. Finally Elizabeth had to agree to Mary's execu-lkrrr in 1587.

l)uring Elizabeth's reign England became a greatl€n power. English sailors, the most famous of whichlre Francis Drake2 and Walter Raleighs, challengedtho Spaniards in the Atlantic Ocean. They made dar-lpg raids on the Spanish colonies in America and cap-ttrrcd Spanish ships that carried treasure from theNnw World to Spain.

l,llizabeth helped the Dutcha Protestants. At thattlnre the Netherlandsb was part of the Spanish em-plre, and King Philip 116 of Spain was trying to sup-pross the Protestant rebellion there. He sent his armyln I he Netherlands. Elizabeth did the same. So PhilipIrnd to fight with England. He built a huge fleet ofllrips, which became known as the Inuincible Arma-t/ru7. England was in danger. Elizabeth spoke to the

I Mary Stuart ['meerr'stjuet] - Mapua CrroaprI lfrancis Drake ['fransrs'drerk] - @pencuc ,{pefirt Walter Raleigh ['wc:lte'rc:lr] - Yo.nrep PorlrI l)utch tdntjl - ron.nanAccufti lhe Netherlands ['ne6elendz] - Hngep.nax4un King Philip II ['frlrp 6e'sekend] -

(Du.nunn II' l,he Invincible [tn'vrnstbl] Armada [o:'mo:de] - neuo6eAlrrvras

Apma4a321

' Queen Elizabeth I [r'lrzcbeO 6c'f-o:st] -320

Enrnsasera I

crews of the ships that were going to do battlethe Armada. She won their hearts by sayingwas ready "...to liue or die arnongst Aou-. for myand for my hingdorn, and for nty people... I hnow .

a week u)ornan, but I haue the heart of a hing -a King of England too!"

The two fleets were fighting for six days,August 9, 1588, the Armada was defeated. Onlythe ships of. the Armada returned to Spain. Itgreat victory for England.

The Elizabethan ager was one of the greatestriods of English literature. Edmund Spenser2,topher Marlowes and William Shakespeareaonly a few of the many writers who createdgreat works at that time. Elizabeth's courta centre of culture for English musicians,scholars and artists. The English were proud of tcountry and their queen.

t The Elizabethan age Ir.lrze'bi:0en'erd3] - E.nuaaaerrancrufi2 Edmund Spenser ['edmend'spense] - EArvryEA Cnexcep3 Christopher Marlowe ['knstcfa'mo:lou] - KpnctoQep Maa William Shakespeare ['wrljom'Jerkspra] - Vlr.nrsrvr IIIexc)22

FRANCIS DRAKE(1540-15e6)

Francis Drake, one of the most famous of Englishllors and pirates, was born in Plymouthr, a sea-

port and the largest town in the south of England.'fhe boy spent much of his time looking at the ships

ln l'lymouth harbour and talking to the seamen. Atlil'teen he was taken on a small ship and worked therefol some years. The boy learned the duties of a sailorVnry soon and did his work so well that people saidtlrrrt he was a born sailor2. When Drake was twenty-fJvc, he was made a captain's mate, and soon aftertlic captain of a ship.

I l'lymouth ['phmeO] - flnrauytE rr born sailor - [pupo)Kgiinnrrft MopfiK

323

Sea-battles between English and Spanish shipscommon at that time. Once a small fleet of sixlish ships was attacked by Spanish ships in thelantic Ocean. Four of the English ships wereand only two, one of which was commanded bycame back to England.

Drake demanded that the king of Spain shouldhim for the lost ships. Of course, the king ofrefused to pay. Drake was very angry and decthat he would take all he could from the king ofAnd he fulfilled his threat. He crossed the Atlwith two small ships and captured severalships loaded with gold and silver.

I

I

In November 1577 five ships with Francisat the head sailed off from Plymouth. Drakethe Atlantic, passed through the Strait of Mand reached Cape Hornz, the southernmost pointSouth America.

After a short rest the ships sailed north allthe west coast of South, Central and, North ArneLeaving North Arnerica, Drake crossed the Pand visited the island of Jauaa, in the south ofAfter that he sailed across the Indian Ocean toCape of Good Hope,, where he came in June 1580.

Sailing north along the west coast of Africa,visited the Canary Islandso, then sailed on andSeptember 1580 he returned to England.

I the Strait of Magellan [mo'gelen] - MareanauoB npoJrrrB2 Cape Horn ['kerp'hc:n] - urrc lopx3 the Pacific [ps'srfik] - Tuxnft oreaua Java [d3o:va] - .fsa5 the Cape of Good Hope - rrarrc ,{o6poft uagex4rr6 the Canary [ka'nean] Islands - Kanapcxr're ocrpoBa

)24

Francis Drake's round-the world voyage

'l'he voyage lasted nearly three years. Drake wastlrc first Englishman who sailed round the world.

ln 1588 Francis Drake distinguished himself intlrc sea-battle against the Spanish Arnrnda in theFrrglish Channel.

Seven years after the victory over the Spanish Ar-fiuda, in 1595, Drake, at the head of a large fleet,lalled from Plymouth again to attack the Spaniardsln America and the West IndiesL. The Atlanfic was€t'ossed in a month, but soon afterwards Drake felllll. In January 1596 he died and was buried in themn. There is a monument to Francis Drake in Ply-htouth.

12'

the West Indies ['west'rndrz] - Becr-Llngua

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE(1564-1616)

William Shakespeare was born in 1564, in Sford-upon-Avon1. He attended Stratford's graschool, which still stands. The grammar school'sriculum at that time was limited to teaching puLatin, both spoken and written. The classical wristudied in the classroom influenced Shakespeaplays and poetry; some of his ideas for plots and cacters came from Ovid's2 tales, the plays ofand Plautusa, and Roman history.

t Stradford-upon-Avon ['stretfed e'pcn'ervn]EfisoHe2 Ovid ['cvrd] - Or.ugufr3 Terence ['terons] - Tepenqufi

a Plautus ['plc:tas] - flrasr)26

Wc do not know when or why Shakespeare leftftrrrtford for London, or what he was doing be-fcrr, becoming a professional actor and dramatistl1 l.he capital. He probably arrived in London inlBro or L587.

Fihakespeare's reputation was established in Lon-dorr by L592, when his earliest plays were written:flrnry VI, The Two Gentlemen of Verona, and T.ituslnrlronicus.

ln 1594 Shakespeare joined other actors in form-hg n new theatre companyr, with Richard Burbage2U its leading actor. For almost twenty years Shake-tpr.rrre was a regular dramatist of this company andIt'o[e on the average two plays a year. Burbage playedlhn rrrain roles, such as Richard III3, Hamleta, Othel-foh nnd Lear6.

ln 1599 the company of actors with which Shake-lfrcrrre worked built a new theatre, the GlobeT. It wasbrrilt on the south bank of the Thamess. The Gtobeilrr.utre is most closely associated with Shakespeare'splrrvs. Two of his plays, Henry IF and Julius Cae-trt/'r0, were almost certainly written during the yearItr which the Globe opened.

Some of Shakespeare's most famous tragedies werewritten in the

-early 1600s. They include Hamlet,

rr [heatre company -. TearpaJrbxafl rpyrruaItichard Burbage ['rrtJod'be:brd3] - Prauap4 Bep6v4xcItichard III - Pu.rap4 IIIllnmlet ['haemlrt] - launer( )thello [ou'Oelou] - Oreruol,ear [re] - JInpt,lre Globe [gloub] - fao6ycl,lre Thames [temz] - Tervrsallenry V - <lenprax V>.lulius Caesar ['d3uljes'si:zo] - <IOauft IJ,eaapr>

- CrperQop4-

327

Othello, King Lear and MacbethL. His late plays,,ten known as romances, written between 1608L612, include Cymbelinez, The Winter's Tales andTentpest a.

Around 1611 Shakespeare left London andto Stratford. He died in Stratford at the age oftwo on April 23, 1616, and was buried in Holyity Churchs.

Shakespeare's greatness lies in his humanism.created a new epoch in world literature. Forfour centuries Shakespeare has remained one ofbest known playwrights and poets in the world.ry new generation of people finds in his worksthing important. As his contemporary Ben Jonce said, Shakespeare "belongs not to the cenbut to all times."

I Macbeth [mek'beO] - <Marc6er>2 Cymbeline ['srmbrli:n] - <I-{lrm6earn>3 The Winter's Tale - <Survrnss cKaBKaD{ The Tempest ['temprst] - <Eypar5 Holy Trinity Church ['houlr'trrnrtr'tJa:d] -Tpouqu6 Ben Jonson ['ben'd3cnsn] - Ben .(xoncon328

Oliver Cromwell(1see-16s8)

'l'he centuries-long rivalry between the Crown andlfnrliament came to an open fight in the 17th century.

'l'he king of England was Charles I, a young manwho wanted to rule over England without Parliament.[lr. needed money for wars, but Parliament refusedto give it. In t642 Charles I tried to arrest sometlrr.mbers of Parliament, but could not do it. Then helel't Parliament and never came back as a king. Mem-lrt.rs of Parliament decided to build up an army toflght against the king, and gave money to teach theeoldiers. But they understood that eourage alone wasrrot enough to win battles. It was necessary to have aclrong leader who would train the army and lead it.Hrrch a Ieader was found. It was Oliver Cromwelll.qepxoar C

I Oliver Cromwell ['clrve'krcmwal] - O"nunep Kpouae.nr)29

Cromwell was a member of Parliament. Hecountry gentleman, a rough man, unskilful as aer, but known for his strength of character anddeep sincerety and religious feeling.

Cromwell trained his soldiers in completeence, filled them with the desire to fight fordom, Parliament and religion. His famousorder"Trudt in God and keep your powder dry."

Many thousands of soldiers were killed duringCiuil War. In 1644 a Scottish army of 20,000came to help Cromwell. In the battle near theYork the Parliamentary army won a victory andking's army was defeated. Charles I was broughtrial in London and accused of having made warhis people and of being an enemy of his country.was found guiltyr and sentenced to death. In Jary 1649 Charles was beheaded. In the samethe Parliamentary government came to powerproclaimed England a republic. Cromwell gottle of Lord Protector.

Cromwell ruled the country firmly, but he didlike to be contradicted, and finally dismissed Parment. During the last years of his life he becadictator who ruled the country without the coof the people. The English Republic, the firstlic in Europe, did not justify the hopes of the

In September 1658 Oliver Cromwell died. Thelitical instability that followed his death led todemand for the restoration of monarchy. In 1660newly elected Parliament invited Charles II, theof the executed king, to occupy the English thro

I was found guilty - 6srn nprrsnau BrrHoBHbrM

)30

John Milton(1608-1 674)

,lohn Miltonl was born in a Puritan family in Lon-tnrr. At the age of seventeen he went to Cambridge.fflr,r taking his degree, he returned home and spentllx rnore years studying poetry, philosophy, musicSttrl languages. He mastered Greek and Latin litera-fttlr., learned French, Italian and Spanish and stud-lerl l,he latest theories of science. Then he travelledln l,'r'ance and Italy. In 1639 he came back and joined[lrr, r;truggle for the Puritan cause.

lrr 1649 Charles I was executed, and Cromwell be-trrnro ruler of England. Milton became Foreign Sec-lnlrrryz to Cromwell. He worked day and night, writ-

I ,lohn Milton ['d3on'mrlten] - ,(xon MrnrronI l,'orcign ['fcrrn] Secretary - M]rr{r4crp r{Hocrpannhrx AeJr

331

ing, in Latin, countless letters to foreign rulers,ing and translating their replies.

Humson Agonistesr. We feel that in the figure ofMilton sees himself. Samson is blind, Iike

At the age of forty-three Milton had a great l0on; his cause, like Milton's, is defeated and hisfortune: he became completely blind. Still f rlcs are triumphant. But, like Milton, he is adisasters came upon him: Cromwell died and in 1 l, proud and courageous, and although he is blind,

rnced and a slave, he can still serve God's ptrr-Charles II, son of the executed Charles I, wasback from France to be King of England. . In doing this he brings about his own death;that the Puritans had fought for was overt his death is his triumph.The Puritan leaders were imprisoned and pudeath. Milton escaped death, but he left London

Mllton died in 1674. He is buried in London, notfrom the street where he was born.

retired to a little cottage about twenty milesLondon. Arld here, lonely and blind, and in dihe wrote, or rather dictated to his daughters,greatest work - the poem Poradise Zostr. Theject of the poem is the fall of Lucifer2 (Satan) andfall of man. It tells of Satan's revolt and of thein Heaven that followed. Satan was defeated anddown to Hellg. Here, in darkness and pain, hewith the other fallen angelsa, a mighty empireplanned revenge. In the form of a serpent he cameParadise to bring evil into the world. Adam andwere temptedb and fell, and, Paradise was lost.

The greatness of the poem lies not in the story,in the power of the language, in the music of theand in the noble spirit that inspires the whole

In 1671 two more great works followed PaLost: the long poem Paradise Regainedo and theI Paradise Lost ['preradats'lcst] - <Iotepaxnrrfi paft,r2 Lucifer ['lu:srfe] - Jhoqr@ep3 HelI [hel] - aaa with the other fallen angels ['ernd3alz] - c ApyrrrMrr

AHTCJIAMI'5 Adam ['eedom] and Eve [i:v] were tempted ['temptrd] - Agau

Esa 6lrau noABepruyrhr lrcryrrreruro6 Paradise Regained [rr'gelnd] - <Bosrpaqdxxuft paftr332

I Samson Agonistes ['samsn,ege'ntsti:s] - Caucon-6opeq13)

lsaac Newton(1642-1727',)

Sir Isaac Newtonr was born in a small villageLincolnshirez in the family of a poor farmer.

Since childhood the boy was fond of science.began his first experiments at school. After sc

he studied at Carnbridge Uniuersity, where, stillstudent, he formulated the binomial theorems.

Newton devoted all his life to scientific exmentation. Among his discoveries was the law ofcomposition of light4. He proved that the white lig

I Isaac Newton ['atzrk'nju:tan] - llcaarc Hrroton2 Lincolnshire ['lrrlkanJra] - JlunrcoJlblrurrrp3 the binomial theorem [bat'noumjel'0rerem] - 6unonr Hrror4 the law of decomposition [di:.kcmpe'zrJn] of light - aa

pasJro?I{eHr{,fi cBeTa

334

o1'the sun is made up of rays of light of all the col-orrrs of the rainbow.

Newton's greatest discovery was certainly the Lawaf Uniuersal Grauitationr.It is described in his bookMathem.atical Principles of Natural Philosophy2. Thefrrndamental principle of the book is that "every parti-tle of nvatter is attracted by every other particle of mat-lrr with a force inuersely proportional to the square oflheir distances apart3". Applying the principle of grav-Itution, Newton proved that the power which guidestlre moon around the earth and the planets around thetrrn is the force of grauityt. The fact that the earth isfluttened at the poles because of rotation was also ex-plained by the law of universal gravitation.

Newton was highly honoured by his countrymen. In1703 he was elected President of the Royal Societys.

Much later, is the 20th century, another great sci-plrtist, Albert Einsteino, who had a very high opinionof Newton's scientific achievements, wrote thesewords about him: "Noture to hirn was an open booh,whose letters he could read without effort."

Sir Isaac Newton died in L727 and was buried inWestminster Abbey.

I the Law of Universal [junr've:sal] Gravitation [,grrevl'terj"] -Sanon aceivrupnoro r.fl roreul{fi' Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy -

< Marervrarraqecrra e Harr aJra rr arypaJrbHofi tpu.nocotpzll >u every particle of matter is attracted by every other particle

of matter with a force inversely [tn've:slt] proportional[pre'pc:Jnel] to the square of their distances apait - Ka]ftAasrracTuqa MaTepr{r.t flpr{Tfi rr4BaeTcfl Ka)r(Aofi apyrofi uacrrnqefiMarepuu c cr.r.noft, o6parno flpoflopqrlonalrnofi KBaAparypaccTofiHrrfl Merr(Ay HrrMrrI the force of gravity [grevrtr] - cr{Jra nprrrffxcenufi

u the Royal Society - Kopo.nercKoe Ha] ruoe o6rqecrno" Albert Einstein ['albet'arnstarn] - Am6epr Etuurreftn

735

Bonnie Prince Gharlie(1720-1788)

The story begins in 1688, when James II, theof the Stuart kings, was driven off the throndEngland. James went abroad and never returnedEngland. But he had many followers in Englandsympathized with him and wanted him back onEnglish throne. In 1715, his son James Edward (the English called the Old Pretenderr) made ansuccessful attempt to get back the throne. Anoattempt was made by James II's grandson, the YPretender2 Charles Edward, whom the ScotsBonnie Prince Charlies.

t the Old Pretender [prr'tende] - Craprrfi rperenAenr2 the Young Pretender - Mo.ro4ofi rrpereuAeHr3 Bonnie ['bcnr] Prince Charlie - KpacrrBbrft npnnq gap.nu

336

It, was in L745. Charles was a real prince of ro-Ftnrrr:er: young (he was twenty-five when he landed inftoiland), handsome, tall and fair2, brave and adven-ttrr',,us. He was coming, he said, to win the crown ofFtrgland and place it at his father's feet. He wantedfoi invade England from Scotland. He was sure oflrr;rgrcrt of the Scots, or at least the Highlanderss.l'ht' Highlands was the wild home of the poor but€ourageous men to whom loyalty to their king was apeHsion. They were adventurous, romantic men whofurvcd fighting and danger. The Stuarts had original-ly come from Scotland, and to the Highlanders theBt,rrurts were a symbol for which they were preparedtu fight and die.

Charles sailed from France aboard a small Frenchrlrip. With him was a big French warship, the Eliza-hrlh., of sixty-eight guns, loaded with the weaponswith which he hoped to defeat the English. In the seal,lrey were met by a British warship, which openedf lre on the Elizabeth. For five hours a battle went onnnd both ships were damaged. The English ship turnedfrrr England and the Elizabeth turned for France.(iharles, with only six followers, determined to goon. He landed on the west coast of Scotland, whereIrc was met by 800 Highlanders.

They marched to Edinburgh. More HighlandorHJoined Charles's army as it marched southwards. Nowrtof the approaching forces caused terror in Edinburglr.'l'he English soldiers who were there withdrew in lttrrt

a real prince of romance [rc'mans] - Hacroalquft pouttll't'tt'r,'crcuft upranqfair [feo] - 6eroxypsrftthe Highlanders ['harlrendez] - <xafi.rrexgeprt>, o6ilTar€,rtlt rr,r

coxoropHblx paftonoa TTIornanAulr1t/

ic. Edinburgh surrendered, and Charles en

triumph.Then the invasion of England began. Charles

quickly moving to the south. There was panic indon. A ship was prepared to take King George

Hanoverl. But suddenly Charles's army stopped.wild Highlanders, finding themselves in theEngland, missed their familiesz and decided to go

For months Charles was hunted through thelands. A huge rewarC was offered to anyone whocapture him dead or alive, but the Highlandersnot betray him. Finally they managed to get hithe coast, where a ship was waiting to take hiFrance and safetY.

1 Hanover ['hanave] - lannoneP2 missed their families - cocKyrII4JIIlIcb rro cBoIrM ceMb,tM

7V8

0ooorO

lo

James Gook(1728-177e1

H I the-world voyage took Place in

l7 the End'eauouf he sailed round

.lames Cook ['dqermz'ku]1 - ,ll,xefivrc KyxYorkshire ['jc:kJre] - I'loPxnruPLf* n"Vuf Nu"V

- Koponencxuft soeuno-Mopcnoft {uot

while charting - Earrocfl rra KaPrYNewf oundland ['nju:fendlend] - Huo{rayn4neuglhe End.eauour [tn'deve] - <Vcranrae>

ng

Cape Hornr and explored the South Pacific2. Hecovered several islands in the South Pacifip,around both islands of New Zealands and exthe eastern coast of Australiaa.

The second voyage (1772-1775) was uin search of the Southern Continent. There wereships: the Resolutions commanded by tamesand the Aduentureo commanded by Tobias FuThe second voyage demonstrated the ouskills and experience of Cook as a seaman and atain. Cook did more than any other man of histo promote the health of his crew. In those timesof sailors on long voyages died of scuruys becathe lack of vitamins in food and bad hygiene.made his men wash every day and air their beds;tried to get as much fresh food as he could; hehis men eat sauerkraut. His second voyage lastedyears and eighteen days, they sailed into the stoest seas on earth, through uncharteds southernfilled with ice. Out of 112 men Cook lost four,whom only one died of an illness.

The purpose of Cook's third voyage (1776-L779)to look for the Northwest Passagero (between thelantic and the Pacific Oceans) from the Pacific

I Cape Horn ['kerp hc:n] - urrc lopn2 the South Pacific ['sauO pe'srfik] - roxnaa qacrb Tllxoro3 New Zealand ['nju:'zi:land] - Hogas Benangr,rn4 rerlje] - Aacrpa.nurt

[,reze'lu:Jn] - cPeruexue,ru [ed'ventJs] - tflpr.rxlroqenr.reD

7 Tobias Furneaux [te'baras'fe:nou] - To6uac @epnoI scurvy [ska:vr] ; qllrra0 uncharted ['nn'tJo;trd] - He rranecHHbre Ha Kapryt0 the Northwest Passage['nc:O'west'pesld3] - Cenepo-

rrpoxoA

740

(iook set out from England on the Reeolutlon, lnfptttgrany with Captain Clerkel on the Discouery2.Thay

llcd around Africa and across the Indian Ocsanl,o the Pacific, then turned north to find the pnt-

r. They sailed round the tip of the Alaska Penln.r;r, through the Bering Straita and into the Arctlrrn5, where they were stopped by thick ice. Aftor

rding there as much time as he could, Cook turnedrl,h to reload and repair the ships for the next yenr.llut he never returned to the Bering Strait. Cap-

ielrr Cook met his death on the Hawaiian Islandr6Flrcre he and his crew were attacked by the nativos3tt l,'ebruary t4, t779.

Olerke [klo:k] - K.napxlhe Discouery [drs'krrverr] - <Orrphrrrre)l,he Alaska [a'leske] Peninsula [pe'nrnsjule] - notffilp3tAngcxal,he Bering Strait ['benq'streltthe Arctic Ocean ['o:ktrk'ouJn] f* *gel,he Hawaiian Islands [ha'waran'arlendz] - IaaailotlQ tFaEe

#l

James Watt(1736-181e)

James Wattt was born in Scotland. He movedGlasgowz in 1754, where he learned the trade of istrument maker, and also studied steam techno

A primitive steatn-engines already existed in Watt'time. It had been invented by Thomas Newcomenathe beginning of the 18th century. But the Newcotneengine was not universal: it could work only as a

In 1763, while repairing a Newcomen engine, JaWatt found that he could greatly improve thechine. His invention of the separate condensers a

I Ja(nes Watt ['d3ermz'wct] - ,(rxefir'nc Varr2 Glasgow ['glo:sgou] - fnasro3 steam-engine - uapoBaff Marrrr4Haa Thomas Newcomen ['tcmas'nju:kemon] - Toryrac Hrroxouen5 the separate condenser - orAeJrbrnrfi xon4encarop342

the introduction of crank movementsl made steamangines more efficient. He also made some other im-provements, and the new steam engine was manufac-tured at Birmingham in 1774. Several other inven-tions followed, including the double-acting engine2,l,he centrifugal governor for automatic speed con-trol3, and the pressure gauge4.

With his inventions James Watt provided some mostlmportant components of early industrial revolution.

James Watt introduced the term "horse powet'".The power unit, the watt6, is named in his honour.

crank movements - Koregqarble Mexagfl3Mblthe double-acting engine - MarurrHa gnofinoro 4eftcrrvathe centrifugal [,sen'tnfiugel] governor for automatic speedcontrol - qenrpo6exnrrfi peryJrflTop AJIa aBroMarrrrrecKoroy[paBJreHr,rfi cKopocTbrolhJ pres".rre gauge ['preJe'gerd3] - MaHoMerphorse power - JrorrraArrnaff crrJrathe power unit, the watt - eAr{Hr{qa MoIrIHocrLr, Barr

34)

Robert Burns(17se-17e6)

The great Scottish poet Robert Burnsl wasthe family of a poor farmer. He was the eldestseven children. He spent his youth working onfather's farm, but in spite of his poverty he wastremely well-read: his father employed a tutorRobert and his younger brother Gilbert2. At 15ert wrote his first verse, My HandsofiLe NeIl.

When his father died in L784, Robert and hiser became partners in the farm. However, Robertmore interested in the romantic nature of poetryin the hard work of ploughing. He was thinkingleaving his farm and going away to the warmer

t Robert Burns ['rcbet'ba:nz] -2 Gilbert ['grlbat] - ft.u6epr344

rrier climate of the West Indiesl. At the same timecontinued writing poetry.llrrt he did not go to the West Indies. His firsttk Poems Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect2 (a set ofrns essentially based on a broken love affairs) was

blished and was highly praised by the critics. Thislc'him stay in Scotland. He moved to Edinburgh.artists and writers of Scotland's capital enthusi-

irl,it:ally received the "Ploughman Poet". In a fewtncks he was transfqrmed from a local hero to a na-

rrral celebrity.Itobert Burns travelled much about Scotland col-

larrling popular songs. He discovered long forgottenft)ngs and wrote his own verses. Robert Burns's po-

ry was inspired by his deep love for his mother-land, for its history and folklore. His beautiful poemfuly Heart's In The Highlands, full of colourful de-grriptions, is a hymn to the beauty of Scotland's na-ttrre and to its glorious past.

Burns's poetry is closely connected with the na-tkrnal struggle of the Scottish people for their liber-It,ion from English oppression, the struggle that hadbeen going on in Scotland for many centuries. Hisftrvourite heroes were William'Wallacea, the leaderol' the uprising against the English oppressors, andItobert Bruce5, who defeated the English army andhr[er became king of Scotland.

the West Indies ['west'rndrz] - Becr.Lln4raal)oerns Chiefly in the Scottish Dialect - <CrraxH rJIolrr,tMo6paaou Ha IrrorJraEAcI(oM AlraJIeKTetessentially based on a broken love affair [a'fea] - B ocuonr()Mrra reMy paa6r,rroft nro6suWilliam Wallace ['wrljem'wclas] - Yra;rrswr VoruecRobert Bruce ['rcbat'bru:s] - Po6epr Eprcc

t+5

Po6epr Bepnc

Robert Burns died at the age of BZ of heart dilcaused by the hard work he had done when heyoung. On the day of his burial more than 10people came to pay their respect to the great bOn the anniversary of his birth, Januar! 2b, !both at home and abroad celebrate Robert brr"rr..not only Scots. Robert Burns's birthday.is celebrannually by the lovers of poetry in many countrithe world.

Horatio Nelson(1758-1805)

lloratio Nelsonl entered the Royal Naual Collegezhr .Ianuary L77t at the age of twelve. He studiedFxt:ellently and passed his lieutenant's examinationftrrre than a year under the official age in L777.

Nelson's bravery as a naval commander was nevertlrrrrbted by his contemporaries. He always led his menhy his own example. He first made his name at thehrrttle of St. Vincentg in February 1797, during whichhc captured two enemy ships. During the wars againstl,'r'ance in the 1790s he took part in many sea battlesnnd lost his right arm and the sight in his right eye.

t{oratio Nelson [hc'rerJrou'nelsn] - fopaqrao Henrcosthe Royal Naval College - Koponeacrrlfi goenno-vropcxoftROIJIeAlr(St. Vincent [snt'vrnsent] - Cenr Br,rncenr

)47

Besides his personal bravery, Nelson was acommander enjoying great love and devotion of thewho senred under him: they were ready to die for

Nelson took daring but calculated risks. Hedisobeyed his superiors when he thought itsary. At the battle of Copenhagenl in LSOL themander-in-Chief Admiral Sir Hyde Parker3,that the British were losing, and he hoisted thenala on his flagships: " Stop ftghting" . Nelson, onship, put the telescope to his blind eye and exc" I really do not see the signal!" He continueding until the Danisho surrendered.

Nelson sailed from Engiand for the last ti1805, as Contrnander-in-Chief of the British fImeet France and Spain at Cape TrafalgarT, thesouth-westerly point of Spain.

At Nelson's instruction, the famous signalhoisted on the flagship: " England expects that eur

man will do his duty". ,

As the battle raged around, Nelson was onmusket balls fired from a French ship struck him inleft shoulder and pierced one of his lungs. Thewas mortal. He died a few hours after that. Buthe died he learned that he had won a great victory.

Admiral Nelson is Britain's national hero. Acolumn crowned with his statue stands in TraSquare in London, in memory of this great man.

' Copenhagen [,koupn'hergen] - Konenrares2 the Commander-in-Chief' - rJlaBuonouaxgyrcrqrfi3 Hyde Parker ['hard'po:ke] - farig flapxepa hoisted ['hcrstrd] the signal - noAHfirr cr{rrraJr5 on his flagship - na csoiiM Qaanvrarcrou xopa6le6 the Danish ['dernrJ] - AarqaHe7 Cape Trafalgar [kerp tra'falga] - vruc Tpaga.nrrap8 a musket ball - Myruxeruaa ryJrff348

George Gordon BYron(1788-1 8241

(leorge Gordon Byronl, one of the greatest poets

l,lngland, was born in London in an old aristocratict, poor family. After the death of his father in 1791'rnother took him to Aberdeenz in Scotland, where

ilru Uoy spent his childhood. At the age of ten he

ilrlrerited th" titl" of Lord and returned to England.

iln tived in the family castle which was situated near

loltinghanzs close to the famous Sherwood Forest'Hr.studied at Harrow4, then at carnbridge uniuersi-

( lcorge Gordon Byron ['d3c:d3'gc:dn'baleran] - Axcop,q*c lopgonliufipouAberdeen [,rebe'di:n] - E6ePgruNottingham ['nctlrlam] - Hotrunrervtllarrow ['herou] - Xappoy (snanenuma'fl ttlrcon&' Jwtozue u3

t r r t t tL ! C K lltl.fl, o a rc o m o p ott c m a,llu a no c n e 0 c m a uu eat 0 anu,u Jttu c'fl

,luvuocrnanu ) )4g

ty. When he was 2!, he became- a member of

Iiorrr" of Lords. In 1809 he travelled abroad and

it"a po"t"gall, Spain, Albania2, Greeces and Tur

He returned home in 1811'- His speeches in the House of Lords in defence

th;-Lu;ditesb and the oppressed Irish people caus

universal irritation. When he and his'wife pe

after an unhappy marriage, his enemies seized

oppo"t""ity and- began to persecute him' The 1

*u" u".rr"ed of immorality and had to leave his

tive countrY.- In May fbfO Byron went to Switzerlando' where

made friends with his great contemporary' the-

;;; s. Srr"il"v?. At the end of 1816. he,yent to Iwhere he became actively engaged in the moven

for the liberation of Italy from Austrian rules' In

summer of 1823 he went to Greece to fight for

Iiberation of that country from Turkish oppressi<

Cy"or,', creative work is usually divided into fperiods.

During the London period (1812-1816) he wrote

first two cantos of Child'e Harold's PilgrLrnagee' his

*ot. Iyrics Hebrew Melod'iesLo, and Orientalrr

I Portugal ['pc:tjugel] - floptyranrax2 Albania [rei'bernje] - A.n6asras l

3 Greece [gri:s] - IPeqrsa Turkey ['ta:kr] - TYPqzn5 the Luddites ['L"darts] - JryAArrrbr6 Switzerland ['swltsala

' ;;;;;il:sr,"it"v 1'p", B' Irlerrnt Austrian ['c:strten] ru naAbrllecrBos Chitd.e Horold"s Pitgrim raldz'prlgnmrdSl

<flanovrn[.recrso 9aftrA-lapo.nrAar - -----]* iii-iii tltelod,ies ['hi:bru: 'meladrz] - <EapeficKr{e MerroArrl

rr Oriental [cfl'entl] - BocrotlHble

350

In the Swissl period (1816 May - October) Byronwrote the third canto of Childe Harold's Pilgrimoge,The Prisoner of Chillon2, and the philosophic dramaManfreds,

During the Italian period (1816-1823)' which isoonsidered to be the most important and mature one,

he wrote the last canto of. Childe Harold's Pilgrim-gge, and the novel in verse Don Juana, in which he

fave a great satirical panorama of the European so-glal life of his time.

During the short months of the Greek period(1823-1824) Byron wrote little: just some lyricalDoems, one of which is On this Day I Complete myThirty-sixth Yeat'. The poet's thirty-sixth year was

to be his last: he fell seriously ill and died on Aprillg, t824. Deeply mourned all over Greece, he be-gome a symbol of liberation struggle and a Greekhational hero.

I

I

II

I

Swiss [swls] - urnefiqapcrcufiThe Prisoner of chillon ['Jrlan] - rTlrs;rencrcrfi ysn]tr)Manfred ['menfred] - <Man$Pe4rDon Juan ['don'd3uan] - t[on ]ICyanrOn this Day I Complete mg Thirtg'sixth Yeor - <B atoT

Aerrb a BaBepluaro caoft tpr4qatr ulectofi ro4r151

Walter Scott(1771-1832)

Sir Walter Scottl, a Scottish writer, a bornteller and master of dialogue, one of thehistorical novelists, was born in Edinburgh.ther was a lawyer and his mother - the dauga professor of medicine.

In his childhood he heard from his grandmany stories and legends of the past. The boygreat interest for these stories. He also learnedsongs and legends of the Highlands. Some of hiscestors had fought on the side of Prince Charlesward Stuart (Bonnie Prince Charlie) when hetrying to seize the throne. This gave the young

I Walter Scott ['wclte'skct] - Ba.nrtep Crcott)52

lhnl, life-Iong love for the Highlanders and their coun-y which is evident in much of his writing. Scottnrself said, "I had a uerA strong prejudtce in fauourlhc Stuart family, which I had originally got from( $ongs and tales of the Highlanders".ln L778, at the age of seven, the boy went to thenous Royal HiSh School of Edinburghr, where he:nme very good at Latin. In 1783, when he waslve, he entered Edinburgh Uniuersify, where he

rrained for two years. During this time he learnedlian, Spanish and French. Later, in 1789-t792,studied arts and law.Scott made himself famous as a poet and - to a

fittrch greater extent2 - as the author of numeroushhtorical novels.

Scott's work shows the influence of the 18th centu-ly Enlightenment. He believed that every human wasbnsically decent, regardless of class, religion, poli-tkrs or ancestry. Tolerance is a major theme in hishlstorical works. His novels express the belief of thetrr[hor in the need for social progress that does notlnjcct the traditions of the past. He was the firstnovelist to portray peasant characters sympatheti-nnlly and realistically, and was equally just to mer-nlrunts, soldiers, and even kings.

Scott often wrote about the conflicts between dif-fcrent cultures. Iuanhoes (1791) deals with the strug-5le between Normans and Saxons, and The Talismanarlcscribes the conflict between Christians and Mus-

lhe Royal High School of Edinburgh ['edrnbere] - KopoleBcxasopeArr.Efl rrlxoJra E4rn6ypral,o a much greater extent - B ropasAo 6o.nrureft crerrerrr{lvanhoe ['arvonhou] - <AftseEroDThe Talisman ['tehsmen] - <TanncMan,

353

limsl. The novels devoted to Scottish history dealclashes between the new commercial Englishand the older Scottish culture.

Scott's knowledge of history is remarkable,his descriptions of historical events are very taed. His works are translated into many lanthe world. o

I Muslims ['mushmz] - MycyJrbMaue754

Queen Victoria(181e-1e01)

Queen Victorial is the long-est-reigning monarch in Eng-lish history. She came to thethrone as a young woman in1837 and reigned until herdeath in 1901.

Victoria married her GermanitJf cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-

I Coburg2 but he died at the ageBf I'orty-two in 1861. She could not get over her sor-Fow at his death, and for a long time refused to belpen in public.

'['his was a dangerous thing to do. Newspapers be-

tarr to criticize her, and some people even doubtedthc value of the monarchy. Many radicals believedtlrnt as a result of developing democracy it was timetor monarchy to die.

The Queen's advisers persuaded her to take morehr[erest in the life of the kingdom. She did so, and shetron became extraordinary popular. At the time whennronarchy was losing its place as an integral part ofi,lrc British governing system, Victoria managed toerlablish it as a respected and popular institution.

| ()ueen Victoria [vrk'to:rre] - KopoJreBa Bnrcropua= l'rince Albert of Saxe-Coburg ['zelbet ev'szeks'koube:g] - rpuHrl

Anr6epr Caxc-Ko6yprcxurl)55

One important step back to popularity was thelication in 1868 of the Queen's book Our Life inHighlands. The book was the Queen's own dher life with Prince Albert and her family in hertle in the Scottish Highlands. trt delighted thein particular the growing middle class. They hader before known anything of the privatg life ofmonarch, and they enjoyed reading about it. Theyimpressed by the fact that the Queen wrote aboutservants as if they were members of her family.

The democratic British liked and respectedexample of family life which the Queen hadthem; they saw that the Queen and her familytheir own moral and religious values. By herVictoria touched people's hearts. She succeeded,showing the newly industrialized nation thatmonarchy was a connection with the gloriousof the country. Quite suddenly, the monarchyout of danger. It had never been safer thanwhen it had lost most of its political power. "haue corne to belieue that it is natural to haue aous souereign," wrote one of the critics.

Queen Victoria was also popular in Europe.became known as the Grandrnother of Europemarrying members of her family into manyhouses of Europe. Among her grandchildrenEmperor William IIr of Germany, and Alexawife of Tsar Nicholas IIr of Russia.

I Emperor William II ['empere'wrljem 6e'sekend] - rrMrlBn.nrrevrru II

2 Alexandra [,relr9'zo:ndra] - Arercangpa3 Tsar Nicholas II ['tso: 'nrkales de'sekand] - qapb Hr,rxoraft)56

Charles Dickens(181 2-18701

Charles Dickensr was born in 1812, in the familyel'a clerk. 11e-tgot his primary education at a smalltrlrool in ChathaTnz, and. from his mother who was awcll-educated woman.

In the L82L the Dickens family moved to London.Mr. Dickens was heavily in debt and finally was tak-prr to a debtors' prisons. Charles got a job at a blach-hg factorya in the East End of London. This was theIrrost unhappy time of all his life. Later he learnedEhorthand and did some reporting in the House of

Charles Dickens [tJo:lz'drkrnz] - gap.rrra ,{uxnenc

Chatham ['dretem] - Yeteua debtors' ['detez] prison - AoJlroBa.fl rIopEMaa blacking factory - Qa6prca, r4aroraBJrrrBaroulaff Barccy(rcpen daa vucmrcu odyeu)

757

Commons for newspapersl. Being a reporter, heall over the country, getting news, writingand meeting people.

In 1833 Dickens wrote a number of sketches,were published under the title Sketches by Boz2,in 1836 he suddenly became famous. It happenedthis. A firm of publishers3 had a numbei ofby a humorous artist. They wanted to get sometexts to illustrate them, so that the pictures andcles could appear together in a magazine inly parts. Someone suggested giving the job to thenewspaper reporter Charles Dickens. Dickens likedjob and took it, and that is how the book PicPapersa came into being. The book is about Mr.wich and his three friends, who decide to travelEngland and send to the Pickwick club in Loaccount of their journeys and their observatithe people they meet on these journeys. The huof the book consists in the absurd situations wMr. Pickwick and his friends get into. The bookgreat success with the reading public, and Dickensonce became the most popular novelist of his time.

The rest of the writer's life is a story ofwithout rest. He wrote novel after novel. At thetime he was editing newspapers and magazines,iting America, Italy, Switzerlands, France; gireadings from his books to huge crowds of

I did some reporting in the House of Commons for npers - BaHIrMaJrcfl peropriipcxofi pa6orofi a uaaare o6rq2 Shetches by Boz ['sketJrz bar 'bcz] - <,O.repxlr Bosar3 a firm of publishers - IaoAareJrbcrcafl Qzptvraa Pichwich Papers ['prkwrk'perpaz] - <Sanucrcra fftarcsux.ny6a'r5 Switzerland ['swrtseland] - Illaeftqapza

358

In Dickens's novels we find a sharp criticism ofiul injustice. He had seen so much evil as a child,t he burned with the desire to fight it. So, in Oliuer*fr he attacks the cruel workhouse treatment of

lltlren, in Nicholas Nichleby2 tlrre evils of badly-runIroolss, tn Little Dorrita the tragedy of the debtors'lson, in Bleah Houses the slowness of the law.Critics often say that Dickens made his charactersreal, strange, non-true to life. However' thanks towriter's great talent, these characters become alive

his pages. They were real enough for Dickens. Andwe believe in his characters because he believed in

himself. He shows us a great moving picture ofryday life and everYdaY PeoPle.

'lhe strain of the writer's continual work broughtt his sudden death in 1870. He lies buried in

Westm.inster Abbey, but as he wished it, with noth-

lng ot the stone except his name "Charles Dichens'

Oliuer ?uisf ['cltve'twtst] - <Onuaep Tguct>Nicholas Nichteby ['ntkales'nlklbl] - <Huxo.nac Hlttnr6lr>badly-run schools - [Jroxo oprarlr{soBaunbre rurcoJlbr

Littte Dorrit ['lrtl'dcrlt] - <Kpourxa ,{opputrBteah House ['bli:k ,haus] - <Xonognrrft gorvr>

)59

Florence Nightingalel was born in a v6ry rich

ily. She got a very food :d:"ul,i-*;:^t;.Tl:X.,i.'v' ,,rts 6vw E '--ttit and Greek' she fluently spolt

art, literature, LItalian, French ttti i"t*an'-But ever since :*,11::aiT,:#i.c ""r""a

the vilragers and the sick dc

and cats ",.1 h."s-es rorrrrd her home ""d 1i1::1^t'a profes read books on nursing'

ports of ' histories of hosPitals'porun \rrspent some time worklng as a; - - --l rrarmqYrlT Finally shI'rail? ent foi Gentrcwomelc u''I o'o5' Ines f' the fashionable street of Lo

Florence Nightingale(1320-1el0)

don's most famous doctors'

' Florence Nightingale ['flc:rans'nartrnsltll-.. @nopenc ttar

z an Erstnhlishment ioi C""tt"*"I;i 1l:tl^g-lt*",i;i, I{lI8 }r(eEIrIrIn 6'naropo4xoro

;; u (6onanw4a)

During the Crimean 'Warl (1853-1856) disturb-lrrg reports began to come to England of the terribleeonditions in the hospitals where wounded soldierswere being treated. The chief hospital, at Scutarizin Turkeys, was an old, half broken building with alot of rats and mice. But even this horrible placewas overcrowded. There were not enough beds, andmen were lying on the floor. There were no cleanehirts or bedclothes.

In that terrible situation Sidney Herbetta, theMinister for Waf , wrote to Florence Nightingale,asking her to go to the Crimea with a group of nurs-es. It took Florence Nightingale a week to get ready,and with thirty-eight nurses she sailed for Scutari.

When she arrived at Scutari, she found the condi-tions even worse than the reports had stated. Shefound that everything was lackingo: furniture, clothes,towels, soap, knives, plates. There were no bandages,very few medicines, and almost no food. Luckily, shehad brought with her large quantities of food andmedical supplies. Everywhere she met with ineffi-crency and confusion; the officials in chargeT could

did not want to help her. She often workedfor twenty-four hours on end8, dr:essing woundse,

lping surgeons in their operations. She and hernurses got down on their knees and scrubbed the floore

the Crimean [krar'mlan] War - Kpnrut:rcaa nofina'Scutari ['sku:torr] - CrytapuTurkey ['te:kr] - TypqnaSidney Herbert ['srdnt'he:bat] - Cu4rreft fep6epr

i the Minister for War - noessuft Mlrnucrpa everything was lacking - 6una Hoxrtorna Bcero

the officials [e'fiJralz] in charge '- n/lMnlrr4crpaqra' for twenty-four hours on end - cyrltaMl{ naupol€r' dressing wounds [wu:ndz] - oa6Htl'rtlRbIBafi parrLl

rof

161,60

and walls. She organized the cooking of thefood and the washing of their clothes.

In 1855 she was made inspector of all thein the Crimea. It meant long, uncomfortable J

neys in snow, rain and cold. She ruined herbut refused to go home until the Iast soldierOnly when peace was declared in 1856, she rethome - an invalid for life1.

But she lived fifty-four years longer. Thoughcould not leave her house, she worked as much ashad done at Scutari. She changed the whole syof hospital organization of the army. She wroteon nursing. She started the Nightingale TraSchool for Nurses2 at St. Thomas's Hospitals,one of the finest in the world.

Florence Nightingale lived a long and gloriousShe died in 1910 at the age of 90.

I an invalid for life - rro?rcr{Buennrrft nHBaJrr4A2 the Nightingale Training School for Nurses - III

(Daopenc HafttunreriJr AJrfi uegcecrtip3 St. Thomas's Hospital - Bo.nrru4rla cBflroro Tomaca

762

CaPtain Robert Scott(1868-1s12)

ln June 1910 Captain Robert Scottr set sail on

borrrd the Terra Nouaz and started for the south. He

f,rrrrted to reach the South Pole. When the ship got toArrstralia3, Scott received the news that the Norwe-

3lrrna explorer Amundsenb was also on the way southto reach the South Pole.

Arriving at the place in the Antarctico called Cape

EvansT, Captain Scott and his crew started for the Pole'

{ )aptain Robert Scott ['kaptn'robet'skct] - Karr{rarr Po6epr Cxorrtlte Terrq Noua ['tera'nouva] - <Teppa Hosa)Australia [c:'strellje] - Aactpa.nraaNorwegian [nc:'wi:d3en] - nopaerrcrcraftAmundsen ['o:mundsen] - AuYn4cenl,he Antarctic [ren'to:kttk] - AurapxtraraOape Evans ['kerp'i:vnz] - Mbrc 9sanc

161

First they had to cross the Bamierl, a great pof ice of nearly 500 miles, and climb a huge glaciWhen they reached the foot of the glacier, theand some of the men went back, but three sledgeeach pulled by four men, went on.

It was a terrible journey. It was bitterly cold,sno* was so soft that they sank to their knees in iand the heavy sledges were very difficult to pull.

Scott watched the men carefully. He had decithat the final part of the journey - 150 miles 'would be made by four men and himself . Thesethe men he chose: Doctor E. W'ilsonz, LieutenaBowerss, Captain L. Oatesa and Edgar Evanss. i

On January 3, tgLz, when the South Pole was 1

miles away, the five heroes said good-bye to tfriends and went on, five brave men who woulder again see living faces except one another's.thirteen months nothing was heard of them, butScott's diaries we know all about their last days.

On January 18 they reached the Pole, frost-biten6, hungry and weak. And at the Pole they sawtent with the Norwegian flag flying above it. Amsen had been there a month before.

Bitterly disappointed, Scott and his companiset out on the return journey. It was 950 miles toship. Their strength was goingz and the food urunning short8. Their sleeping bags were covered

1 the Barrier ['brrre] - Baprep2 Doctor E. Wilson ['wrlsn] - Aoxrop Vnncox3 Lieutenant Bowers fieftenent'bauez] - .neftteuanr Bayepca Captain L. Oates [outs] - xauutaa Oytc5 Edgar Evans ['edge'i:vnz] - O4rap Esanc6 frost-bitten - o6rropoxcexarre7 Their strength was going - lrx cr{Jrbr trccfiKaJrr48 the food was running short - truula roAxoAr.rJla K KoHrIy

)64

lce. Evans was the firsthe could no longer walk, tnot leave Evans till hisparty moved a litile quicworse. Oates was the seconHe knew that he was slf.riends. He said to them,may be sotne time|". He never came backz.At last they came t_o a .pol- only ereven milesfrom the place where thev hiJ left a store of foodand fuel, but th_e storm *", ,o violeni th;; ;;;ycould not go on. Scott and his companions died thereln their tent.

Eight months later a selent tent. They were lyithey had died. On thewere rocks for scientificbrought back from the polethey had not forgotten th

I am going outside and may be some time _BOBMO)rCHO, BAAep*Cycb H^a HeROTOpo" "p"*"He never came back

_- o" ,; ;;;ffiurr",a search party - rrorrcKoBaff r"pr""---'

fl arrfiAy u,

365

Ernest Rutherford(1871-1e37)

Ernest Rutherfordr was born in South Island,Zealand, in the family of English settlers. Hesent to primary school when he was five. Duringstudies in the secondary school, he distinguishedself in physics. Later he went to Cambridge, whe continued scientific research. After graduationoccupied a research chair in physicsz at MontUniuersityt in Canadaa and lectured at leading

-versities in the United States and Britain. Laterhe worked at Manchester Uniuersitys.

Ernest Rutherford ['5:nrst'r,r,6efed] - Spnecr Peaep@op4occupied a research chair in physics - BaHI4MaJIr{ccJreAoBarenrcroft {tuaurnMontreal [.mcntrr'c:l] University - MonpeanrcxnftCI{TCT

Canada ['kanede] - KanaAaManchester University - Man.recrepcxnft yrrl{Bepcrrrer

366

Itrrl,lrerford's famous work is The Scattering ofand the Struc-tt und, Beta Particles of Matter

ttl'the AtomL.'l'lrc atoms had always been regarded as the small-irrrlivisible units of which matter was eomposed2.I,lrcrford's research showed that the atom is madeol' smaller parts and that its structure is veryrlrlex. The structure of the atom resembles the

lHr system, with a central nucleus and a number ofl,r'ons revolving around it. Rutherford showed thatrrtom can be bombarded by neutrons so that the

,l,rons can be thrown off and the nucleus itselfr lre broken, or "split." In the process of splittingrrucleus, matter is converted into energys.

'l'he splitting of the atom has opened to man a newenormous source of energy. At the same time,ver, it has brought about a threat of a destruc-nuclear war, during which humanity can kill it-

ll' and destroy the planet. That is why it is so im-tant for the people of the world to concentrateir efforts on establishing good understanding andl,ing peace on earth.

'l'lLe Scattering of Alpha and Beta Particles of Mullu ttntllhe Structure of the Atom - tPacceusanue a.ltttfla ll 6eln

'IIICTIIq MATEPI{II }I CTPYKTYPA ATOMAD

of which matter was composed - raa Koropblx co(r'roll'l' tlFTFilllrtrrratter is converted into energy - Marepnff n;lorl6;tnnys ]ee e

:)rreprlllo

lFr t

(llrurchill suceeeded Chamberlainl as Prime Min-in 1940, and during the Second World War he

:essfully secured military aid and moral supportrrr the United States. He travelled endlessly dur-the war, establishing close ties with the leaders

other nations and co-ordinated a military strategyk:h finally brought about Hitler's defeat.llis tireless efforts gained admiration from allr the world. Yet during the 1945 elections hedefeated by the Labour Party, which ruled until

961. Churchill regained his power in 1951 and ledItain once again until 1955, when ill health forcedrrr to resign.IIe spent most of his last years writing (The His-ry of the English-speaking People,) and painting.recognition of his historical studies he was giv-the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1953. In 19GBUS Congress made Winston Churchill an hon-

ry American citizen,

Winston Ghurchill(1874-1e6s)

Sir \Minston Churchilll, the eldest son

He graduated from the Royal Military CSandhursta. As a war correspondent he wasduring the Boer'Warb in South Africa. Aftercape he joined the Conseruatiue party. Since 1

was taking an active part in Britainls politicaloccupying a number of important posts in the

Sir Winston Churchill died. His death marked the end

Itlstory.

in 1965 at the age ofof an era in British

ernment.

369

I Chamberlain ['tJelmbehn] - rlem6eplen

- In Sf. Mary's Churchyard.t, Cholsey, Berkshforty-seven miles west of London, lies Lady l

Agatha Ghristie(18e0-1e76)

Iowanu - Dame Agatha.Christiea. She was, aknown to millions of people throughout theas the Queen of Crime or, as she preferred,Duchess of Death.

l)rrring the First World War Agatha worked at apital, and that experience \Mas useful later on whenstarted writing detective stories. Her first bookpublished in 1920. It was The Mysterious Affair

Stylesr, and was met by the reading public withl,r.rest. But Agatha's really great pbpularity came

1926, when she published her masterpiece, Theu rder of Roger Achroydz.lrr the same year, L926, Agatha surprised the pub-

hr l,y suddenly disappearing for a few days after herhrrnband wanted a divorce. She was soon found to be

Itnying in a hotel under an assumed name8. Her dis-ll,l)carance is still a mystery!

After the divorce she married a British archae-gkrgist, Max Mallowana. This marriage proved tobe u happy one. Agatha wanted to stop using herfrlrrner husband's name. But her publishers saidtlrrrt it would not be wise because the name of Ag-gtlm Christie had already become well known toGlrt: public. So she remained Agatha Christie to herrrnders for the rest of her life.

Agatha Christie wrote nearly seventy novels inhcr career, and more than a hundred short stories.Hcr most famous characters are Hercule Poirotsand Miss Marple6.

Hercule Poirot first appeared in 1920. Poirot hasbecome a legend all over the world: the huge mous-

'l'he Mysterious Imts'trerros] Affair at Styles Istallz] -<Tauncrgenuafl Lrcroplrfi B r{Meur.tr{ Crafi.nc r'l'lrc Murder of Roger Achroyd ['rcd3e'rekrord] - <V6uficrnoPo4xcepa Ercpofiga>rrnder an assumed name - rroA BbrMbrrrrJreunhrM r{MeHeMMax Mallowan ['meks'mrelouon] - Manc MannoyanI{ercule Poirot ['e ekju:l pwo:'rou] - Eprcur flyapoMiss Marple [mo:pl] - Mr4cc Mapn.n

371

Agatha Christie was born inEngland. Her father was calledshe was born as Agatha Miller.Archie ChristieT.

1890 in Torquay|Frederick Miller6,In 1914 she ma

1 St. Mary's Churchyard - x.na46urqe npr{ rIepKBr4

MapnnCholsey ['tJoulzr], Berkshire ['bo:kJre] -

rloficlr, Bepxuruplady Mallowan ['mrelouen] - ae4rz il4"rrrroy""Dame Agatha Christie ['detm'ega0e'krrstr] _gavra Arara Itpacrra5 Torquay ['tc:ki:] - Topxefi6 Frederick Miller ['frgdirk'mrle] - @pe4epzx Muaaep7 Archie Christie ['o:tJr'krrstr] - Apun Kpr"r"

370

tache, the egg-shaped head, his high opinion ofself, and his great ability to solve complicatedteries thanks to his knowledge of human ps

Miss Marple is an English spinster and lives inEnglish village of St. Mary MeadL. She does notlike a detective at all, but always succeeds wherepolice have failed. Instead of using a magnifyinglooking for clues, she uses her instinct and kedge of human nature. As Miss Marple herselfsaid, "Hytman Nature is the satne euerywhere",

In March t962 a UNESCOz report statedAgatha Christie was now the most widely readish author in the world, with Shakespearessecond.

1 St. Mary Mead [snt'mean'mi:d] - Cenr Mapr Mug2 UNESCO ffu'neskou] - IOHECKO3 Shakespeare ['Jerkspro] - Illexcuup)72

Margaret Thatcher(1e25-)

Margaret Thatcherl is the second daughter of a

frocer and a dressmaker, who became the first wom-ftr in European history to be elected Prime Minister.Tlren she became the first British Prime Minister inlhc twentieth century who won three consecutivehrmsz. At the time of her resignation in 1990, she*ns the longest-serving Prime Minister of Britainllrrce 1827. Some people consider her a true politicalrnvolutionary because she broadened the base of the(lonservative Party, including the middle class alongwith the wealthy aristocracy.

Margaret Thatcher was born on October 13, 1925,)n Lincolnshires, England. She was a clever child.Ihrly in life she decided to become a member of Par-

Margaret Thatcher ['mo:garrt'OatJa] - Mapraper Tetueplhree consecutive [kan'sekjutlv] terms - rptr troqlreAoBareJrbnLlxcpoKal,incolnshire ['hrlkenJra] - JlunxoJlbumup

173

liament. She was educated at Sorneruille Collegerat Oxford University. She earned a master ofdegreez from Oxford in 1950 arld worked for a

time as a research chemist. In 1950 she marriedThatchers, a director of a paint firm. After herriage she specialized in tax lawa.

In the 1959 elections Thatcher won a seat inliamerit. Because of her debating skillsb she sooncame prominent among other politicians. In 1974became the leader of the Conservative Party.

When the Conservatives won a decisive victorythe 1979 general elections, Thatcher became PriMinister. As Prime Minister she limited govercontrol; giving individuals greater independence fthe state and ending government interference ineconomy. Thatcher became known as the Ironbecause of her strict control over her cabinet andcountry's economic policies.

During her third term Thatcher continued t"Thatcher reuolution" by returning education, healcare and housing to private control.

Margaret Thatcher resigned from office in 1

Margaret Thatcher is certainly an outstandingure in Britain's political life. According to politiobservers, she brought long-needed changes to Briish government and society.

t Somerville ['snmavrl] College - Couepnn.nucrcrarl KoJTJIeATK2 a master of arts degree - crerrerrb Marrrcrpa ryManr4Tap

HayKs Denis Thatcher ['denrs'0etJa] - [enuc Tetuepa tax law - HaJroroBoe BaKouoAareJrbcrBo5 debating skills - rroJreMwrecKoe r4cKyccrBo

374

stiPlDt,liMENTTHE BRITISH MONARCHS

iaxon kings'sieksen'kqz]

Alfred the Great['alfrad 6e'grert]

Edward the Elderfedwed 6e'eldel

Athelstan

[e0elstan]Edmund I

['edmend 6e'fe:st]Edred

['edred]Edwy the Fair['edwl de'fee]

Edgar the Peaceful

['edge 6a'pi:sful]Edward the Martyr

[edwed de'mo:te]Aethelred

[a0elred]Edmund II

849-899

't-924

892-939

921-946

?-955

944-959

94+975

963-978

968-l 0 I 6

98 r - l0l6

899-924

924-939

939-946

946-955

955-959

959-975

97 5-978

978-l 0 I 6

l0l6

Danish kings

['dernrJ'krqz]Canute

Ike'nju:t]Harold Harefoot['hareld'heafut]Hardecanute

9921--1035

?-1040

l0l9-1042

l0l6-1035

r 035- I 040

1040-1042

saksen'kn1z]Edward the Confessor

['edwed de ken'fesa]Harold II

haercld de'sekend

l 002-r 066

I 020- I 066

t042-1066

I 066

Norman kings

['no:men'kr4z]William the Conqueror

['wrljem 6e'kcqkere]William II

['wrljam 6e'sekend]Henry I

l 028- I 087

I 060-l I 00

1068-t 135

r 087-l 100

r 100-l 135

775

-1

conunued

776

I 097-l I 54 I 135-l I

l 133-l 189

|157-1199

tt67-1216

1207-1272

t239-t307

128+1327

1312-1377

1367-t400

Henry IIflhenrr 6a'sekend]

Richard I the Lion-Heart['ri:tJed 6e'fa:st 6a'laran'ho:t]

John Lackland[d3cn'leklend]

Henry IIIflhenrr 6e'0e:d]

Edward Ifedwed 6e'fe:st]

Edward IIfedwad 6a'sekand]

Edward IIIfledwed 6a'0e:d]

Richard II

lt54-11

I189-l I

1199-t2l

l216-l

lz't2-l

I 307-l

1327-137

1377-l

Henry IVfhenrr 6e'fc:0]

Henry Vfhenrr de'fi0]

Henry VI

Lancaster

flreqkestel

t367-r4t3

t387-1422

t42l-t47 |

l4l3-l

t422-t46

Edward IV['edvod 6e'fc:0]

Edward V['edvad 6e'fi$]

Richard III

1442-t483

l 470-l 483

1452-148s

1457-t509

l49l-t547

I 537-l 553

l5l6-1558

Henry VIIfhenrr 6e'sevan0]

Henry VIIIfhenrr dr'ertOlEdward VI

['edwed 6e'srksO]Mary I

1485-l

I 509-l

1547-l

I 553-l

James I[d3ermz 6e'fa:st]

Charles I[tJo:k 6e'fe:st]REPUBLICCharles II

[tJo:k 6e'sekend]James II

fd3elmz 6a'sekendlWilliam III

fwrljem 6a'0e:d]and Mary II

fmeeu 6o'sekend]Anne

r 566--l 625

r 600-l 649

I 630-t 685

1633-1701

r650-t 702

1662-t694

t66s-t7 I 4

r603 t6fr

1625 l64e

1649 t660r660- t6tt5

1685- t6ttt

r 689- I 702

r 689_ I 694

t702_1714

George I['d3c:d3 de'fe:st]

George IIfftc:ft 6e'sekend]

George IIIffic:d3 6a'0e:d]

George IVffic:$ 6a'fc:0]

William lVfwtljsm 6e'fc:0]

Victoria[vrk'tc:rre]

Edward VIII['edwed 6e'sevnO]

George Vfd3c:d3 de'fif01Edward VIII

['edwed 6t'eIt0]George VI

[$c:ft 6e'srksO]Elizabeth lI

r'hzebaO 6e'sekend

1660-1727

r 683-t 760

I 738- I 820

r 762-t 830

t765-t837

l8r9-t901

r84t-t910

I 865-- I 936

1894-t972

r895 1952

1926-

t7l4_l

1727_t760

r 760_t 820

I 820_t 830

I 830_t Eg?

1

r 837-t 901

te0t-t9t0

r9t0_r936

I 936

r e36- I 952

t9s2-

after l9l4)

LIST OF PROPER NAMES

Adam Smith ['adam'smrO] AgaM CuutAdolf Hitler ['aedalfhrtle] Aaonrip lurlepAgatha Christie ['age0e'krrstr] Arara KpzctuAlbert of Saxe Coburg ['albet ev'saks'koube:g]

Carcc-Ko6yprcxufiAlexandr a f ,nhg' zo:ndre] A;rexcan4paAlfred the Great ['relfred de'grert] A-nrQpe4 Be;tAmundsen ['o :mendsen] AruyuAceuAnne [an] AunaAnne Boleyn ['buhn] Ansa EoaefisArchie Christie ['o:tJr'krrstl] Ap.ru KpuctllArthur Cadbury ['o:0e'kadbarr] Apryp Keg6epuArthur Wellington ['wehqten] Apryp Be.n.nuurAsser ['esa] AccepBeatles ['bi:tlz] BuurrrBen Jonson ['ben'dzcnsn] Ben,(*concorBenito Mussolini [be'ni:tou,muse'li :nr] Benrato MBernard Shaw ['be:ned'Jc:] Bepnap.q IIIoyBoadicea [.bouedr'ste] Boa4raceaBonnie Prince Charlie ['bcnr'prrns'tfo:h] K

trpr4nq 9apnuBowers ['bauez] BayepcCalvin ['kaelvrn] KanrsnsCanute [ke'nju:t] KanyrCatherine ['kreOnn] Exatepr,rnaCatherine Howard [hauad] Ercarepuna fonap4Chamberlain ['tJermbelm] gervr6epJreH

Charles [tJo:lz] gapnraCharles Darwin ['do:wIn] rlapnrs [apnunCharles Dickens ['dlkmz] rfapnra ,{urxencCharles Edward Stuart ['edwed'stjuat] rlaplrs E

Crroapr378

rles James Fox ['d3ermz'fcks] rlapnro,ll,*teue (Foxe

rrcer ['tjc:se] rlocep

I stopher Marlowe ['knstofa'mo :lou] Kpucro@p Mapnelstopher Wren [ren] KpucroQep Panr:k Berry ['tJ,rk'berr] rlarc Beppu

rrdius ['klc:djes] Knan4raftke [klo:k] Kneprctantine ['kcnstentarn] KoucraETr{E

id Livingstone ['dewrd'hvnlstan] Aosun Jlusrsrcronis Thatcher ['denrs'0retJe] [euuc Tetvep

l,on De Valera ['i:ten do va'leare] I4rou ge Ba.nepagur Evans ['edge'i:vnz] E4rap Esanc

rund Spenser ['edmend'spense] D4nayu4 Cuencepard ['edwad] Egyapaard the Confessor [ken'fesa] Dgyapg llcuone4unrc

['egbet] Er6eptnstein ['arnstam] Eftnrurefinlzabeth [r'hzebeO] Erraaaseralzabeth Fry [frar] Enzaasera @pafivis Presley ['elvrs'prezh] ennrac flpecau

us [r'rezmas] Spaarut Rutherford ['e:nIst'r,rdafed] Spuecr PeaepQop4

,rence Nightingale ['flc:rans'nartlqgerl] @aopexc Hafi -

'I'}IHTET4JI

ncis Bacon ['fransrs'berkan] @peucnc Berosrncis Drake [drerk] (Dpeucuc,{pefircncis Ferdinand ['fe:drnend] Opanq @ep4unaHg

rick Miller ['fredrrk'mrle] (Dpe4epur Mu.nnepiedrich Engels ['fri:drrk'eqgelz] @pnAp]rx 9nnctttt

Gcoffrey ['ft efrr],{xceQQpnGcoffrey Chaucer ['tJc:se] [xceQQpu rlocep

Poorge [$c:$] .{xcop4xc€corge Gordon Byron ['gc:dn'buaren] [lropA* PeFAnrr

Eaftponi.1,,

George Harrison ['hensn],{xcopg*c lappucorGilbert ['grlbet] Iu;r6eprGuy Fawkes ['gar'fc:ks] Iaft (Dorcc

Hadrian ['herdnen] AgpuauHarold ['herald] Iapo;rr4Henry ['henrr] Ienpu, Ienpux

leon [ne'pouljen] Hauo.rreosrlas II of Russia ['mkeles 6e'sekend ev'r,r,js] Hurco-

a [ma'trlde] Marn.nrga[mreks] Marcc

fi II, qaps Poccun[outs].OyrcCromwell ['chve'krcmwel] O.nunep Kpouae;rr

['cvrd] Osn4rfiton ['po:masfir] fla.rrMepcroE

Henry Bolingbroke ['bchqbruk] Ienpu B(Horatio Nelson [he'rerJrou'nelsn] IopaquoHyde Parker ['hard'po:ka] Iafit flaprcepIsaac Newton ['azrk'nju:tn] Llcaarc HrrorosJack Straw ['dgak'stc:] .{*cerc CrpoJames [fiemz],{xcenncJames Cook [kuk] flxceruc KyxJames Watt [wct] flxceuc VarrJane Seymour ['si:mc:],{xcefir CefiuypJohann Gutenberg [Jchen'gu:tanba:g] ]IorassJohn [ficn],{xrouJohn Bunyan ['bmjen],{xcoa BasrssJohn Hawkins ['hc:kmz],{xcoa XorcnscJohn Lennon ['lenen] [xcou JIeEnoHJohn Milton ['mrlten],{xcou Mu.nrrosJohn Wesley ['wesh],{xcou VocnuJudith ['fiu:dtO] lxtysutJulius Caesar ['d3u : ltas'si :zel lO trufi. I{eaaprKarl Marx ['ko:l'mo:ks] Kapn MaprcLord Chatham ['1c:d'tJatem] Jlopg rlareuLord Grey [grer] Jlopt lpefiLouis XIV ['lu:r de'fc:,ti:n0] JIyn XIVMahatma Gandhi [me'ho:tme'gendr] MaxaruaMallowan ['malouen] MerroyerMargaret ['mo:garrt] MaprapetMargaret Thatcher ['OatJe] Mapraper TeruepMartin Luther ['mo:trn'lu:0a] Maprux JhorepMary ['meert] Mepu380

McCartney ['pc:l me'kc:tru] flol MarcKaprnu'B. Shelley [!e:sr'bi:'Jeh] Ilepcu B. IIIeanu

lip ['fihp] (Duluuutagenet [plan'tedgrmt] fl.naurareEertus ['plc:tas] fl;raatGregory ['poup'gregan] flaua lpmopufiJohn Paul II ['poup'd3cn'pc:l6e'sekend] flaua lloass

Ilaser II['randelfl Pengo;rrQ

ard ['rrtJed] Pu.rapgBurbage ['be:brd3] Pff.rapA Dep6e4*cthe Lion Heart ['laren'ho:t] Puvapg Jlrsusoe

CepgqeStarr ['nr;gou'sto:] Punro CraPP

['rcbet] Po6eprBruce [bru:s] Po6epr BptocBurns [be:nz] Po6epr BePuc

rt Owen [ouen] Po6ept OYeuPeel [pi:l] Po6ept flu;rrScott [skct] Po6epr CrorrWalpole ['wclpoul] Po6ept Vonuon

ney Herbert ['stdm'he:bet] CnAsefi lep6eptBolivar ['sarmen bc'li:vo:] Cuuos Bonnnap

hia ['soufie] Coipra

381. Andr'ew [snt'cndru:] Cn. 9u.qPP

Stephen [sti:vn] CrrasetSt. George [snt'dgc:dg] Cs. IeoprufiSt. Patric [snt'petrrk] Ca. flarpur ,l

Stuart [stjuet] Crroapr iSuetonius [swi:ltounjes] CreronufiTerence ['terens] Tepenrlr.rfi l

Thomas Becket ['tcmes'bekrt] Touac Barcet'Thomas More [mc:] Touac MopThomas Newcomen ['nju:kemen] TouacTobias Furneaux [ta'bares'fa:nou] To6uac (Depuo I

Tony Blair ['tounr'blee] Toun B.nepTudor ['tju:de] Tro4op r

Victoria [vrk'tc:rIa] Bnrctopun I

Walter Raleigh ['wc:lta'rc:h] Vonrep PonnWalter Scott [skct] Bamrep Crcorr ,t,

Wat Tyler ['wct'tarle] Vor Tafi.nepWilliam ['wrljem] Vunssrr :

William Booth [bu:6] Vra;rrau ByrcWilliam Caxton ['kekstn] Vu.nr,sru KaxcronWilliam Harvey ['ho:vr] Vu.nrsvr lapaefi )-*

William of Orange ['crrnd3] Bu"urre.rrnr OpauucuWilliam Pitt [prt] Vunrnn flnrrWilliam Shakespeare ['jeftspra] Vrnnrarvr IIIeWilliam the Conqueror ['kcrlkere] Bnlrrensrr

BATEJIB

William II of Germany ['dga:meru] Bn"nrrenru II,parop lepuauuu

William Wallace ['wcles] Vu;rr,su Vo;r.necWilson ['wrlsn] Vn;rconWinston Churchill ['wmstn'tJe:tJrl] Vnncros YWolsey ['wulzr] Byncn

J82

LIST OF GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES

n [.ebe'di:n] E6eP4nuanistan [afgremsten] Aipraurrcrax

['refrrke] AQpurcaka Peninsula [e'laske pe'nrnsjule] rroJryocrpoB

ia [re]'bernje] A;r6aurm['aqglsr] Srrrncu

tarctic [aen'to :ktrk] AntaprcrrrKa['rentw'a:p] AurnePueu

r ['eregen] AparonOcean ['o:kttk'ouJn] Cenepurrfi Jle4onurrrft orcean

t ['eskat] 9crcot['erJe] Asns,,ii" 6""un [at'lanttk'ouJn] AraaErlrrrecxufi orceas

lia [c:'stretljs] AnctPaJrrraria ['c:stne] ArctPueria-Hungary ['c:strte'hrtqgan] Aactpo-Beurprs

['bc:lkenz] Ba.nxasrrtic ['bc:ltrk] Baltraxa

[bel'fo:st] Ee;rQactium ['beld3em] Benrruagal [ber1'gc:l] BeuranuaNevis ['ben'nevrs] Beu Hesrcng Strait ['benr;'streft] BepnnroB rpoJrlrB

ire ['bo:kjre] BeprcuuPrlin [be:'hn] Bepaanmingham ['be:mrqam] EuPwrranrewr

ton ['bcstn] Eocronworth ['bczwe0] BocYoPt

istol ['bnstel] Bpuctolristol bhannel 1'brlstel'tJanl] Bpucto;rrcrcufi uporrrrB

ritain [bntn] Bputanua78)

Britannia [bn'tanje] BpnranuaBritanny ['brrtenr] Eperanr (o6.rracrr rra c

(Dpanquu)

KAHAJICalifornia [,kah'fc:nje] Ka.ureoprr{,nCambridge ['kermbnft] ICeu6pu4xrCanada ['kenede] ICana4aCanary Islands [ke'neerr'arlendz] KanapcrcaeCanterbury ['kenteberr] Keurep6epuCape Evans ['kerp'i:vnz] nrrc gsauc

rrrea Ikrar'mre] KprrnnIoden [ko'lcdn] KarnoAennberland ['krmbolsnd] Keu6eprleuArrbrian Mountains ['krmbrren] Kewr6pnftcrcne ropbr

'r:hoslovakia [.tJekouslou'vrekje] tlexocnoBarr,ffr'<lanelles [,do:de'nelz] [ap4aneJrrrbrrnark ['denmo:kJ,{aunaonshire ['devenJ ra],{eaonruup

t'chester ['dc:tJrsta] .(op.recreprlin ['dnbhn] .{y6;tnnnkirk [drn'ke:k] flronrcepx

Anglia ['i:st'e4ghe] Bocrounas AnrnusI nburgh ['edrnbra] D4rnu6yprypt ['i:d3rpt] Eruuetrc ['eara] Eftpe

land ['rlglend]lish Channel

(JIa Manur)m ['epsem] Ducowrx ['esrks] Eccercc

Central Lowlands ['sentrel'loulendz] L{enrpa.rrruaa rope [Juarap] Eaponanders ['flo:ndaz] @.nan4pnance [fro:ns] (Dpanrlza

[fir'ni:ve] ]ICenesamany ['dgemenr] fepvranna

lbraltar [dgr'brc:lta] fu6pa;rraprampians ['grempjenz] Ipauuuarrcrcrre ropbr

G reat Britain ['grert'bntn] Be;rnrco6prrrarru,ffGreece [gri:s] Iperlna

Cape Horn [hc:n] urrc lopaCape of Good Hope ['gud'houp] urrc ,{o6pofi n9"p" Trafalgar [tre'felga] urrc TpaSaJrbrapCardiff ['ko:dr{l Kap4uSCarlisle [ko:'larl] Kapaafi"u

MEIIEOCTbCentral Plain of Scotland ['plern ev'skctlend] I{

nas TlTorlarrAcrcafl paBrrrrna

Clyde [klard] K"nafi4Clydeside ['klardsard] KnafigcafigColchester ['koultJrste] Ko.nvecrepCopenhagen [,koupen'hergen] KonesrarenCornwall ['kc:nwol] Kopxyo.naCoventry ['kcventrr] Koaenrpu384

Axr.rrna['r4ghj'tjanl] Anurnficxzfi rporrrrB

fl r r lf of Mexico ['gnlf ev'meksrkou] Merccuxancxnfi aaJrritB

G rrlf Stream ['gnlf.stri:m] Io;rrQcrpnuHunover ['haeneva] fanuoaepflnrrow ['herou] XappoyHustings ['herstrqz] lacrnnrc

)85

Hawaiian Islands [ho:'warjen'arlendz] IasaftcKueHebrides ['hebrrdi:z] Ie6pr4rrHenley ['henh] XannuHighlands ['harlandz] Xaft;ren4 (arrcorcoropua.n

Illotnanguu)Hirqshima [,hrrc'Ji:me] Xzpocurvra 1

Holland ['hclend] Io;urax4uaHoly Roman Empire ['houh'roumen'empara]

Puucxas nMuepuffHong Kong ['hcq'kcq] IonrconrIndia ['rndre] VIYgmaIndian Ocean ['rndren'ouJ n'l Vlu.g:nirc rcufi oxe aHInverness [,rnve'nes] ]IuaepnecIraq [r'm:k] llparcIreland ['areland] Llp.ran4uaIrish Republic [breriJ rfpnbhk] LIpraHAcKagIrish Sea [si:] Ilp.nargcroe MopeIsle of Man ['arl ev'men] ocrpou MenIsle of Wight [wart] ocrpoB VafirIsrael ['zrerel] ]IapauarItaly ['rteh] Virar^uaJapan [d3e'pren] f,InosusJava ['d3o:ve] flaaKent [kent] ItesrLake District ['lelk'drstrrkt] Oadpnrrft rcpafiLancashire ['lreqkejre] JlaunanrnpLancaster ['laqkeste] JlanracrepLeeds [i:dz] JluscLiverpool ['hvepul] Jlunepuy.nrLondon ['lr'nden] JIonAonLough Neagh ['lcx'ner] JIox HefiLuxembourg ['lrrksemba:g] Jhorcceu6yprMadras [me'dro:s] Ma4pacMaldon ['mc:ldan] Mo;r4on386

ManuectepManvxcypua

e [mo:n] Mapnaterranean Sea [,medrte'remjen'si:] Cpe4zaeMrroe Mope

ia ['mo:fie] Mepcua['me:zI] Mepcefi

le East ['mrdl'i:st] Cpe4nuft BOCTOK

lands ['mrdlendz] Mlrgreu4ntreal [.mcntn'c:l] Monpeanr

['mcskou] Mocrcsaki [.nege'so:kt] Haracarcu

by ['nerzbl] Hec6uerlands ['nedalandz] Hu,qepraEAbr

le ['nju:'ko :sl] Hrrorcac.nfoundland ['nju:fendland] HuoQayEArreEAport ['nju:pc:t] HrroroprZealand ['nju:'zi:land] Honaa 3e;rau4zaolk ['nc:fek] HopSonrc

mandy ['nc:mandr] Hopuan4nnth America ['nc:0 a'merlke] Ceuepuan Arrepraxathern Ireland ['nc:6en'alelend] Cenepnafi trIpnau4ua

Sea ['nc:0'si:] Cenepnoe MoPe

umberland [nc:'0nmbeland] Hoptyrvr6epJretAumbria [nc:'0rrmbrre] Hoprywr6praay ['nc:wer] Hoprerraa-ich ['ncnd3] Hopu4nc

nchester ['mentjrste]nchuria [mren'tJuarIa]

tingham ['nctlqam] Hottznrewrtinghamshire ['nctnlemJIa] HottunreMrur4p

kney Islands ['c:knr'allendz] Oprcneftcrcrae

Empire ['ctemen'empale] Orrouarrcxa.flford ['cksfad] OxcQop4:ific Ocean [pe'sfik'ouJn] Tnxnfi oKeal{kistan [,po:kt'sto:n] Ilarcucranlestine ['prehstarn] flanecrnna

Paris ['pens] flapzlrPennines ['penarnz] flennuncxeTe ropbrPlymouth ['phmaO] flnuwrytPoland ['poulend] flonrruaPortugal ['pc:tjugel] flopryra.nnnPrussia ['prrtJe] flpyccuaQuebec [kwr'bek] Kse6erRoman Empire ['roumen'empara]Rome [roum] PzruRussia ['rnJe] PoccusSalisbury Plain ['sc:lzben'plern] Coac6epraficcaaSandhurst ['srendhe:st] Cen4xepcrScandinavia [,skandr'nervja] Crcan4unaauaScotland ['skctlend] Tllor.uanAu,aScutari ['sku:ten] CrcyrapuSerbia ['se:bre] Cep6uaSevern ['seven] CenepnSheffield ['Jefr:ld] TIIeQQrur4

Sindh [srnd] CungxSingapore [,sr4ge'pc:] CunrauypSnowdon ['snouden] Cnoy4onSouthern Uplands of Scotland ['sn6en'rrplandz

IOxcno-IIIorJraEAcKaa BooBbrrueurrocrbSouth Pole ['sauO'poul] IOlrcnrrft rroJrroc

it of Magellan [me'gelen] MarennanoB rrpoJrr4B

tf ord-upon-Avon ['strretfed e'pcn'ervn] CtperQop4-

Ha-3fisogeVincent [snt'vrnsnt] Cenr Blrnqenr

Canal ['su:rz ke'nrel] Cysqrrafi KaHaJr

['srrsrks] CYccexcitzerland ['swttselend] [Isefiqapr4'names [temz] Tewrsa

uay ['tc:'ki:] ToPrefif algar [tra'frelga] TPaQa-nrraP

lnt [trent] TPeurrkish Empire ['te:krJ'empare] Typeqxafi rrMreprrs

Sherwood Forest ['Je:wud'fcnst] Illepny4crufi .nec

Shetland Islands ['Jetlend'arlandz] TlleurasAcrcrle ocl

rter [',rlsta] O.nrctePited Kinedom of Great Britain and Northern Ire-land ffu'nartrd'krqdam ev'grert'brrtn end'nc:oen'arelendl

O6,rennndnHoe KopoJreBcrso Beruxo6putanrau u Ce-

nepnofi llptaugrrlanited states of America ffu'nartld'stetts ev e'menka] coe-

Arantlnnrre llltarrr Auepurra

rkey ['te:kr] TyPqrae [tarn] Tafrn

trecht [Ju:trekt] VrPextales [wellz] Valrcaterloo [,wcta'lu:] BarePnooessex ['wesfts] Veccercc

Soviet Union ['souvretJu:ruen] Cosercrzft CopaSpain [spem] LlcuanrasSt. Albans [snt'c:lbenz] Cenr O.n6ancSt. George's Channel [snt'dgc:dgrz'tJren1] up

West Indies ['west'rndrz] Bect-Lln4uaWestmorland ['westmelend] Vectvroplen4York [jc:k] loPIYorkshire t'jc:klra] ftoPrcruuP

Cr. Ieoprua ,

Stonehenge ['stounhenft] Croynxen4xStrait of Dover ['strert ev'douve] ,{ynpcxuft rpoJIrIB

Ae Ka.ue)388

189

ENGLISH.RUSSIAN VOCABULARY

Aabbey ['ebr] z a66arcrsoabbreviation Ie.bri:vr'erjn] n corcparqeE]reability [e'brlrtr] z cnoco6nocrsable [e-rbl] a cnoco6nsrftaboard [e'bc:dJ ad,u na 6opry, na 6opr iabolish [a'bchJ] u orMennrbabove [e'bnv] prep laa1abroad [s'brc:d] adu sa rpauuqefiabsence ['rebsans] n orcyrcrBrreabsolute ['abselut] a a6co;rrornrrfiabsolutely [,abse'lu :tltl adv a6conrorsoabsurd [ab'se:d] a a6cyp4nrrftabundant [e'bnndent] a uao6unrnrrfiaccent ['aksant] n aKqeET, rrpor{Bnoruenr4eaccept [ek'sept] u uprurrMarbaccompany [e'krrmponr] q conpoBorrcAarbaccording to [e'kc:dr4 ta] r coorBercrBuvt caccount [o'kaunt] n c-*er, orqeraccusation [,ekju'zeiln] n o6susesreaccuse [e'kju:z] u o6szu.Errachieve [a'tJi:v] u" Aocrrrrarbachievement [o'tJi:vment] n Aocruix"eurreacre ['erke] z arcpacross [e'krcs] prep qepesact [akt] u"4eftcraoBarb; n aKT,4eficrsneaction [rekJn] n geircrnmeactively ['aktrvh] adu an+runs.oadd [ed] u 4o6aa;rarraddition [e'drJn] nz in additiotr n4o6auonadministration [ed.mlnl'strerJn] n aAMr.rur{crp

y[paBJIeH]readmiral ['admrrel] n a1wvparradmiration [.redmr'rerJn] z Bocxuulenrreadmire [ed'mare] u Bocxuularbcff390

t ['adzrlt] z napocnrrfiv&nce [ed'vo:ns] u Hacrytrarb, [poABr4rarbcr BtrepeAvanced [ad'vo:nst] pp nepe4oaofivantage [ed'vo:ntld3] z npenMyrrlecrBoventurer [ad'ventJeral n mcxareJrb trprxJrro.renufienturouJ [ed'ventJeras] a nro6atqrf op"Krroqeurrfiice [ed'vars] z conerisable [ad'vazebl] a rlenecoo6paaaarfi

viser [ed'vaze] rr coBerrrlrxbirs [e'feazf n genaect [e'fekt] u ranarrbrd [e'fc:d] u uoaaonaruaid [a'freld]: be afraid 6osrscs

ect [,o:ftere'fekt] n trocJreAcrBrrff[erd3] z Boopacr, BeKrian [e'greanan] a arpapnrrfi , ce"nrcroxossficrsennrrfi

[e'gri:] u corJraruarbcffreement [e'gri:ment]: in agreement with s cor.lracuu cricultural [.agrr'knltJerel] a cerrbcKoxoasficrsessbrfi

[erd] z rroMoulb[em] n rleJrb

[eo] z BoBAyx; u ilpoBerp]TBarbraft ['eokro:ft] n cavroJrer, aBrraqusforce ['ea,fc:s] BoerrHo-BoaAyrurrbre cr4Jrbrraid ['ee'rerd] z aoa4yururrfi EaJrerrm [e'lo:m] z rpeaora; u rpeBorrcr{Tbcsrmed [e'lo:md] pp BcrpeBoxcbsssrfi

lcohol ['alkahol] n arrrcororrbive [e'larv] a x+ur,oit

lliance [e'larans] n corogllow [e'lau] u noano"nsrb, pasperuarbl-powerful ['c:l'paueful] a uceuofyrqufilly [a'lal] n coroarrun; u Bcryrrrrb B corogmost ['c:lm\ust] adu noqrizrngside [a'l\qsald] adu pagolr, 6orc-o-6orc

lltar ['c:lte] n arrrapbllteration [.c:lta'relJn] n narvreneurre, repeAeJrxa

)91

although [.c:ll6ou] adu xora /altogether [,c:lte'gedeJ adv Bceroanrl^aze [a'merz] u r.rayMJrffTbamateur ['remeta].2 nro6nre.nr ( ne npoQeccuonaiambitious [am'bIJ es] o tlecrorlo 1mribrilramong [s'mrr4] prep cpe4la Iamount [e'maunt] n KornqecrBoamphitheatre [,rmfi'0rste] z annQurearp i

anarehy ['enakr] n auapxr{ff tancestor ['anseste] n trpeAor Iancestry ['ansestn] z upor4cxotrcAerrue, fipeArcrr '"

ancient ['ernJnt] a 4pennuft '{anger ['ar]gal z rEeB ri

angry ['rer1grr] a cepgursrfi !

animal ['enrmel] D *cllBorrroeanniversary [,anr've:serr] z roAoBrrlusa "iannounce [s'nauns] u o6rssrsrr '")

annual ['anjuel] a encero4arrfi 1

annually ['enjuelr] adu etxeroAno I

antiquity [en'trkwrtr] z gpenuocrb, anTrrrrrrocrbapart [e'po:t] adu orgensmoape [erp] z qeJroBeroo6paeuaa o6esrssaappear [e'pre] u troaaJrffrbcflappearance [e'prarens] z rroffBJrenrre, Bselrrnocrbapple [epl] n s6;rorcoapply [e'plar] u nprrMen,nrbappoint [a'pcrnt] u naanarrarbapprentice [e'prer?trs] z yreuurc, rroAMacrepbeapproach [e'proutJ] u npn6nur*carbcff; n upr.r6.n:

IIOAXoA

?92 \\\

\\

\

II

hitect ['o:krtekt] n apxnrexrophitecture-[.o:kr'tektJe] z apxnteKrypahway ['o:tfweI] n aPKa

['eene] rz rrJrolrlaAb, TeppuTopfiae ['o:qiu] u ciloprtrb

cy [,an'stckrest] n apxcroKParrta

[e't€k] u ararcoBarb, Eana4arb; n ararcat

rat [e'rtstekret] z aPrrcroxparratic [a,rtste'kratrk] a apncrorcparuqecrcr'rfi

om ['atam] z atorvrtach [a'tatJ] u npncoeArrEfirb

[e'rr0matlk] z aPnQuerrrKa[o:m] z pyKa; u BooPy]rcarb

[o:md] pp Boopytresubrfiforces [o:md'fc:slz] aoopyxceEEbre crrJrblr ['o:me] n Aocrrexu, 6Pona

[o:mz] n opyr*lre['o:mr] rl, apMl{a[e'rest] n apecr; u aPecroBbrBarb

[e'rarvel] n upn6rnue[e'raw] u upn6nrarr['arou] 11. crpeJla

[o:t] z lrcrcyccrBo[!o:trst] n xyAoxcnrrK

nd- [a'send] u uo4ruMarbcs' BocxoAltrbtrj] z scenb

['aspekt] rt acrercrble [e'sembl] u co6uparb

te [a'soustert] u. accoqrar{poBarb' cB,ff sbrBarbtion [a,sousl'elJn] n accoqnaql4a

soon as [ez'su:n az] rcax roJrbrcoto f'a,zte] uro Ao, qro Kacaerc,fftronomy [e'strcnemt] n acrpouoMrrffwell as [az'wel ez] rarc )rce Karc r{

hletics [aO'lettks] n arrlerrrnalast [et'lo:st] naroneq

nt [a'tetnment] n AocrrrrrceErre

attempt [e'temt] n rotrbrrrca; u rrbrrarbceattend [e'tend] u noceularbattendant [a'ten-dent] z coupoaoxc4arorqrafiattention [e'tenJn] n B:nnvra:r.ueattitude ['atrtjud] n orrrorueurreattract [e'trrekt] u trpr{Brrercarbaunt [o:nt] n rerKaauthor ['c:Oa] n aBropauthority [c:'gcrrtr] n aBroprrrerautomatically [,c :te'matrkaltl adu aBroMarrrrrecrc]tavenue ['avenju] n aBerrroavoid [e'vcrd] u us6erarrawaken [e'werken] u 6y4nrrawakening [e'werksnrq] n npo6yx4enue

Bbackwards ['bekwedzf adu HasaAbagpipe ['bregparp] n BoJrbrrr$abaker ['berke] n 6yno.rnrarcbalance ['belens] n 6a;n'alac, paBnoBecue; u y

paBrroBecl{eband [band] n opKecrpbandage ['bandrfi] n 6ura:rbank [brqk] n 6aurc;6eper pexrrbanker ['baqke] n 6anr<upbank notes ['bar;k,nouts] 6anxnorsrbanquet ['be4kwrt] n 6anrcerbarbaric [bo:'benk] a rapaapcxufibard [bo:d] n 6apg,6po4a.rzfi Myabrrcarrrbarley ['ba:h] n ar{Merrbbaron ['breran] n 6aponbarrack ['brerek] z 6aparcbarrel ['beral] n 6o.ncabase [bersl n 6aea, ocnoBautre; u 6aanpoBarbcff,

BbIBATbCgbased on ['berst'cn] ocnonannuft nabasic ['bersrk] a ocnosuofi394

ically ['bersrkelr] adu s ocuoBrroM, rJraBHbrM o6paeouin [bersn] n 6acceirs

['bersrs] n 6aeuc['bo:skrt] n KopsrrHa

th [bo:O] n BaIrHaths [bo:0sJ n 6anu

tlefield ['betlfi:ld] n uo.ne 6osch [bi:tJ] n MopcKofi 6eper, IrJrnttc

thes ['bedklou6z] n rocreJlbnoe 6e.ns6

tbi:dl n 6yw

[bi:dz] n 6ycrrr [bee] n MeABeAbrskin cap ['berrskrn,kap] urarrrca r{B MeABexcrefi

ruKypbr[bi:st] n BBepb'

t [bi:t] u 6urr,ten [bi:tn] cat. beatutifully ['bju:trfuh] adu xpacnnouty ['bju:tr] n rpacorame [br'kerml cn. become

[blklm] (became, become) u crauoBlrrbcff

er [bte] n trrrBo \

fall [br'fc:l] (befell, befallen) u cJr] rarbc,n callen [br'fc:ln] cn. befallell [br'fel] c.rz. befall

[bfqren] c",rz. beginin [br'grn] (began, begun) u HaqrEarbun [br'g,rn] c.,rz. begin

r [br'hewja] z uoae4elruebehead [br'hed] u o6esrnaB!(rbbehind [bfharnd] prep sa, rroBaArrbelief [br'li:fl n Bepa, y6exc4enraebelieve [br'li:v] u Beprrrbbell [bel] rL BBorfoK, KoJroKorrbelong [br'lcq] u trprrnaAJrertcarbbelow [br'lou] adu r'ulaay

395

benefit ['benrfit] ttr rroJrbaa, Bbrroga; u AaBarb ulBbIIO,qy

berry ['berr] n nroAabeside [br'sard] prep onorrobesides [blsardz] adu xporue rorobetray [br'trer] u upeAaBarbbeyond [bt'jcnd] prep oa rrpeAeJraMrr .bible [barbl] n 6u6nuabieycle ['baIsftl] n BeJlocurre4bill [brl] n _cqer; BarcorrotrpoeKrbirch [ba:tj] n 6epesabird [be:d] z urnqabirth [ba:0] n porrcAerrue

give birth porrcAarbbirthday-['ba:0der] n AeEb polrcAeurrffbishop ['brJcp] z erncKonbitter ['bfta] o roprrcuftbitterly ['bteh] adu roprrcobitterness ['brterus] n roper{bblackbird ['blrekbe:d] n AposAblacken [blakn] u qepsurb, rrorpbrBarr uepnoft xblacksmith ['blaksmrO] z rcyaueqblame [blem] u o6snssrrblew [blu:] c",2. blowblind [blarnd] a c.neuoftblock [blck] u BarpoMorrAarbblond [blcnd] a 6enoxyprrftblood [blnd] n KpoBbblow [blou] (blew, blown) u Ayrbblown [bloun] cz. blowboar [bc:] z xa6anboard lbJ:dl n: on board na popt, na 6opry

go aboard a ship [e'bc:d "'Jrpj "ecrt

na rcopa6.rrboast [boust] u xBacrarbboat [bout] z nogxa, rcopa6;rr

boat race ['bout'rers] roAotrnbre ronrrlbody ['bcdr] n reroi rpyrra396

led [bcrld] pp aap6nrIfily ['bouldhf adu cMeJro

[bcm] n6om6ai u6ou6urrrd [bam'bo:d] u 6ou6apArlpoBarr, o6crpeJrr4Barb

bombing raid ['bcmr4'rerd] BoBAyIuHbrfi na;rerfire ['bcnfare] z rcocr6p

[buts] n caroru['bc:de] n. rpanurla; u FpaEr{tr4Tb

[bc:n] ppz be born po4lrrbc,E

['bcrou]u6patrBAoJrr[bc:t] cz. buy

uet ['buker] n 6yxet['bua3wo:zi:] z 6ypxyaarra

[bru:s] z Jraryubve [brerv] a xpa6prrfively ['brervlrf adu xpa6povery ['brerven] z xpa6poctt

[bred] n xae6[brerk] (broke, broken) u JroMarb, paa6unarr

oTAeJIriITbC,fibreak away ['brerk e'wer] oropBarbca,break out ['brerk'autJ paepaarrrbcff

[bred] cz. breed[bri:d] (bred, bred) u paoBoAlrrb[bnk] n Kr{puutrt [brart] a apxufr.

htly ['brarthl adu nproliant ['bnljant] a 6aectalquft

ng [brr4] (brought, brought) u upuuocr{rb' trplrBo-3rrTb, trprrBoAlrTbbring up ['brry'np] (brought up, brought up) u Bocnu'TbIBATb

[brc:d] a urraporufi[brc:dn] u pacrurrpfirb

,97

broadleaf ['brc :dli:{l o rutrpono"rucrsesHrrfibroke [brouk] c.n. breakbroken [broukn] cn. breakbroken [broukn] cJroMaHnhr fr., pas6:rrrl;rirbronze [brcnz] z 6ponaabrooch [broutJ] z 6porurcabroth [brc:O] z 6y.nronbrought [brc:t] cm. bring tbudget ['bnftt] z 6ro4xerbuild [brld] (built, built) u crpor4rbbuilt lbiltl cm. buildburial ['berrel] n uoxopoubr, BaxopoHenr4eburn [be:n] u roperb, rrcertbbury ['berr] u xopou]rrb, npffrarbbusy ['brzr] a (o ue;ro"eref aauarrrfi; (o uecre)

.uiinnsrfibutcher ['butJe] n Mncrrlrrcbutter ['b,rte] z MacJrobuttonhole ['bltnhoul] z ner"ua (na o4enc4e)buy [bad (bought, bought) u rroKyrarbby and by ['bar end'bar] uocrereurro, co Bpe

BCKOpe

ccalculated ['kalkjul efidf pp paccrrr4rannrrficall Bc:l] u BBarb, rraabrBarb; n BoB, trpr,rabrB

call for uplrabrBarb Kcame [kem] cM. comecamp [kemp] n Jrarepbcampaign [kem'pem] n KaMrratrrffcanal [ke'nal] n KaHaJrcandle [krendl] n cBerra ,cannibalism ['kenlbelrzm] z raunu6a.nraem,cannon ['krenen] n ryruxacapital city ['keprtel'sftr] croJrraqacaptain's mate ['keptnz'meft] uorvrorqnuircapture ['kreptJe] u BaxBarrlrb B rrJren398

re [kee] n sa6orareful ['keeful] a sa6ouruuufi, aKxyparrrlrfi, ocro-poxnrrfi

fully ['keefuh] adu ar<r+yparrro, ocropo]KHoo ['ko:gou] n rpyo

['krerel] n po]KAecrBeHcraff aecnrter ['ko:prnte] n n;rornran

riage ['krenft] n Kapera, oKuraxc['kerr] u Hocnrb, Boakrrb

carry oirt arrnoJruffTb[ko:t] n rerrera[kers] nz in case B cJr] raedown ['ko:st'daun] u c6poczrb BHI4B

stle [ko:sl] n BaMoKtch [kred] (caught, caught) u JroBlrrb, nofimarr

ebrate ['sehbrert] u. upaoAuoBarbebration [,seh'brerJn] z npaa4uoBaHr{e

l,hedral [ke'Oi:dral] n co6opttle driver ['kretl,drarva] uoronulr{K cxora

e-farming ['katl.fo:mrq] z crcoroBoAcrBought [kc:tf ctw. catchuse [kc:z] n fipvtqvrua; u [pr4rrt4HffTb, BbrobrBarbve [kerv] n rerqepa

ebrity [sr'lebrrtr] n BuaMeurarocrb

KAII

nrrfi] a qenrpaJreroaqnffhes] qenrpaJrbHoe rApoJIETI4C

ortain [sa:tn] a orpeAeJriinnrrfihalk [tJc:k] p uenallenge fltJrehnft] z BbrBoB; u 6pocarr BbrBoBamber ['tJermba] n KoMHara, raJrara (a uapnanrenre)hamber ['tjermba] n KoMHara, nanata (a r

hampionship ['tJampranJrp] n rreMrrnonarhange [tJernft] n repeMeHa; v Meuflrb

ohannel- [ijrenlj-z Kauarr, rpoJrrrBehapel ['tJepel] z qacoBHnItaracter ['krerekte] n xaparTep, Jrlrreparypnrrfi repofi

399

( nepconatr )

chemical industry ['kemrkl'rndestrr]

vil war ['srvrl'wc:] rpa)rcAancral lgfrf;e

MbIIUJIEHHOCTbchemist ['kemrst] n xvrwvrr

choir [kware] n xop

Christian ['knstjan] a xpvtcrvranccuftChristianity [,krrstr'aenrtr] n xpucruancrBo

aim.[klerm] u nperenAoBarb, safrBfifitD ElQftan [klren] n r"ralaklren] n KJraH rt

tklreJ] n croJrxrroBeHrre; ucroJrrcHyBbofi 'l

ue [klu:] n Krrgq (rc maitne)rachman ['koutJman] n rcyrep

assical ['klaslkel] a r"rraccu-+ecrufi ,r,r'lay [klet] n rrrvrnaean [kli:n] a umcrrrir.ear [kha] a cucrr;tiri u 'rwcrurb, orrnularb orerk [klo:k] n KJrepKmate ['klarmrt] n KJrr,rMarimb [klafm] u ra6nparbcs, BJresarbiff [kl{ n enarraoak [klouk] z unaqose [klousf a 6rmsr<railrosely ['kloush] adu 6trlasxo, recrroth [klce] n. cyrcrro

[klou6z] z oAerrcAa

['klou6rq] n oAerrcAathmaker ['klc0rnerke] n cyrnoAeJr, Macrep no r{Bro-TOBJreHrrro cyKHa

king industry ['klou0merkrq'rndestrr] cyrcounaarrpoMbrruJIeHHocTb

loud [klaud] n o6;rarolub [kl,rb] n xny6

Christmas ['krlsmas] z Poxt4ecrBochurch ttJ",tj] n qeproBbcinema ['smrma] n r"l4tmo 'circle [sa:kl] n Kpyrcirculation [,se:kj u'lerJn] z ql4pKyJrnrllrflcitizen ['srtrzn] n rpatrcAanr.rucivil ['swrl] a rpaxc4ancrcraficivil iz a ti o n [, s rvt I at' zelnl n \Lrrrtrrrtra aIIr4 ficivilized ['srvrlarzd] pp \nBnnwrsosaHlrbrficivil rights ['srvrl'rarts] rpax4arrcrcrle rpaBa400

I [koul] z yrorrb

coat [koutl n r;,a;nvro, Kyprxacobbler ['kcbla] n carotrcullneode of law [ikoud ev'lc:] cBoA BaKoHoBooffee-house ['kcfihaus] z rcoQeftnacoin [kcrn] z uoneracoincide [,kourn'sard] u conua4arrcollapse [ke'lreps] u o6pyruuBarbcff, o6sanusarrcff

r ['kcle] n BoporHr{K

t

401

collect [ke'lekt] u.co6nparr Icollection [ka'lekJn] n KorrrreKqrrn '{college ['kcltft] n KorrJleAtrc ,

collide [ke'lard] u craJrr"vrBarbc,fi ,i

colonial [ke'lounjal] o Korrourra.rrrnrrfi ,:

colonialism [ke'lounjelrzm] n r,onrolavraJrnaMcol<inist ['kclenrst] n KoJrouurcr '

,

colonize ['kclenarz] u KoJroHrrsltpoBarbcolony ['kclenr] n KoJronr.I.fi i

colourful ['knleful] a rcpacounrrftcolumn ['kclem] n KoJIoEHa i

combat ['kcmbret] n cpa]KeHr4ecombine [kem'barn] u coeA]IHErr, o6te4l/tHffTb i

come into being ['krtm rnte'bi:lq] no,ffBJrfirbcffcomfortable ['knmfetebl] a y4o6nrrficommand [ka'mo:nd] n KoMaHAa; u KoMaHAoBarbcommander [ke'mo:ndo] n KoMaHAPrpcommander [ke'mo:ndo] n KoMaHAPTPcommander-in-chief [ke'mo:nde rn'tJi:fl rJraBHoKo!

,qyroqprfi "I

commemorate [ke'memerett] u ooHaMenoBbrBarb i

common ['kcmen] a o6r\nir,.lpocroficommon people npoctrie Jrro4ra

community [ka'mju:nltr] z oQrultnacompanionship [kem'prenjenJlp] z roBaperulecrBocompany ['krmpenrJ n KoMrIaHn,r, Tpyflrracomparatively [kem'preretwlr] adu cpaBnltreJrrnocompare [kam'pee] u cpaBlrrrBarbcomparison [kem'prnsn] n cpaBneHrlecomietitiott [,tr-pt'trJn] n copeanonante,complete [kem'pli:t] u BaBepruarbi a aanepuriin

uonnrrficompletely [kem'pli:thf adu rorrHocrbrocomprehensive school [,kcrnpre'hensw'sku:l]402

H,fifl IUKOJIAcentrate ['kcnsentrert] u ronqenrpt{poaerbcentration camp [,kcnsen'trelJn'kampl KoaqptsElt

qronnrrfi Jralepbncern [kan'sa:n] u: as concerns qro Racaercf,ncert ['kcnsot] tx KoHTIePT

clude [ken'klu:d] u saK"Jrrcrlarb' EaBepruarbdensat]ion [.kcnden'selJn] z KorrAeucarrnflition tkendilnl n ycrroBvre

nfirm [kan'fa:m] u rro4rBep]fiAarbnfusion [ken'fiu:3n] n cuaterrte' [epefloJlox' Hepao-

6eplrxaiferous [kou'nrfares] a XBOI4HbIH

nnect [ke'nekt] u"coeAlflrfirbnnection [ke'nekJn] n cBfi'lbnquer ['kcrlke] u aasotinusarr

uest ['kcrikwrst] n saBoeBauvreervative [ken'se:vetIv] a rconcepnatlrnnrrfi

nsider [ken'srde] u paccMarpl4Barb' clltlTarbnsiderably [ken'srderebh] adu sna'awreJlbHo

ist [kan'srst] u coctoatsrator [kan'splrato] n xoncnr4parop' saroBoplq?rnnt ['kcnstant] o uocto,snnrrft

nstantly ['kcnstanthf adv rocroflrruonstituency [ken'stltj uensr] n raa6rapate'nrnrrft orcpyrnstitute ['kcnstrdut] u cocraeJlflrbnstit'ution [.kcnstr'tju )n) n KoHcrrryql'Isnstitutionai l,kcttsir'tjuJ nel] a :xoncrvtryrruonnuftnstitutional acts Koucrt4Tyrlr{onnbre arcTbr

ntain [ken'tern] u coAep)Karbcontemporary [ken'tempererr] n coBpeMeHHLrK

oontent(s) ['kcntent(s)] n co4epxcanr{eoontinent ['kcnttnent] n rconrvnenrcontinental [,kcntr'nentel] a KoHrl{Herrtanrnrrficontinual [ken'trnjuel] o noctoannrrficontinually [ken'tIr1 uahf adu rocroffHnocontinue [ken'trnju] u rpoAorrncarb

407

continuous [ken'trnjues] a npo4onxcarouluficacont i

cont rrBopeqrrfl .:

contconvenient [ken'vi:njent] a ygo6usrficonveniently [ken'vi:4jenth] adv ygo6noconventions [ken'venjnzl n ycJroBHocrL4, o qarr r

conversation [.kcnve'serJn] n paaroBopconvert [ken've:t] u upeBparqarr, o6paqarbconvince [ken'vrns] u y6exgarr I

cool [ku:l] o npoxJraAnbrfico-operation [kou,cpe'relJn] n corpyArrr4rrecrBoco-ordinate [kou'c:drnert] u KoopAr{HrrpoBarb, cor

cow [kau] n KopoBacowhouse ['kauhaus] rt KopoBrrrrrcradle [krerdl] z ronsr6earcraft [kro:ft] n peMecJrocraftJman.-hip-1'k*' ftsmanJrp] n sannr:ne peMecJroM

crane [kretn] n Kpar{cream [kri:m] n KpeM, cJrIaBKilcreate [kn'ett] u coaAaBarb'creative work [kn'ertrv'we:k] rnop'recrraft TpyAcrew [kru:] n KoMaHAa (xopa6nx)cricket ['knklt] n Kprarercrime [krarm] n upecryrrJreHr{ecriticize ['kntrsalz] u Kpr{rr4roBarbcrops [krcps] n BepuoBbre KyJrbrypbr, BcxoAbr, ypoxcaficrgss [krcs] n Kpecr; u rrepecercarbcrowd [kraud] n roJrra; v roJrrrrrbcflcrowrl [kraun] n Kopoua; u yBeHrrrrBarbcruel [kruel] a ncectoruficruelly ['krueh] odu xcecrorocruelty ['krueltl] n Ececrorocrbcrusade [k5u'serd] n KpecroBrrfi uoxoAcrush tktnJl u paopyrrrarb, Kpyrunrbi n paorpoMcultivate ['knltlvert] u KyJrbrtrBr4poBarbcultivated ['k4ltlvertrd] pp rynrtypnrrficultural ['k,rltJerel] a KyJrbrypnrrficulture ['krrltce] n KyJrbrypacustom ['krstem] n o6rlqaircustomer ['ka.steme] n rroxyrrareJrb, KJTUTeHT

cut [k,rtl (cut, cut) u peoarbcut down cpy6arr (gepesss)

cybernetics [sarba'netrks] n xn6epnerrrKa

Ddaily ['derh] o er*eAHesHrrfidairy-farming ['deerI,fo:mrq] n MoJlotrnoe xoasficrsodamage ['dremr$] u paspyruarb:' n paopyrrreHr{edamaging ['demId3Iq] a paapyurutenrnrrfi

405

BbIBATBcopper ['kcpe] z MeAbcopy ['kcpr] u KofinpoBarb; n ruorrvrs' akaevrnnnpcorporation [,kc:pe'rerJn] n Kopnoparln,ficorrespondent [,kcu'spcndent] n KoppecroH4€rrr,corresponding [,kcn'spcndr4] a coorBercrnyrorquficost [kcst] (cost, cost) u cror{rbcottage ['kctrd3] n KorreAJK, AoMr4Kcouncil ['kaunsl] n coBercount [kaunt] u ctrnrarb; n rpaQcountless ['kauntlrs] a 6ecqucnennsrficounter ['kaunte] z'rpuJraBoKcountry ['kantrr] n crpanacountryman ['krrntrrmen] z cooreqecrBexHerKcountryside ['knntnsard] n BaropoArraff Mecrrrocrbcounty ['kauntl] z rpaQcrno (agvrunr.rcrparrrBrraff

qa a Anrnnu)coup d'etat ['ku:der'to:] z repeBoporcourage ['krr$] z cMeJrocrbcourageous [ka'rerdgas] a cme.nrrftcourse [kc:s] z: in the course of g xoAecourt [kc:t] n ABopi KoporreBcrcnfi 4nop; cyAcousin [k.rizn] n ABoropognrrft 6par, ABoropoAuagcover ['knve] u rrorcpbrBarb404

damp [damp] a csrpor?danger ['detndge] n onacnocrbdangerous ['dernd3eres] a ouacnrrfidaring ['deerr4] a crenr;tit, orqatrnurrft, ornaxcdark [do:k] a riinnrrfidarkness ['do:knrs] n reMnoradate back to ['dert'brek te] aocxoArrrb K tdeal [di:l] u nMerb AeJro cdeath [de0] z cMeprbdebates [dr'berts] n gedarr;rdebt [det] n Eorrrdecade [dr'kerd] n AecflTvrnrerrzedecay [dr'ker] z ynarqorcdecent ['di:sent] a nplanlzuwurirdecide [dr'sard] u perrarbdecision [disryn] z perueunedecisive [dr'sarsrv] a perrrr{rensnrrfideck [dek] z ua;ry6adeclaration [.dekla're lnl n safi BJreHr{edeclare [dr'klee] u Ba.EBrrtrrb

declare war o6ssBJlfiTb nofinydecline [dr'klaIn] u rplrxogurb B ynaAondecorate ['dekerert] u yrcparuarbdecrease [dr'kri:s] u yMeHbruarbcfidedication [,dedr'keflnf n upeAaHuocrbdeed [di:d] n Aenrodeep [di:p] a rny6or<uir.deepen ['di:pen] u yrny6natrdeeply ['di:plt] adu rny6or<odeer [dre] n orleubdefeat [dr'fi:t] u uo6e*cAarb; n ropatileur4edefence [dr'fens] n san\Lrradefend [dr'fend] u Barrlrqarbdefender [dr'fende] n sau1vrrla.vIr"definite ['defirut] a orpeAerrilnnufidegree [dr'gri:] n crereHbdelegate ['dehgrt] n Aerretar406

delight [dt'latt] n Bocropr; udeliver [de'lwe] u AocraBJr,f,rbdelta ['delte] n Aerrbrademand [dr'mo:nd] u tPe6onarb', ndemocracy [dI'mckresr] z AeMoKparilSdemocratic [dema'kretlk] o AeMoxparl'tqeoilntdemonstrat6 1'demanstreit] u 4ertronctpupolarb tii

densely populated ['densh,pcpju'lerhd] rrrroruo Hacortaffdensity ['densltr] n rJroruocrbdepart [dt'po:t] u yxoArrrb, yesrr(arbdepartment [dl'po:tmant] n orAeJr' orAeJrenr{edepartment store [stc:] ynnnepMardepend [dfpend] u BaB]rcerbdependent [dr'pendant] a sanzcurvnrfideposed [dr'pouzd] pp crvrerqilnnrrfideposits [dl'pczlts] n sarrefiiradepression [dl'preJn] n 4enpeccuff' yruererrnoe cocros'

Hrre, BIIaAnHadeprive [dr'praIv] u Jrrrurarbdescendant [dr'sendent] z uotouoxdescribe [dr'skratb] u orrlcbrBarbdescription [dI'sknpJn] n onncalewedesert ['dezet] n rycrbrnsdesign [dr'zarn] n upoerT; u rpoeKrrapoBarbdesire [dr'zale] n )r'erranvedespise [dr'spaz] u rpeallparbdespotic [dfspctlk] 4 4ecroret'recrcnftdestination [ ;destl'ne lnl n Mecro HaBHatreurradestroy [dr'strcl] u PaBPYruarbdestructior/ [dr'strnkJn] n paapyruennedestructiv{ 1dtstrrrttrv] a paepynrnrenrnrrfrdetail ['di:tprl] n Aerartb, no4po6nocrrdetective l[r'iektryl n Aereryrr(B; 4 AerextnsnrrfiJ"i""-i""Tion [dr.te:mi'nedn] n perurrMocrbdetermine [dr'te:mrn] u peurrrrbc,fidetermined [dr'te:mrnd] pp peruratenrnrrfidevelop [dr'felep] u pasBnBarbI '-

407

developed [dl'velapt] pp paer.urrltrrdevelopment [dr'velepment] n pasBurrrre

devil ['devrl] n AbflBoItA""ot! [dr'vLut] u nocBsrrlarb' orAaearr ce6s

devotion [dr'vouJn] n rpeAaruocrbdiagonal [dat'regenel] o 4raaroHa;rbr{srltdialect ['dalelakt] n Avrarrerrdiary ['daIen] n AHeBHT{Kdictate [drk'teIt] u Ar4xroBarbdictator [drk'terte] n ALrKraroPdictionary ['drkJanarl] z cnonaprdie [daI] u YMrParbdiffer ['dfe] u orJrlrtlarbcfidifference ['dtfaransl n pasuuTla' orJlr4rrlle

Aitf""""t [trferent]-o paaHuft' paorlrdrrHrtfi' otnrouluftca (ne tarcofi)

difficult ['dlfikalt] a tpy4nsrfidifficulty ['drfikeltt] n rpyAHocrbdig [drg] (dug, dug) u Korarbdignity ['drgnrtl] a AocrorrncrBodiminish [dr'mrnrJ] u yMenbrnarbcfidirection [dr'rekJn] n HarpaBJIeHuedirectly [dl'rekth] adu nPattodirector [dr'rekte] n AlrPeKroPdirty ['de:tr] 4 rpsaHbrraait"hit"tage [.arsed'vo:ntld3] n rreBbrroAxoe' ne6naro'

rrpl4fi THOe rroJlo?KeHlr e

discipline ['drsrplln] n Aetcr\wnJrr,rna

408

firi

discontent [,drsken'tent] n HeyAoBJrernoptinnocrrdiscover [drs'krve] u orrcpbrBarbdiscovery [drs'krrverr] z orrcprrruediscuss [drs'kls] u" o6cyx4arrdiscussion [drs'k,tJn] n o6cyxc4eHuedisease fdr'zi:zJ n 6oaeanrdisgrace [drs'grers] n ofiaJradisgraced [drs'grerst] pp orrarrbnrrfi, B oraJredish [drJ] n 6;rro4odishonesty [dr'scnrstr] z neuecrrrocrbdislike [drs'lark] u ne nro6zrrdismiss [drs'mrs] u pacnycrcarbdisobedience [.drsa'bi:djens] n Henocrryrrraulredisobey [,drse'ber] u rre cJryrxarbcfldissatisfied [,drs'sretrsfard] pp HayAoB,uernoptirr rr r,r iidissolve [drs'sclv] u pacrBopflrr,distance ['drstans] n paccronruc

i distinct [drs'tn1kt] a orqi,ilrr.r rr,r i.i

. distinguish [drs'tr4wrJ1 u o'r'.n lrrurrb, pasJrr4qr,r,r,district ['drstnkt] o pai.iondisturbing [drs'ta:brq] o't'pr,rroir*rrrfiditch [drtJ] z KaHaBa, I)ondivide [dr'vard] u AeJrr4'r'r,divine [dI'vam] o 6oucuc't'trr,r rr t,rftdivision [dr'vr3n] n A(]Jrounr, ()'r'AeJIeHI{e

divorce [dfvc:s] n pn:rr(ul: r) l]uBBoAI,Irbcffdocument ['dckjurrrcnt I rr,r1r'r( vMeHTdogma ['dcgme] n AolMldomestic [da'mestrk] o /U)Mn rrr rrprftdominate ['dcmrnert] a) /(oM n r lr poBarbdominion [da'rnrnjon] ,l /loM lr r noH (sanucuuaff or qero-

n'u6o r4Jrr4 Koro_1u6g,1,1,1,1 rn,r,opua)double [d.,.bl] a gnofiuoll; rr yTluaranarrdoubt [daut] u coMHeBll'r'rr(!rt n coMrreulledownstairs ['daunsteezl uilu rrHB, BHI,Isydrain [drem] n BoAocror(, rurrrrJrnaall]Ifftlrainpipe ['drernparp] n rlrTlor:'r'oqHaff rpy6a

409

t

drank [drreqk] cas. drinkdraw [drc:] (drew, drawn) u r,flrryrb' rrpttrflrl'l- prtcoBarb, qepruTb

drawback ['drc:brek] n He.qocrarorc r

drawbridge ['drc:bndSf n uoAtiivrnrrfi uocr ,]

drawn [drc:n] cu. draw ,

dress [dres] n fiJrarbei u oAeBarbcfl I

dressmaker ['dresmefte] n roprrl4xa I

drew ldru:l cu. draw iqrew luru:J c.tw. r,.rtlwdrink [dnqk] (drank, drunk) u uurb i'

drive [drarv] (drove, driven) u rnarb, uoroHfftb, B€

MaIUnHydriven [dnvn] cn. drive :

drop [drcp] u xauarrdrove [drouv] cn. drivedrug [drng] n Haprcorrrr I

drug taker ['terke] HapKoMaH i

drum [dr,rm] n 6apa6an ;

drunk [drnqk] cz. drink 'ir

dry [drar] a cyxofi it

due to ['dju:te] r,ta-oa '

dug [d^g] cm. dig ,:.,,

duke [dju:k] n repqorduty ['dju:tl] n Aorrt, o6ssansocrsdynasty ['drnastr] n Annacrurfi,

Eearl [e:l] z rpaQearn [e:n] u eapa6atblBarbearth [e:0] z BeMJrflearthen ['e:0en] o sexulanofiearthenware ['e:Oenwee] n Qaanc, KepaMrIKaeasily ['i:zrh] adu nerr<oeast [i:st] n Bocroreastern ['i:sten] a socto.IHbrfieastward ['i:stwed] adu x BocroKY

410

I'i:zrf a.n6rrrtfiipse ['ekhps] z safMeuze

[,rks'ncmrk] a eronoMu.recrcafilly [,fte'ncmrkeh] adu snonoMr{qecrcr4[r'kcnemrst] n exonoMrrrcr

nomy [l'kcnemr] n exorroMr{Kat ['edrt] u peAaKrtrpoBarb

brt ['efst] n yclr;rure[eg] z afiqo

ucate ['edjukelt] u o65nrars, AaBarb o6paaoaanlreucated ['edjukertrd] pp o6paeosasHbrftucation [.edju'kerJn] n o6paeoBaHr{e'ectively [{feknvt4 adu etpQeKrnBrroicient [r'fiJant] a eQQercrnsusrfi

ect [r'lekt] u-arr6zparrection [r'lekJn] n nrr6opu

n [r'lektren] n e;rercrponectronic [,rlek'trcmk] o e.nercrponnuftectronics [,rlek'trcnrks] z e.nerrpour4ra

tary [.eh'menten] o oJreMeuTapnrrfi[elk] n aocr

m [elm] n Bnsbassy ['embesr] n rocoJrbcrBobrace [rm'brers] u oxBarbrBarb

[r'me:d3] u Boorrurcarbigrant ['emrgrent] n eMrrrpaHrigration [,emr'grerJn] z orvrurparlr4sJraf,ron [,emlgrerJnl z eMrrrparlr4stional [r'mouJnel] a oMoquona;rrnrrfi

['emfasrs] n yAapeurre, yropmpire ['empare] n uMrrepr.rJ{

[rm'plcr] u Hanr{Marb, AaBarb pa6orymployer [rm'plcre] n HaHnMareJrb, pa6oro4are.nr

empty ['emptr] a uycrofi; u Brra,4arb (o perce)enclose [rn'klouz] u oropilKrrBarb, o6uocurrenclosures [rn'klougezf n oropar*uBaHrleDncourage [m'kandg] u uooqp,Erb

end [end] n KoHerIendanger [rn'delndge] u uo4neprarb orracuocrn :'r

endlessly ['endhsh] ady 6ecxoueqHo , l

enemy ['enrmr] n Bpar '.\

energetig [,ene'dgetrk] a enepru.rsrrft 'r

engage [m'gerdg] u rranrrMarb, BarrnMarb r

engaged [rn'gerd3d] pp: be engaged 6rrrrnsaHgrbl!engine ['end3rn] n Morop .lenjoy [rn'jcr] u EacJra)KAarbcff , ,l

enlarge [rn'lo:d3] u yBeJrr4rrrrBarb tenlighten [rn'larten] u upocBerrlarb r

enlightenment[rn'lartenment]ntrpocBerqerrlie {

enlist [rn'hst] u nocryrarb Ha BoeHrryro cnyxc6y i

enormous [I'nc:mes] a onponnnrrft I

enormously [r'nc:meslrl adu vpeaarrvaftno I

enough [r'qnfl adu Aosorruu.oensure [rn'Jua] u o6ecne.ruBarbenter ['ente] u Bcryrarb, trocryrrarbentertain [,enta'tern] u pasBrremarbentertainment [,ente'ternm entf n paaBreqenr,Ieenthusiastically [en,0juzr'estrkeh]-odu-e €EryBraE

envy ['envr] n saBncrb; u BaBr{AoBarb {epidemic [.epr'demrkf n errlaqerlaa ilepoch ['i:pek] n erroxa iequal ['i:kwel] a pannrrfi q

equality [i:'kwchtr] n paBeucrBo , ,iJ

equally ['i:kweh] adu na paBrrbrx rpaBax Iequatorial[,ekwe'tc:rrel]aercBaroprraasnrrfi Iequipment [I'kwrpment] n o6opy4onanure 'i

era ['rere] n spa I

erect [r'rekt] u BoBABHrarb I

escape [r'skerp] n no6er; u 6excarr, cracrr4cb

412

[r'speJeh] ad.u ocolesnoce ['esans] z- cyulHocrbtially [r'senJeh] adu s ocHoBr{oM. B cvruuocru

tablish [rs:taUtiJl u ycrauaBJnrBarb,established order [rs'trbhJt'c:de] uilropffAoK

astate [r'stert] n roMecrbeuary ['estjuerr] n ecryapwir

cternal [r'te:nel] a se.rHbu?[i:v] n Kauyrrt [r'vent] n co1strne

lly [r'ventjueltl adu B KoHqe KorrqoBident ['evrdant] a ouenw4nrrfi

actly [rg'zrekth] cdu ro.rsople [rg'zo:mpl] n npuwrep

ceed [r'ksi:d] u uperocxoAr4rb ;

lent ['eksalant] a ornra.rHrrficellently ['eksalenth'l adu orJrrrrrHo

il ['i:vel] n srroolution [.eva'lu:Jn] n aBorrroqr4ff

cept [rk'septf adu KpoMeception [ft'sepJn] n ucrcrrotreHrreDron uK'sepJnl n ucKJrroqeHu

nge [rks'tJernd3] n 6npnca; uting [rk'saftir1J a BaxBarbrBaroquil

!r.fr

m [rks'klerm] u nocr"lrzqarbse [rks'kju;zf u usnwHffrb

ecutive [rg'zekjutrv] a zcuo.nexecutive body r4crroJrH

ecute ['eksakjut] u. KaBHr4rbecution ['eksekju:Jn] z raenr

exhibit [r'gzrbrt] n encrronarexhibition [,ekir'brjn] z Bbrcraartexile ['eksailf n ccbrJrra, r{BrnattHf{exist [r'gzrst] u cyqecrBoBarbexistence [r'gzrstans] nexpand [rks'pand] u

expansion [rks'prenjn] n pacrpocrparrenure, eKcrrarexpect [rks'pekt] u o)KlrAarb, paccrrrrrrbrBarbexpensive [rks'pensrv] a 4oporofiexperience [rks'prerrens] n onbrrexperiment [rks'penment] n erccreperMenrexperimentation [rks,penmen'terJn] n arcrep

TI{pOBaHIle 4

explain [rks'plern] u o6rscnsruexplanation [.eksple'nerjn] n ollsacneurreexplode [fts'ploud] u rapriaarrcaexplore [rks'plc:] u rccJreAoBarbexplorer [rks'plc:re] n nccJre1oBareJrbexport ['ekspc:t] n oncrropr; u aKc[oprr{poBarb, BbrBolexporter [eks'pc:te] n erccuopriipexpress [rks'pres] u Bbrpa]rcarbextend [rks'tend] u pacrrrwpflrbcfi, rpocrrrparbcfiextent [ks'tent] n: to some extent Ao HeKoropofi crextension [rks'tenJn] n pacuuperrr4e, pacrpocrpaextinct [fts'trqkt] a nrruepurrafiextra ['ekstre] a AorroJrHrare;rrnrrfiextraordinary I rks' trc : drn erfj a trpe B B brrra ft:rlttrtextremely [fts'tri:mh] adu o.resu, rrcKJrK)rrrrreJrbuoeye [ar] n rJraB

Ffagade [fe'so:d] n gacag

faithfully ['fer0fuh] ad.u sepno. upeAaHno,

414

fall [fc:l] (fell, fallen) u ra,qarbfall ill Ba6orerb

fallen [fc:ln] cu. fallfame [fem] n rrBBecruocrbfamine ['fremrn] n roJroAfamous ['fermes] a usaecrubrfifancy clothes ['fansr'klou6z] rvracrcapagurrfi KocrroMfarm [fo:m] n OepMa; u Brur?rMarbcn ceJrbcrctrM xossficrBoMfarmer ['fo:ma] n Kpecrb,Enran, Qepuepfarmhouse ['fo:mhaus] n Qepruepcrcrnfi 4owrfarming land ['fo:mrq'land] KyJrbrr4Br4pyeMafi BeMJrff

(eerr.na Koropyrc o6pa6arsrnarcr)farmland ['f-o:mlend] n o6pa6arbrBaeMafl oeMJrfffashion [feJn] n.MoAafashionable ['freJnebl] o mo4nrrfifast [fo:st] a 6rrcrprrfifasten [fo:sn] u trpraKpetrJrarbfatal [fertl] a @araarnrrfifavour ['ferve] ni in favour of n nomsyfavourite ['fervent] a nro1mv.wirfear [fie] n crpaxi u 6garrcafearless ['fiehs] a 6eccrparunarfifeast [fi:st] ry nupfeature ['fi:tJe] z qeprafed [fed] crvr. feedfeed [fi:d] (fed, fed) u KopMrrrbfeel [fi:l] (felt, felt) u qyBcrBoBarbfeeling ['fi:h4] z rryBcraofeet [fi:t] cu. footfell [fel] cn. fallfelt [felt] cn. feelfence [fens] n ea6opfeudal ['fiu:del] o Qeoga.nrnrrrtfeudalism ['fiu:dahzm] z Seo4a.uusrufield [fi:ld] n rrorrefierce [fies] a cmpeurrfi

1lt

fiercely ['fiesh] adu cnupenofight [fatt] (fought, fought) u 6oporrca, Aparbca

fight off or6usarr ifight ffaftf n 6opr6a i

fighter ['farte] z 6opeq ' ,

figure ['figa] n Qzrypa, qr4+pafill [fru u HarroJrn.Erbfilling [fftlry] n laa,*ur^r"afinally ['farnah] adu s Kouqefinance [far'nans].n @unancrr; u Qrauancr4poBarBnnaqgia! [far'nrenJ l].4 Srauancosrrfiiitt"trtit{y lrut'"*nJltl ad.u n QnnancoBoM orrroruefinancier fiar'nenJre] z Sunancncrfind [faInd] ( fo\nd, found) u HaxoArirbfine [farn] cl tlyAecnbr*,.-u rrrrpa@finger ['fi4ga] n raJreq ,

fiord [fic:d] z Quop4 ;

fire [fare] z oron6; u crperrffrbopen fire orxpbrrb oronb

fireworks ['fatewa:ks] a @eftepBeprfirmly ['fe:mh] adu rsepgofisher ['fiJe] z prr6onorfil trttt-trit, tit) u rroAxoAr4rb, roAramca, 6rrrr nuofixed [fikst] pp ycrar{ouenurrfi, aarcpeunilnnrrfi

fixed price [prars] rnrip4aa rleHaflat [flat] a n.:nocxlairflattened [flretnd] pp BbrpoBnennrrrZfled [fled] cm. fleeflee [fli:] (fled, fled) u 6excarr, crracarbca 6ercrrolfleet [fli:t] n $nor r

flew [flu:] cm. llyfloor [flc:] z no.B, ora)rcflow [flou] u reurflower [flaue] n qBerorcflown [floun] cn. flyfluently ['fluanth] adu 6erno

416

fly [flad (flew, flown) u Jrerarbfog [fcg] rl ryMaufolklore ['fouklc:] z @olrrcaopfolk music ['fouk'mju:zk] HapoAnas MyBbrKafollow ['fclou] u cJreAoBarb Bafollower ['fcloue] z. rocJreAoBareJrbfollowing ['fclour4] a cle4yrorqr.rfifond [fcnd] a: be fond of nro6rarrfood [fu:d] z uuulafoodstuffs ['fu:dstnfs] n rpoAyKrbr rrrranuflfoot [fu:t] (mru. v. feet) nora, gyr

on foot [erurcoMforbade [fe'berd] c",ra. forbidforbid [fa'brd] (forbade, forbidden) u sanperqarrforbidden [fe'brdn] cyra. forbidforce [fc:s] n cvrJrai u gacraBJrsrr cranofiforeign ['fcnn] a rrnocrpannrrfiforeigner ['fcnne] R rrHocrpareqforest ['fcnst] n Jrecforgave [fe'gerv] cn. forgiveforget [fa'get] (forgot, forgotten) u sa6rrnarrforgive [fa'grv] (forgave, forgiven) u rpotrIarbforgiven [fe'grvn] cm. forgiveforgot [fe'gct] cm. forgetforgotten [fe'gctn] cn. forgetfork [fc:k] n Bvlrrr"aform [fc:m] u QoprvrupoBarbformal ['fc:mel] a Qoprvra;rrnrrfi , oQuqza;rrnrrfiformation [fc:'merJn] n o6paaonauueformer ['fc:ma] a 6*sluauilrformerly ['fc:meh] adu rlpex"geformulate ['fc:mjulert] u cipopuyJrrrpoBarbfort [fc:t] n $oprfortificalion I Jc:trfi'kerJn] z yKperJrinnuft rrynrcrfortified ['fc:trfard] pp yKpenniinnrrfifortify ['fc:trfar] u yKperrrrflrb

417

fortress ['fc:tns] z Kperrocrb i

fortunate ['fc:tJenrt] a y1a'eJrunbrfi, neeyuufi J

forwards ['fc:wedz] adu nnepdg ,:fought ffc:t'l cn. fightfound [faund] cm. findfound [faund] u ocrroBbrBarbfoundation ffaun'derJn] z ocnoBaur,re, Oynl enr

rrrenqry l'renotrl "4 Apy,IcecKfiI,I, Apy)KeJrrooHbrri . ifriendship ['frendJrpf n gppnla

;,

frighteneh 1'auttrnal pp ilnyrannrrfi 'lrrrSrrrir'rrnu f tr4rriJuul pp liltjLLy I'i1'.Fl.tlbl.t1t

frontier ['frrrntre] n rparrr4qa, trpurpauurrrrBre pafirirfroze [frouz] ctw. freeze 1

frozen [frouzn] ctry.-freeze 'fruit [fru:t] n Spyrcr

founder ['faunde] n ocnoBareJrb[fcks] n tnca

fri:] a cno6o4nnfi; u ocro6ox4arr

freely['fri:dam] n ceo6o4a.(h] odu cno6o4uo

I n cso6o,qnrrfi .re"rrosexfreeze [fri:z] (f rozen) u__gaMepoarb

frequently ['fri:kwenthl adu tracro ],

fresh tfreJl a cse)Kzfifriar [frare] n EurrqeHcrnyrorqrfi Mo_Haxfriendly ['frendh] .a gpyxcecxnilr, gpyrre.nro6nrrfi .r,

fuel [fiuelJ z roproueefulfil [fu]'frl] u Bbrrrorrunrb :.'full [fuI] a ronustirfunclion ['fr'DkJn] t i$inxqua; u @ynxrlrror{}rfundamental [.fnnde'mentl] a Qyn4arvrenramHrrfi,

nosHofifuneral ['fiu:naral] n troxoponbrfur [fe:] n Mexfurniture ['f9:nrtJa] z me6enrfuture ['fiu:tJe] a fygyryuir

418

Gin [getn] n Bbrrrrpbrru; u BbrrrrpbrBaTb

gallery ['gelerr] n raJrepengame [germ] n tl.rpa

rden [go:dnl n cag.garland ['go:land] n rlrprrnn4agas [gres] n rag

[gert] n Boporagateway ['gertwer] n Boporagather ['ge6o] u co6raparsgeneral ['dgenarel] n reHepaJr, a o6u1rzfi, nceo6rqzft

[goust] n rpr{Bpariant [ftarent] o orpounrrfi, rnranrcrcufi

glacier ['glresje] n rre4lalar.

nerate ['dgenerert] u renepupoBarb, nrrpa6ararnarrneration [,dgene'rerJn] n norcoJreurre

tle [ftentl] a JracroBbrfi, wrarrufi, nonorlrfi (o cxnone)try ['d3entn] z vrenrorroMecruoe ABopffHcrBo

phical [,dgrs'grrefikl] a reorpaQuuecrcufiphically [, dgre' grrefikhl ti du reorpae nqec K ra

[dgr'cmrtrr] a reoMerplrfi[get] (got, got) ? AocraBarb, rroJryrraTb, rrouar{arbrid of ['get'rrd ev] rae6anr,rrbcff or

ft [grft] n Aaplded ['grldd] pp rroooJroqennrrfi

glamorous ['glremeres] o ruzxapnrrfiglanrour ['glreme] n 6aecx, oqapoBaur{e, BoJrrrre6crgo

[glo:s] n crercJro, crarauglorious ['glc:rres] o c.nannrrfiglory ['glc:rr] n crraBagod [qcd] n 6orgold [gould] n aonoro :

goldsmith ['gouldsmr0] n aonorbrx Aerr Macrepgoods [gu:dz] n roBapbr

goods train ronapnsrft iloeBAgot [gct] cn. get

419

govern ['gnvan] u yupaBJrarbgovernor ['g,rvena] z ry6epnaropgraceful ['grersful] a uaarqnrrftgradually ['gredjuehl adu nocteuennograduate ['gredjuert] u oxar$rrrBau ( yvednoi :grand [grrend] a r,errtrtecrnennrrfigrandson ['grrends.rrn] z ruyrc

-gravQlgsw] a rvrpavu,ufi; n_rltgrvnra /E"aoitiiib;T.g-revfteifnl z iip anuraqungravity ['grrevrtr] n rpr{ratrcenrregrarry ['grervr] n coycgrazelgretzf u uacrucbgteatly ['grerth] adu oqela:, a 6ommofi creuenugreatness ['grertnrs] n r,e$n'rrr:egreengrocer ['gri:n,grouse] n seJrerrqrrKgreeting ['gri:trq] n uprrBercrBuegretv [gru:] cil. growgrocer ['grouse] z 6araaefiulrnxgroup [gru:p] n rpytruagro\r [grou] (grew, grown) u pactu, BbrparqrrBarbgrown [groun] crw, growgrown-up ['groun'.rrp] a aspocnrrfigrowth [grou0] n pocrguarantee [,garan'ti:] u rapanrrrpoBarbguard [go:d] n oxpana; u oxparrffrbguerrilla [ga'nle] n raprrroaHguide [gardJ n rllqi u Becrrrguiding principles ['gardr4'prrnsrplz] pyKoBoA,E

rrpr1Erlrrrrbl .i

guild [gild] n rla"lrb4]ts. 'iguilty ['grltr] a BuHoBar ';

gUitar [gr'to:] n rr4rapa .!

gun [gm] n rrrcroJrer, rrymKagunpowder ['grrn,paude] n uopoxguy [gar] n uapenbgymnasium [d3tm'nerzjem] n rrlMlracru.recrcIafi aar

gymnastics [d3rm'nrestIks] n rrrMuacrr4na

Hhair [hee] n Borrocbrhaircut ['heekrrt] n crprr*cKahall [hc:l] n salr, rrpuxonca,Ehand-copier ['hend'kcpre] n repeuncrrrirhandle ['hrendl] u o6paularsc,xhand-made ['hend,merd] a cAerlaHubrfi aplnuryrchandsome ['hendsem] o rcpacraanfihandwork ['hrendwe:k] n py.rnaa pa6orahandwritten ['hendrrtn] a pyrcouucnr,rfihang thaq] (hung, hung) u Br{cerb, Belrrarbhappen [hepn] u cnyqsr'ssthappiness ['hreprms] n cqacrbeharbour ['ho:be] n raBanbhard [ho:d] a raep4rrfihard-boiled egg ['ho:dbcrld'eg] afiqo BKpyryK)hard work ['ho:d'we:k] yropHan pa6orahardworking ['ho:d,we:krq] o rpyAorlro6ngbrfi, upra-

.nencnrrfihare [hee] n Basqhantest ['ho:vrst] n JEcarBa, ypo*cafihat [hrt] n rurrffrrahate [hert] u nenanr4Aerrhatred ['hertrtd] n HeHaBI4crbhead [hed] z roJroBa; u BosrJraBJrETbheadline ['hedlarn] z BarorloBorhealth [hele] n BAopoBbe

health care ['helO,ksa] s.qpaBooxparerrrrehealthy ['helOI] o a4oponnfthear [hre] (heard, heard) u c.urrruarrheard [he:d] cu. hearheart [hc:t] n cepAqeheat [hi:t] z rerrrro, Ecapaheating ['hi:tn1] n orotrJleHrre, ororrrrreJlbnaa cr4creMa

421420

heaven [hevn] nheavilY ['hevrh]

ne6e9ETfl}ICCJIO

heavy ['hevr] a try ['hevr'rndestn] raxciinar nPoheavY i

] n ncranaa rrBFoPoAb

he@ghog ['hefthcg] n 6xc

heel [hi:l] n rrnrxaheight [halt] z Bbrcora' Pocrheir [ea] n HacJreAr{rlxheiress ['eens] n HacJreArrraqa

held [held] c.rz. holdhelmet ['helmtt] n rurreM

help [helP] n norvroub; u rroMorarb

herd lhe:dl n craAoh"""Ait""y [hl'redrterr] o nacneAcrBerrubrr4

herring ['henr1] n ce;rii4rca

I

hisher education ['harer' eoJu KeU rU, ItDru urss

itiAiii;d ['haIlendJ ., BbrcoKoropn'fi; n nr

o afi onsr IIIorn an4rar'r

hdily i'h;il4 ad'u Bbrcoro' B Bbrcoxoft cteuenu

friEtrriav ['harwer] n ruocce

hill [hIU n xoJIMhilt-range ['lulrernd3] n rpfiAa xorIMoB

hilly ['hrl] o xolwrucrufrhip [hrP] n 6e4Pohire [hala] u nanrawrarrhistorian [hl'stc:nen] n ltctoprartris t oric atiy tht' stcn kehl a du r{cro p rrre crcr4

history ['hrsterr] n trcropvrfi'hit [ht] (hit' hit) u YAaPnrb

422

hold [hould] (held, held) u Aeptrcarb' rlpoBoAllrbhold back ['hould'bekJ orpatrcarb (nauagenne)

holiday ['hcltdl] n upaoAHI4K' KarruxyJrbrhollow ['hclou] a uycrofi; n AYrIJroholy ['houh] a cnatofthomeless ['houmhs] a 6es4orvrnrrfthonest ['cnIst] o'recrnsrfthonorary ['cneran] a uo'rernsrfihonour ['cne] n qecrbhood [hu:d] n Karrroruouhope [houP] ,x Ea,qermAa; u rraAeflrbcffhoirible [rhcrebl] o Yxcacxufthorse [hc:s] n Jrorua'qb

horseback ['hc:sbrek]: on horseback nepxorvr

horse-racing ['hc:s,rersn1] n crcar{Klr

horserider ['hc:s,rarde] n BcaAHvK

hot [hct] cl ropfftrrafi, xcaPrcrafi

however [hau'eve] adu ognaxo tre' rcar 6sr ro rru 6rt.ltohuge [hju:ft] 4 orpoMrrsrft

-human being ['hju:men'bi:r4] n rreJIoBeK

humanism [lhjumemzm] n rymanrlsMhumanity [hju'mrnrtt] n'renoaeqecrBohumid ['hju:mrd] o snalrnbrfiho*o"oos 1'hi,.tme.es] o rcrvropracru'recrcnfihumour ['hju:me] n roMop

hung [tr,rq] ctvt. hanghunt [h,rnt] u oxorrrrbcfli n oxorahunter ['hrrnte] n oxornrrrhurry ['h^rl] u cuerulrrbhusband ['h.r*zband] rL Myrrc

hygiene ['hald3i:n] n tvLrLtel*,a

hymn [hm] n rIIMH

ice [ars] n il)Eidea [ar'drel n ngea

421

II

I

I

ideal [ar'drel] a u4ear,slal;rilr tl

illiterate [I'lrtent] 4 HerpaMotnrrfiillness ['rlnls] n 6oJresur ,t

illustrate ['rl,r,strert] u tlJrJrlocrpl4poBarb '{image ['mrd3] n o6paa .l

imitation [,mr'teIJn] n vrwvrra\Ias' rroApa]rcaurre {

immediately [l'mi:djetltf adu HeMeArrenrro !

immoral [r'mcrel] a aMopaJrrnrrfi 4 1

immoiality [,Ime'rrelttl] z aMopaJrbuocrbimmortal [I'mc:tl] a 6eccrvreptnrrfiimport ['rmpc:t] n r{Mrropr; u uM[oprr4poBarb' BBoBa,

importance [tm'pc:tens] z Ba]rsHocrbimportant [tm'pc:tent] o nalrnsrfiimported [rm'pc:trd] PP nnosuusrfiimpossible [rm'pcsrbl] a neaoarvrolrurrft r

impossibly [rm'pcslbltl adu rreBosMotftHo i]i

impress [Im'pres] u uporroBoArlrb B[errarJrer{ue i

imprison [Im'pnzn] u saKriotlarb B TropbMy {

improve [rm'pru:v] u YJryqurarb I

improved.[lm'pru:vdl pp VlWmennrrfi )

improvement [lm'pru:vment] n yJryrrrrreur4e )

lllrPluYsrueu! Lrrrr

inclination [,rnklt'neiln] n cxJroHrrocrbinclude [rn'klu:d] u BrcJrrotrarbincome ['rnkem] n AoxoAincrease [rn'kri:s] u yBeJrutrrrBarbincreasingly [ln'kri: sn:/rrf adu acd 6orlrrrre ra 6onuueindeed [rn'di:d] adu s caMoM AeJre' AeficrsuteJrbHoindented [rn'dentld] PP uspesarindependence [,rnda'pendens] n fresaBncrrMocrb i

independent [,rndependant] cl rreoaBr4craurrfi l

independently [,rnde'pendenth] adu EesasuclrMoindividual [,rndr'vrdjuel] o rzrnqvBlzqya-nrnrrfi ; n r4rrAlrBl

AYYM, rreJroBeK

indivisible [.rndt'vrzlbl] a ne4enraurrfiindustrial [rn'dnstnal] a uporvrrrm.nennsrfiindustrialist [rn'dlstrrahst] n ilpoMbrruJrenHrrx

424

industrialization [rn,d,lstnalar'zerJn] n rrn,qycrprraJrr{sarlr4alndustrialized I m'd,rstnel atzdl pp up oMbrruJr ennrrftindustry [\ndastrr] 4 rpoMbrruJrerruocrblnefficiently [, rne'fi J anthf a du neeQQercrrrBrr o, HeAocra-

TOqHO

infant school [\nfent'sku:l] urco.ua AJrfl caMbrx MaJrenbxrrxinfectious [rn'fekJes] o lrnQercqraonnrrfi, eapaenrrfiinflation [rn'flerJn] n nngr.a:qnainfluence ['rnfluens] n BJrtrfir.neinfluential [.rnflu'en ]al) a nnnsre.rrsnrrfiinformation [,rnfe'merJn] n unQopmaquninhabit [m'habrt] u Hacerrarbinhabitant [rn'hebrtent] z o6rnrarenrinherit [m'hent] u HacJreAoBarbinheritor [rn'hente] n HacJregrrnrinitiative [r'nrJ etrv] n ttntrq*rarrrBainjustice [rn'dgnstrs] n HecnpaBeAJrr{Bocrbinland ['Inlend] o pacnoJroxcennrrfi Bnyrp]t crparrlrinnovation [,rne'verJn] z noaoBBeAenr{einsist [rn'srst] u HacranBarbinstability [,rnste'brlrtr] n necra6ra;rbnocrb, neycrofi-

III4BOCTb

instance ['mstens]: for instance Hanpr{Mepinstead of [rn'sted sv] nuecroinspire [rn'spare] u BAoxHoBJrffTbinstruction [rn'strnkJn] n uncrpyrcrlr{fiinstrument ['lnstrumant] z urrcrpyMeHTinsurance [rn'Juerens] n crpaxoBaHneintegral [\ntegral] a HeorteM.neuufi, oyrq€orneHnrrftintegral part ['rntegrel'po:t] HeorbcMJt€MaF rtRc'nintellectually [,rnte'lektjueh] adu n*TeltJt€ KT,y u rr bnointelligent [rn'tehd3ent] a paByMHNftinterfere [,lnte'fie] u BMeruHBatDotinterference [,rnte'fiarens] €f,hcTbointernational [,rnte'naJnal Hepo7lrr,rftinterpret [rn'te:prrt] u nnrepnp€Tllp€Eat,l,interrupt [,rnte'vrpt] u npopuaefb

425

EHI4E

iron [aren] n xeleaoi"""il"Uv [ar'rcnrkh] adv upour4rrecKll

island ['allend] n ocrpoB

;;l;t"h [arse'iertrd] pp usottvrpoBa*r{brr4

J

Kkeen [ki:n] o ocrPufi' tonxraft

426

keep [ki:p] (kep!, kept) u Aep]Kuttrl l([rHtsHTE

kept [kePt] cae. keeP

key [ki:] n KJrIoq

knife [narfl n Ho'K

,Llluboo""" ['lerbere] n pa6otrwrx -

lack [lrek] ,, *"*-"ut"a; u rdMerb rreAocrarorluo rlero-

nn6Ygrlad flred] n napegblaid tlerdl cru.laYtain [lern] cn.lie

last [lo:st] u rpoAoJr)na1b:fli"tirlrJ ptace

^['lo : stn'1'pi: s] upounuft wrrap

Iatitude ['latrtju:d] n ruupora

laugh [lo:fl u cMefirbcfllaw [1c:] n saxorr' rpaBolawful ['lc:ful] cr saKorrrbrr/t

427

I'

irl'!

1

I

{

kill tkrll u Y6ranatr;-r-jrt,l'-^l , no6nstfi: n BrrA' PoA![i"a-[karnd] o go6pufi; n BrrA' pol

Ititg[krq]nrtoporlbIti"Eab* ['krqdam] n KoporleBcrBo

'ktt"e [ni:] n Korrerro

knew [nju:f cn' know

lawyer ['lcje] n topncrlay [er] (laid, laid) u Krlacrb, BosJlararblay [er] cn.lielay out ( a porh) .paa6znars (naprc )Iayer ['lere] n crotrtlead [ed] n cBuueqlead [i:d] (led, led) u Becrrr /leader- ['li:de] n B-orrcAb, pyrcoBo4lrreJrbleadership ['li:deJrp] n pyrcoaoAcraoleading principles ['li:drr1'punsrplz] pyKoEoAs

rrprrEquubrlearn [a:n] (learnt, learnt) u yqrrrb, ysnaBarblearned man ['le:rud'mren] yrduufi rIeJroBeKlearnt [e:nt] cm.learnleast [i:st]: at least uo rpaftneft uepeleather ['le6e] n Korrcaleave [i:v] (left, left) u ocraBJrflrb' rrorcr4Aarb,lecture ['lektJe] n Jre:rcwls; u rllrrarb nerqrrroled [ed] ctt..leadleft fieft] cn.leaveleft fleft] a ner.sttrtleft-wing fleft'wry] a resbrtrr (o nonr.rrr.recKoM,4Br4ulegal ['li:gal] o saxonsbrfilegion ['li:fien] n nrernorlegisl ative ['ledgrsl a tw.l a B aK oEoAaretsnrrfilegislature ['led3IsleItJa] z BaKoxoAareJrbcrBoleisure ['le3e] n orAbrx, cso6oAnoe BpeMffIend [lend] (lent, lent) u AaBarb ssafiNrbllength [eq0] n Arrunalent [ent] cu.lendlesser ['lese] a uenrruzfilevel ['level] n ypoBeEbliberal ['hberel] a tu6epanrnrrfiliberalism ['hberehzml n nu6eparrlroMliberation flrbe'rerJn] z ocso6o*cAerrueliberty'['hbatr] n cso6o4a

428

ry ['larbrenl n 6n6nnorena[ar] (lay, lain) u rrexcarb

fe [lafl n rrrraHbft Urftl n nla@r; u rloAnlrMarb

Itarll n rKrrsHbfifi] z nraQr; u rloAnlrMarbt [att] n cBer; u ocBerqarbing ['lartrq] z ocaeuleulre

ke [atk] u.nro6urr, HpaBurbcake tlarkl DreD r"arc[ark] prep r"ar"ikely ['larklr] a noxo]Kemit ['lrmrt] u orpaxuqrrBarb

ted ['lrmrt:,df pp orpaur4qesnrrfi[arn] n lr.rnvrs, crpoqKa['larne] z.nafinep

[rqk] n cBEByIouIee eBeuocub ['laren'krtb] n Jrsstiuor[hst] z currcor

ten [hsn] u crryluarbstener ['hsne] n cJryruareJrbteracy ['htaresr] n rpaMorlrocrbiterate ['htent] a rpamotnuftiterature ['htretJa] n ntrreparypa

[oud]urpyarrrb;zrpya['loudld] pp Harpyxcennr'rfi

al ['loukel] o uecrnrrftted [lc'kertrd]pp: were located 6srnu pacuoJrotrceubl

[ck] n oaMor; u saurlparblocksmith ['lcksmI0] rt cJrecapblogic ['lcdgtk] n JrorI4Kalonely ['lounh] a o4nnor<uitlong-standing ['lcq'strendrq] a Aar.r.uir.look for ['luk fc:] u rlcrcarblook after ['luk o:fte] u rpr4cMarplrBarb, yxa]fiI{Barbloophole ['lu:phoul] n 6oirnn4a, au6paeypalose [u:z] (lost, lost) u repflrbloss [cs] n rrorep,filost [cst] cn. lose

429

lot [ct]: a lot wrnoroloudly ['laudh] adu rpovrrcolover ['L,rve] n nto6nreJrb, BoaJlro6;rennrrfilow [ou] a law.snuirlow-cost ['lou'kcst] a Aeuriiarrfilowland ['loulend] n HI{BMeHHocrblow.paid ['louperd] a Hr,tarcoourauvaaeurrfrloyalty ['lcreltr] rL Beprrocrb, rpeAanrioctrluckily ['lzrkrh] adu t< cqacrbK)lungs [,r02] z niirucue

Mmachine [me'Ji:n] n Marrrrrnamachinery [ma'Ji:nart] n wrarunnrrmade [merd] cm. makemagical ['mredgIkel] a nonme6nrrfimagnificent [meg'rufisnt] a BeJlraroJrennrrfimagnifying glass ['mregnIfatrrl'glo:s] yBeJrnq

CTCKJIO

main [meIn] a rJrasHrrfimainly ['mernh] adu rnasr.rru o6pasowrmaintain [mern'tetn] u noAAep]rcr4Barb, coxpan

coAeprrcarb B xopoueM cocrofiHlrprmaintaining [mern'terruq] n coAepxcanr{e B

cocTo,fiHr[rtmajor ['merd3o] a r.nasHBrftmajority [ma'dgcntl] n 6onttu4HcrBomake sure ['merk'Jua] y6e4ntrcsmake up ['merk'np] (made up, made up) u cocraB.manage ['mrnId3] u yAaBarbcs

map [mrep] z rcaptamapmaker ['mrepmerka] n raptorpa$

430

rnarch [mo:tJ] n troxoA; u ruararb, ilAEDt uepu€Hmarijuana [,men'hwo:na] n Map[xyaHamarine [me'ri:n] o uopcrcofimarked [mo:kt] pp o6oanaveunrrfi, orMeqcHHbtfimarket ['mo:krt] n pbrrroxmarketplace ['mo:krtplers] n pbrnormarriage ['mrerrd3] n cyupy]KecrBo, ceueftna,s ECnoHbmarried ['mend] pp )rcenar, BaMy)KeMmarry ['mren] u )rcenurbcs, BbrxoAlrrb BaMytKmartyr ['mo:te] n Myirenunmassive ['mresrv] o NracclrsHrrftmaster ['mo:ste] n Macrep, xossrarr; u oBJraAerbmasterpiece ['mo:stepi:s] n rueAeBpmaterial [me'trenel] n MarepnaJr; a MarepuaJrrnrrfimathematics [,me0e'mretrks] n MareMarr.rxamatter ['mate] n Marepnamature [me'tjue] o apearrfimaze [merz] z na6rapunrmeadow ['medou] n Jryr.meal [mi:l] n eqa, trprreM nr4rr{Ltmean [mi:n] (meant, meant) u nMerb B BrrAy, roApaoy-

MEBATbmeaning ['mi:nrq] n Buarreuuemeans [mi:nz] n: by means of npu rroMoultrmeant [ment] cM. meanmeanwhile ['mi:nwai] adu Me)rcAy reM; reM BpeMeHeMmeasure ['mege] n Mepameat [mi:t] n M,flcomedical supplies ['medrkel se'plarz] MeArrrILrHcK]re

rrprlHa,qJrelKHocTr4medicine ['medsrn] n Me4:,z.\lr.rra; JrerapcrBomedieval [.medr'i:vel] a cpe4neserosrrfimeet [mi:t] (met, met) u Bcrperrarbmember ['membe] n qJrenmemory ['mem-en] n rraMflTbmention ['menJn] u yrroMrruarb

411

merchant ['me:tJent] n Kyreqmerciless ['ma:sllrs] a 6esfr<a:locrnlrfimerry ['merr] a r,ecerrrfi.met [met] cn. meetmetal ['metel] z MeraJrJrmethod ['meOed] n MeroAmice [mus] ci]t. mousemiddle [mtdl] n cepe4vrll.amiddle class ['mIdl'klo:s] cpeguufi Krraccmidnight ['mrdnalt] n rroJruotlbmight [mart] n MoIrIbmighty ['maItr] a rvrorqnrrftmild [marld] a msrrcraftmilitary ['mrlrten] a soeHHrrfimilk [mIlk] n MorIoKomince pies ['mlns'parz] cJraAKne rrr4po]rcrctr c

raa Qpyxronmind [marnd] n YMmine [marn] n fir.axra; u 4o6rrnatr (uto-nu6ygr us'

eervrrnr) rlminer ['marne] n uraxrep {t

mineral resources ['mtnerel n'sc:srz] rroJreoHbre racnQ

IIAEMbIEminiature ['mmjatie] n MnHr4arropaminimal ['mrnlmsl] a v'vr:rvrmanrnrrfiminister ['mrnrste] n MrrHLtcrPminor ['marne] 4 MeHbrul4it, rtanr;ttrminstrel ['mrnstrel] n MeHecrpeJrbmiraculous [mr'rrekjules] a uy4ecnrrfimirror ['mIre] n seprcaJromiserable ['mlzerebl] a Hec'ractnrrfimisery ['mIz Hecrracrbemisfortune eyAarramissionary cr'rouepmistake [mrs'terk] n onru6rtamistletoe ['mlsltou] n oMerra

$2

mix with ['mrks wr6] crvrerur{Barbc,H cmixed forest ['mrkst'fcnst] crvreruannrrri .necmixture ['mrkstJe] n cMecbmoat [mout] n poBmodern ['mcden] o coBpeMenHmilmodest ['mcdrst] a cnpounuftrnodification [,mcdrfi'kerJn] R naoTlr.rtlr]rxarlufi, Br4Ao-

}ISMEHCHrIEmoisture ['mcrstJe] n BJraramole [moul] n Kpormonarch ['mcnek] n Mouapxmonarchy ['mcnekr] n Mouapxutrmonastery ['mcnestan] n uouacrrilphmoney ['m,rnr] n Aerrbrrrmonk ['mnqk] n Monaxmonopoly [me'ncpch] n MoHonorrflmonument ['mcnjument] z rraMf,Tutlt(moon [mu:n] n Jrylaamoor [mue] n [ycrbrura^fi MecrHocrt nopooulaff BepecICoMmop [mcp] n mna6parnoral ['mcrel] a uopa.nurrrfimortal ['mc:tel] a crreprnrrftmostly ['mousth] adu 6otrcllteft qact'r,K)

motherland ['ml6alend] n poArrnamotor-bike ['moutebark] n Mororl]rnJrmotor-car ['mouteko:] n Marrrlruamotor-cycle ['moutesatkl] n MoroqurcJrmountain ['mauntin] n ropamountainous ['mauntrnes] a ropracrr,tilmourn [mc:n] u orJraxnBarbmouse [maus] (nn. y. mice) Mbrrubmoustache [rne'sto:J] n ycbrmouth [mau0] n ycrbemove [mu:v] u ABrrrarbcamovement ['mu:vment] n gnuxcenneMP ['em'pi:] vaen rapJraMeuTa

t

II

{tl

mud [mrrd] n rpaermultiply [?nalfiplad u yBeJrurrrrBarbmurder ['ma:de] u y6ur,arr;, n yduircrromusic ['mju:zrk] n MyBbIKamusical ['mju:srkl] n MK)BrrKJrmusician [mju'zdn] n Mysbrxaurmystery ['mtsten] n rairla'a I

Nnail [nerl] n rBoBAb

nationalized ['neJ nelarzdJ p p Ha\norraJl r4orrpoB aHH

narrator [ne'rette] n paccKaarrtTr ta

naval ['nerval] a BoeuHo-rvropcxofinavigable ['nrevIgsbl] a AocryrrHrrfi 4"ua HaBlTraqnnnavy ['nervr] n Boerruo-rvrop6xofi Snotnearby ['mebar] adu to1nr{Bocrlt

,tnearly ['nreh] adu toqrla , r

necessary ['nesesn] a neo6xoAraurrfi !

necklace ['nekhs] n oxcepeJrbe - :

need [ni:d] n Ey]r'Aai u Hyrrcgarbcnnegative ['negetrv] o orpr{qatelrnsrfineighbour ['nerbe] n coce4neighbouring ['nelbanrll a coceAcxufinephew ['nevju:] n rrJreMsHHr{Knest [nest] z rnee4o; u rlreoAvtrbcfi, crpours rni!network ['netwe:k] n cerbneutral ['nju:trel] a nefirpa.nrsrrfineutralize ['nju:helavl u nefirpaauaoBarb

434

neutron ['nju:tren] n nefitponnewly ['nju:h] adu nll.or;rnews [nju:z] n HoBocrunickname ['ruknerm] lz upoaBrarrlenightfall ['nartfc:l] n HacryrrrreHrre Horrr{nobility [nou'brlrtr] n BHarbnoble [noubl] a 6naropo4nrrfi; n ABopnHr,rHnoise [ncrz] n ruyMnonconformist ['ncnken'fc:mrst] a nonroneopurncrcrnft ,

pacKonbuz.recxrafinon-true to life ['ncn'tru:ta'larfl nepea.nrurrfi, Herftr4g-

nennrrfinorth [nc:O] n. ceBepnorth-western ['nc:0'westen] a ceBepo-aaua4nrrfiNorthwest ['nc:0west] o ceaepo-sana4nrrfinoticeable ['noutisebl] a sarvrerurrftnovel ['ncvel] n poMarrnovelist ['ncvehst] n poManlrcrnowadays ['nauederz] adu s Harue BpeMffnuclear ['nju:khe] a a4epnrrfinumber ['nrmbe] n 'tvlcJro, HoMep; u Hacru4TbrBarbnumerous ['nju:meres] a lrnorosrac"uennrrfinurse [ne:s] n lafilafi-, MeArtqraucraff cecrpa; u yxa]Krr-

Barb Ba 6orgrrrrrvrz

ooak [ouk] n Ay6oats [outs] n onecobedience [e'bi:djens] n rocrryru anereobey [e'ber] u cnyruarbcsobservation [.cbze'v et[n) n na6.rrro4erureobserve [eb'se:v] u na6nro4arrobserver [eb'se:ve] n nadnrogareJrbobvious ['cbvres] a ouenz4nrrfioccupation [,ckju'pelnf n saHfirrae, orrcyrraqr{Eoccupy ['ckjupar] u saHr4Marb, oKryrrr/rpoBarb

19s

occur [a'ke:] u cJryqarbcff, [poucxoArrrbocean [ouJn] n orceanocear,ic climate [ouJr'anrk'klarmrt] oKeanrqecK[

KJII{MAToffend [e'fend] u o6vtratsoffer ['cfe] u upeAJlararb; n upeAJlo]rcenlre

organize ['c:genaz] u opraHrrsoBbrBarborigin ['cnd3rn] n rpoucxo)rcAenueoriginal [e'ndgrnel] a opzrwnatrcurrfi , nepRoHaqa.nts utfioriginally I a'ndgrnah] adu opulrHaJrbHo, IrepBouaq aJ b Hooriginate [e'ndgrnert] u npozcxoArrrborthodox ['c:Oedcks] o rpaBocrrasrrrftotherwise [',r6ewarz] adu unaraeotter ['cte] z BbrApaoutbreak ['autbrerk] n Bcrrblrurcaoutlet ['autlet] n BbrxoAoutnumber [aut'nrmbe] u upeBocxoAI4Tb trrrcJroM

outpost ['autpoust] n aBanrrocroutside ['autsard] adu nlae, cHapy)rcer, Hapyxcyoutskirts ['autske:ts] n rpeAMecrbfloutstanding [aut'standr4] a BbrAaroquiltcaoven [rrvn] n AyxoBKaoverboard ['ouvebc:d] adu sa 6opr, aa 6oprouovercrowded [ouve'kraudld] a [eperroJrnennrrfioverhang [ouve'heq] (overhung, overhung) u Hetf€tFEoverhung [ouve'hrrq] c"u. overhangoverlook [ouva'luk] u BbrxoAr{rb oHHaMn Ha, r'ocrlopO?F

BaTb HaAovernight [ouve'nart] adu wa Hoqboverseas [ouve'si:z] a aavropcrcrafioverthrew [ouve'Oru:] cu. overthrowoverthrow [ouve'Orou] (overthrew, overthrOtEl v

cBeprHyTboverthrown [ouve'Oroun] c",2. overthrowowing to ['oulq te] 6naro4ap,fl, ero-Ba, BcJreAcTllFown [oun] a co6crsenxrrfi; u BJraAerbownership ['ounaJrp] n nna4enze

Ppagan ['pergen] n .sobrrrHtrKpage [perft] n crpaHrrqa, ra]Kpaid [perdl cn. pay

ilI

offic-er ['cfisp] z o@ur1ep, qrrHoBHr{K li

official [a'fiJalJ a o$zqranrnrrfi; n o@w4vra:l.bnoe rruqcofficially [a'fiJeh] adu o@uglrarrbuo lr

often lcfnf adu qacroota-faihioned ['ould'freJnd] a ctapomo4nrrfi r'

open [oupn] o ornpbrrurit; u ornpblBarb"open-air ['oupn'ee] a Ha orrcpbrroM BosAyxe I

openly ['oupnh] adu otxPuto r

opera ['cpra] n orlepaoperation [,cpe'rerJn] n orepaqvfl r.

opinion [a'prnjen] n Mrreur.Ie I

opium ['oupram] n ouuyM i

opportunity [,cpe'du:rutl] tt BoaMo)rcnocrb' rrp€.{cr&rsusrufifica c.n5nrafi

oppose [e'pouz] u rporrrBocroffrbopposed [e'pouzd]: be opposed to 6utr nporllBopposite ['cpezrt] rl rporrrgononoxcnrrftopposition [.cpe'zIJn] n onnoeerrytfi.oppress [o'pres] u" npfirecHffrboppression [e'preJn] n fipvrrecneHrleoppressor [a'prese] n yruerareJlb' rrpr{TecHureJrborangery ['cnnd3err] z opan]rcepe,florchard ['c:tJad] z Spyrcronrrfi ca4order ['c:da] u [purKaabrBarb, SaKasbrBarb; n rrpraKaSt

3aKa3in order AJrff Toro qro6rr

ordinary ['c:dnerr] o o6rr'rHrrfi, o6rrruoseumrfiore [c:] n pyqaorgan ['c:gen] n opraH torganization [,c:genar'zerJn] n opraur{aarll'Ia

436 {r7

pain [pernl n 6onr Ipainful ['pernful] a 6o.neanennrrfi ,,1

paint [pemt] u Kpacr4Tb, rrncarb KpacKaMrl|painter ['pernte] n xyAo)rcurrr i

painting ['perntr4] n ]xvrr,ortucb, Kaprur{a i

palace ['prehs] n ABopeqparadise ['peredars] n pafi ipardbn [po:dn] u uporqarb; n uporqeurre, uuAyJrbrerrrlr4parents ['pee"rents] n po4nrerrkr ';

iarish t'pir"ll z ti"p*o"nufi upraxo4 ,l

parliament ['po:lement] z napnaMeurparliamentarian [,po:lemen'teensn] @ rapJraMeparliamentary monarchy [,po:1e'menterr'mcnakr] rapJr

MeHTapHaA MOIIapxI{,fl r

parrot ['paret] n nouyrafipart [po:t] n \acrb; u paccraBarbc,Eparticular [pa'trkjula] o oco6exnrrfi

in particular n oco6ennocruparticularly [pa'tikjulalrl adu ocg6enxo ,

partly ['po:tlr] adu ';,acruqla.opartner ['po:tne] z uaprniipparty ['po:tr] n uaprunpass [po:s] u npoxoArrrb MvrMo, nepeAaBarb

pass a bill ['po:s e'brl] upraruaMarb BaKoHorpoeKT ,,r

pass a law ['po:s e'lc:] npraru4Marb BaKoHpassage ['presrd3] n upoxoA ,v

passenger ['presrndge] n naccamzppasser-by ['po:se'bar] z upoxoxcufi ipassion [pre.|n] n crpacrbpastime ['po:starm] n rrplasruoe BpeMfirrpasture ['p-o:stJe] n nacrl:rrrrrepatch tpiijt ,'iunoar^; KrroqoK, ne6o.nrruofi y.racto

SEMJII4patron ['pertren] n rorpoBrrreJrbpattern ['preten] n yooppay [per] (paid, paid) u rJrarLrrb

438

payment ['perment] n firarapeace [pi:s] n uuppeaceful ['pi:sful] a urapnrrfipeak [pi:k] n trvrr, Beprurina-pear [pee] n rpyruapeasant [peznt] n Kpecrb,flnr{Hpeer [pre] n reppenetrate ['pemtrert] u upoHrrxarbpeninsula [pe'mnsjule] z uonyocrpoBpenny [penr] n rreHHrIpeople [pi:pl] nroArrper cent [pe'sent] npoqenrperform [pa'fc:m] u [peAcraBJrffTb, craB]rrb cue*Ta*Jrbperformance [pe'fc:mens] n npeAcraBJreH]re, c[eKTaKJIbperiod ['plened] n repr4oAperish ['p"nj] u nortr6arrpermisiiot 1p"'-rJtr] n paspeurerrraepersecute ['pe:sekjut] u upecJreAoBarbperson [pe:sn] n Jrrrrruocrb, rIeJroBeKpersonal [pe:snel] a :nusttritirpersuade [pe'swerd] u yroBopr4ts, y6eAurrphilosopher [fi'lcsefe] n $rnocoQphilosophy [fi'lcsafi] z Qra.nocoQraaphysical ['fizrkl] a Qusu.re cxuir.physics ['fizrks] n Suelz,xapicnic ['ptkmk] rL rrrrKHLtKpi"t o"e-"'-que [, pIktJe'resk] .o xczsonucuhlftpiece [pi:s] n KycoKpierce [pres] u uponrrxarb, rrpouaarbpig [prg] n cBnnbnpigsty ['pIgstaI] n cBrrHaprrLTKpilgrim ['prlgnm] n nrarrrrrprrMpil grima ge ['prlgrrm fi3f n rraJroMrrrlrlecrB opilot ['parlet] n fivrnror, JroqMaHpin [pm] z 6ynanrcapine [parn] z cocna

479

pirate ['parertt] n fivpa'tplace [plers] rL Mecro; u roMelrlarbplague [pletg] n rlyMaplain [pleIn] n paBllvllaaplanet ['plemt] n rJlaneraplant [plo:nt] n pacrerrze; u ca]rcarb

itantaTion 1plren'terin] n n.nanrarrlrnplay [pleI] u urparb; n rbecaplaywright ['plelrart] n ApaMaryplrpleasant [pleznt] a upraatnufipleasure ['plege] n yAoBoJrbcrBrleplot [plct] n BaMbrcen (ponarua), aaronopplough [plau] u raxarbploughman ['plaumen] n naxaPrplum [pl,rm] n clrvrBapocket ['pcktt] n KaPMaHpoet ['poult] z noatpoetry ['portrl] n fioesvfl.point [pcInt] n Mecro, roqKa; u yxaobrBarbpole [poul] n urect, rroJlroc -

police [pe'li:s] n fionrvfi\ns.policy ['pchsr] n fiorrvrrvrnapolitical [pe'lrtrkel] a nolrvrrvrrecKnfipolitically [pe'lrtrkeltl a du rrorlt4 rllqecK I4

politician [,pch'tlJn] n fiolrvrrvrnpolitics ['pclrtrks] n rtorrvrrvLnapolytheistic [,pch0i:'rstrk] a rrorlr4relr cruuecwtrir,

eepaqzft Bo Muorrax 6oronpoor [puef a 6egurlirpop

"otto"e ['pcp'krltJe] non KyJrbrypapoppy ['pcpl] z MaKpopular ['pcpjule] o roryrrnpnrrfipopularity [,pcpju'lantr] n rloryJlffpxocrbpopulation [,pcpju'ledn] z HaceJreurdeport [pc:t] n^roprportion [pc:Jn] n nopqI,IE

440

pqrtrait ['pc:tnt] n nol)rporaTh

E, llilJlft*FEitts€HHF

possibility [.pcsr,brrrtr] r r,J;[Hflil,,l.=possible ['pcsrbl] a BosMonrHhtH-'-="'post [poust] z nocr, uort,t.6postag

1io-"Tluto'lJfttllHr H'=ii'r€FiFrrrr.E,,,/rr,rpotato uzf n Hu;l,r,,lttralte '

povert n Hr/rule't,ilpower [paue] n cvrra, BJrnel,bpowerful [,paueful],a clrJn,uutfl, Hfelr*tHH F,lr.t l,practical_ ['praktrkl]

_o_ trpn rtrrr r,boiri Ipractical_ly ['prektrklfl ad u trpailTHqEF*H

practic_e [,prrektrs] n frpaK't,trKai u npg=_HtsH€a rr,r_rrpraise [prerz] u xBaJrrrrb "lpray [prer] u MoJrr.rrbcffprayer ['prere] rL MoJrLrrBapreach [pri:tJ] u rporoBeAonn,t,hpredict {pn'drkt] u rpeAcKa0r,t nfl,rFpredominalce [prr'dcmrnorrs] n lrlteo6lagFHHeprefer [prr'fa:] u [peAnoqr/rrll,r,l,prehis_toric [.prrhr stcrrk] a Aorr(:,t,ollHrtFFFHHprejudice ['pred3adrs] n npe41lr,,,,,yti,,o'

*""prepare [pn'pee] u roroBrrrbpresence ['prezens] rL [p]rcyreTnHepresent [,prezant] a rprrcyrcrnytoulltHr H]ilHEtfi Hii*ipresent [_pn'zent] D Aapprrb, npo/l,niu,,at,upresent_day [,preznt,der] o

""i,,uinn,,H, o,l,Hrtr,elnititr rrK HaruI4M AHfiMpreserve [prr'ze:v] u coxpaHffTr)press [pres] r? upeccapretext [pn'tekst] n rpeAJrorprevail [prr'vell] u rpeo6rraAarbprevailing [prr'velhq] a upeo6la4nrorrlrrfl

{{t

prevalence ['prevelens] z upeo6.ua4arrlreprevent [pn'vent] u upeAorBpaularb, He AaBarb rrer

larr.6ygs cJrytrrlrbcfipreviously ['pri:vreslt'l adu npeABapureJrbno :

price [prars] n qeua r

pride [prard] z ropAocrbpriest[pri:st]n cB,firrlerrHr{K .. l

primary ['prarman] a rrepBurrurtfi, na.ra.nsnufi .]

primary -educati-o'n ['prarmerr.edju'kerJn] naua

o6paaouanraeprime minister ['prarm'mrnrste] npeubep-Mnuucrpprimitive ['pnmrtrv] o rrp]rMrrrrarnrrfi, nepno6srrnuprince [pnns] ,x upuuqprincess [pnn'ses] n rp?rnqeccaprinciple ['pnnsrpl] n nprrnqr(nprint [pnnt] u reqararbprinting ['prrntrq] n Kn]rrorreqaraHLreprison [pnzn] z rropbMaprisoner ['pnzna] n fiJrela,nvtK, BarcJTr)rrdnnrrfi B Troprprivate ['prarvrt] a .ractnrrfiprivately ['prarvrtlr] adu s.acrla.uu o6paeou tprivileged['pnvrhdgdfppnpuwrrrernpoBannrrfi iprize [praz] n llp:as I

probably ['prcbebh] adv sepoarno ,r

procedure [pra'si:dge] n npoqeAypa ;

process ['prouses] n rpoqecc r

irocession lptr'siJnl z upoqeccrrn iproclaim [prs'klerm] u npoBoorJraruarb ,

produce [pra'dju:s] u rpor{BBo4nrbi n rrpo4yxr ',

producer [pre'dju:se] n uporroBoAr{reJrb

professor [pre'fese] z upoQeccopprofit ['prcfit] n BbrroAa

442

profitable ['prcfitebl] o BbrroAnbrfi

.. r,,ilr,oll

r

Aaroqrlftcfi , ,,rrtb; z o6eqaHne

promote [pre'mout] u cuoco6crBoBarb, coAeftorloElrbpronunciation [pre,nrrnsr'erJn] n upo]rarrorueurreproor 1pru:tJ n AorcaaareJrbcrBoproper.['p_rcpe] o 4onxcurrfi , no4o6aroqufiproperty ['prcpatr] n co6crseHnocrbpropose [pre'pouz] u npeAJrararbproprietor_[pre'prarete] n nnageJreqprosecute ['prcsrkju:t] u, nnecne4oBaTb ro sanoHyllosecu!.ion. [.prcsr'kju:Jn] n cy4e6noe upecrreAoBaur{eprosperity [pre'sperrtr] z upoqrerarrue

oqnerarorquftE

aHa, Sarrlr4Ta

prove [pru:v] u AorcaobrBarb

pudding ['pudrq] n rry1vrntpull [pul] u raIqr{rb

qurify ['pjuerrfar] u oquqarrPuritanism ['pjueutenrzm] n ilypvrrarrcrBopurpose ['pe:pes] z rleJrbpursue [pe'sju:] u npecJreAoBarb (qeas), BaHr,rMarbca

44)

IICM-JIU6O

a

queen [kwi:n] n KoPoJIeBa ..

o="i"t [l*aret1 a cnoxoftnrtft' rnxuirquietly ['kwaieth] adu cnor<oftno' rl4xo

R

rabbit ['rcbrt] n KPoTIIIK

race [rers] ! Pacaracial ['relJel] 4 PacoBbII{radical ['raedlkel] a pa4vr"aJrbr{brlr

radicaliim ['rredrkalzm] n pa4urcarrnIsM

BATOH

""ii*"V t"acks ['retlwer'traks] ]r(eJIeBHoAopo]rcubre ryrtl

rain [rem] n 4ox4rrainbow ['rernbou] n PaAYrarainfall ['relnfc:l] ru ocaAKIa

rainY ['rernr] o Ao]r(AJrrrBbr]1raise [rerz] u roAHI4Marbraisins f'revtnzl a vrsrou

444

ran [rrn] crl. rlnrang [rren] cM. trtrgrange [reInd3] n xpe6ct'rapid ['reprd] a 6trcrlrt't llrapidly ['raprdk] adD 6r,rc't'1xtrare [reeJ a pe1xvrir.raspberries ['ro:zbartz] n mtt"rt u nnrat [ret] n Kpblcarather ['ro:6a] odu 4ono.rlt,uttrather than ['ro:da 6en] t:lcopon 'tHMrationing ['rreJanrq] n pacupo/l€lriltllF, FE Frir--tr rlri rIr,Irr!1 ,

paqr4oHaravine [re'vi:n] rL oBparraw [rc:] a crrpofiray [rer] n.Jlyrrreach [ri:tJ] u Aocrvtarbreadily ['redrh] adu c loroBll(x:'l,hrlready ['redr] a roroBreal [rrel] o peaJlbublft, nactocttlHHrealistically [ne'hstrkeh] adu pF€ n]tGTHaHHrealize ['rrelarz] u fronrtMarb, l)€HJnlEltaa+Ereally ['neh] adu geft.craureJrr,Horeappear [.rre'pra] u BHoBb rronHJtrltbeEreason [ri:zn] n [prqrrHa, pnryMrebel [n'bel] u BoccraBarbrebel [rebl] n rloBcraHeqrebuild [,rr'brld] (rebuilt, rclrrrlltl tr €FHEG ] il,r,11sp,

IIepecTparrBaT6rebuilt [,rr'bIlt] c'v. rebuildrecall [,rr'kc:l] u BcrIoMI4HarLreceive [rr'si:v] u rroJryrrarb, npnHHHef€recent [ri:snt] a ueqanlauft.recite [n'sart] u AeKJIaMupoBn'r'r,recognition [,rekag'nrJn] n npHlHHIH€recognize ['rekegnalz] u yanann't'br 6FH€EEEEi]reconsider [,rtken'slde] u nepc(!MH,t'pHEgtE

{{=

crpyKrllrflrec-;;; Gl'knve] u ronpa rJrsrbc'fl (uocae 6oneanu) '

"""o"""V [n'krven] " o-ottp""*a (noc;re 6o1"T1]--,-:

reconstruction [.rrkan'strrkjn] z uepectpofixa'

;;;;"it in''kru:tl u nalupars (4o6posorlbqeB B apMIrI

reduce [rI'dju:s] q YMeHbruarb '1

r"a""tio" in'drtkin] n yMerrbrrrer{rae

refer to [rffa: te] ccrr'narbcfi Ha' roBopltr oreform [itfc:m] n peQopua; u pe$opMrrpoBarbretorm lrl'fc:ml n peq'opu'', v PvtryvvLtL'L]'vvs.v

reformer [n'fc:me] n PeQoPuaroPrefugee [,iefiufii:] z 6erneq, 6exeneq )

refuse [n'fiu:z] u orxa3brBarbca;a;; tiigtt"i, rroJr)^rlrrb o6parno' BHoBb upzo6pec

reeard [rr'qo:d] u paccMarprrBarb' ctrurarb

reject [n'd3ekt] u orKaabrBarbc'firejoice [rr'd3crs] u PaAoBarbc'Ereiatedln'lertrd]: be related rrMerb orr{ourenlle'

poAcrBeHHbrMrelations [rr'lelJnz].n orHotueuuffrelationship [rr'lerJnJrp] n otnoruerrr4n

relieve [rili:v] u o6ner''ratsreligion [rr'hd3en] n pertttvrfi'religious [rr'hd3es] a perultvtoBrrbrrr

reload [n'loud] u BHoBb Harpy]rcarb

remain [rr'mern] u ocraBarbcnremains [n'mernz] n ocrarrclt

446

remark [n'mo:k] n BaMeqaufiei u cAeJrarb saMerrarrrderemarkable [n'mo :kabl] o aarvre'rare.nsnrrfiremember [n'membe] u uouultrb, BcrIoMrrHaTbremembrance [rr'membrens] n rraMETb, BocrroMragagr4eremind [n'marnd] u HanoMlrHarbremote [n'mout] o ot4antlnnrrfiremove [n'mu:v] u y6rapatrrenaissance [rr'nersens] n peueccaHcrenewal [n'njual] n o6trosneunerent [rent] z penta; u 6parb r{auporcar, cguMarb

( rcaapmupy )reorganize [rI'c:genaz] u peoprarrrrooBarbrepair [rt'pee] u qurrr{Tb' peMorrrrrpoBaTbreplace [n'plers] u [epeMerrlarb, saMenffTbreply [n'plat] n orBer; u orBerlarbreport [rI'pc:t] n AoKJIaA; u AoKJraAbIBarb, coo6rqarrreporter [n'pc:te] z penoPrtiPreporting [rr'pc:trq] n sanfiTvtfi peuoprdpcnrrM AeJroMrepresent [,repn'zent] u npeAcraBJrflTb, 6srts upeAcraBn -

TEJIEMrepresentation [,repnzen'tedn] n rpeAcTaBl'rrerrLcrBorepresentative [,reprr'zentatrv] z upeAcraBlrreJrbreptile ['reptarl] n perrraJrtrff , npecMbrnarouleecffrepublic [rfp,r,bhk] z pecuy6.nnrcarepublican [rr'prrbhke.n] a pecny6nurcanocuftreputation [,repju'terjn] t penyraqrrnrescue ['reskju:]-u cuacarb; n cnacelrrleresearch [n'se:tJ] u ]rccJreAoBarb; n rrccJreAoBaglreresidence ['readans] n pesvAerrqr'rfiresign [rr'zaIn] u yxoArlTb B orcraBKyresignation [,rezlg'neIJn] n yxoA B orcraBrcyresistance [rr'zrstens] n conporrrBJleHl'Ieresort [rr'zc:t] n Kypopr ,respect [n'spekt] n yBa)rceuuei v yBatrcaTb

respected'[u'spektrd] pp yBarraeMblfiresponsibility [rrs,pcnsr'bIhtI] n orloTorlonuoerb

447

result [n'zrrlt] n peayJrbrar; u rrMerb pesyasratour',,,retain [n'tem] u coxpanflTb, yAepxcrrBarb ijretire [rr'tare] u yAaJrnrbctr or AeJrretreat [n'tri:t] u orcryrarbi n orcryrJrerruereturn [n'te:n] nz in return BsaMerrreunion [n'ju:nren] n BoccoeAr4neur,rerevenge [n'venft] n Mecrbreverse [n've:s] u nepeBepnyrb

responsible [rrs'pcnsrbl] a orBercrBennrrfirest [rest] tl. orAbrxthe rest ocraJrbnoe, ocraJrbHblerestaurant ['restrol] n pecropanrestoration-J,restaii"rjnl, p-""ta"puql4a, Boccran,

JICHT{E

restore [n'stc:] u BoccranaBJlrBarb .restrictibn [ristrrkJn] n orpannqenr{e

revive [rr'varv] u oxcrlBrrrb, Beprryrb K ]rcrdgnrlrevolt [rr'voult] u Bo:ccrarb; n Boccranlrerevolution [,reve'lu:Jn] z .peBoJrroq.n,ffrevolutiott""y 1,reve;lu:Jnerl a peBorlloquonnrrfi;

peBoJrroquoHeprevolutionize [,rive'lu:Jnarz] urevolve [rr'voulv] u Bparrlarbcflreward [rr'wc:d] n HarpaAaribbon ['uben] n rreularich [rrtJ] a 6orar:';rirridden [rrdn] cm. rideride [rard] (rode, ridden) u exarb, exarbridge [nfi] z Kpnnc, xpe6erright lrattf a upaurrfi; n rpaBorightly ['rartlr] adu npannJrbno, rro npaByright-wing ['rart'wn1] a npaarrfi (o rroJrr{rrrtrec$

4nuncenura) :

ring [nq] (rang, rung) u BBoHrrrbriot'['raretf n 6ynrrioter ['rarete] n 6yxronrqrarc

448

BepxoM

axtu.recxufi

EEI{Eoauufi, neoriicannsrfiuJroxa.E uoroAa (aerperraa,

KapyceJrb

e6uas JroAKau4.ff BJIaCTb, riJIeHbI KOpOJIeB_

449

scatter ['sketa] u pae6pacbrBarbscene [si:n] n crleHascenery ['si:nerr] n orpyrrarorqzfi Br{A, TearpaJrbnaff

AeKOpaqrrffscholar ['skcle] z yvdnsrfiscience ['salans] n lnaynascientific [,saran'fifik] o nayrnsrftscientist ['sarentrst] n 5nrdnrrfiscooter ['sku:te] n MoropoJrJrepscrub [skrnb] u crcpecrr4scurvy ['ske:vr] n quurasea [si:] tL Mopeseaman ['si:man] lz MopffKsearch [se:tJ] n; in search of s uozcnaxsea-robber ['si:,rcbe] n rvropcxofi paa6ofinzxseashore ['si:Jc:] tx Mopcnoft 6eperseat [si:t] n Mecro, Mecrorpe6rrnanr,resecondary education ['selenderr,edju'kerJn] cpeArree

o6paeonauzesecret ['si:krt] z cerper; a cercpernrrfisect [sekt] n cercrasecure [se'kjue] a 6eaonacnrrfi; u o6eeouacurrseem [si:m] u Kaaarbcflseize [si:z] u cxBarrrrbseldom ['seldam] adu pegxoselection [sr'lekJn] z or6opself-confident ['selfkcnfident] a yBepenusrfi s ce6eself-government.['self g,rvenment] cannoyrpaBJreHr.reselfishness ['selfiJnrs] z ero.ueuself-made man ['selfmerd'men] rreJroBeK, go6untrl;mirca

yc[exa cBoraMlr co6ctseuHbrMtr crtJraMr4self-respect ['self rr'spekt] n yBarrcenrae rc ce6esell [sel] (sold, sold) u npoAaBarbsemi-circle ['semr'se:kl] n roJryrpyrsend [send] (sent, sent) u nocbrJrarbsender ['sende] n ror, KTo nocbrJraer

451

rung [rnr1] caa. ringrural ['ru:rel] a ce:ntct<laitrush [rnJ] u Mqarbcarye [rar] n potrcb

rule [ru:l] u y[paBJrflTbi n rrpaBJreurle' rrpaBrlJro

ruler ['ru:la] n upaBlrreJrbruling class ['ru:lrr1'klo:s] npanaulnfi rnaccrun [rnn] (ran, run) u 6eram

run races ['rrrn'rersrz] 6erarr Ha[eperor{Kr,

S

sacred ['serkrrd] a caaulennsrfisacrifice ['sekrlfars] n lrceprBa; u trprlrrocr4rb B

saddle [saedl] n ceqrrosafe [serfl a 6eaonacsbrfisafety ['selftr] n 6esonacnocrbsail [serl] u rrJraBarbsailor ['seIle] n MoPflKsaint [sernt] n cr,srofr'sale [serl] n PacrpoAarrcasalesman ['serlzmen] n roproBeq' upoAaBeqsalt [sc:lt] n colrbsalute [se'lu:t] u orAaBarb caJrrorsandals ['srndelz] n cala4alrlnvrsandy ['srendr] o uec'ranrrfisang [srq] ctw. singsank [sreqk] c.re. sinksatirical [se'trnkel] a carlaplz.vecrcnfisatisfied ['sretlsfard] pp yryoBrrernopdnnrrfisauerkraut ['sauekraut] n rcnclaff Kanycrasave [sew] u cnacatrsave money ['serv'mnnt] rconurb AeHbrrlscale [skerl] n ;lr.acvtr.a6scarce [skees] a Pegxvrirscare [skee] u ryrarbscarlet ['sko:ht] a alnr;ttr

450

senior ['si:nre] a crapnfirvrsense [sens] n rryBcrBo

sent [sent] cz. sendsettt"ttce ['sentans] n upeAJroxceur4e ; v Epl{roBaprrBarb

TbVT

eniinnrtft

\,beSHO

serpent ['se:Pant] n sMea

servant ['se:vent] n cJryraserve [se:v] u cJryltcllTbservice ['se:vls] n er.Ytx6a

set [set] (set, set) u ycranaBJruBarb

set out ['set'aut] orrrpaBJlfiTbcfiset up ['set'rrp] ycrar{aBJlrrBarb

."ttr" irltr] u-y"rpa"Barbca, o6ocnosHBarbca'SaceJLfiTb' IloceJlff Tbcff

settlement ['sethnant] n nocdlon' saceJlenrre

settler ['setle] n rocerrerreqsevere [sr'vre] o caraPenufi

JrrrSaqr4a

) u rPacur' Kaqarb' Apo)fiarb

Pnrrfi, uoctrr4nrrftAOJIffnuir

] z onqeroAcrBorrbfl ruKypaKpbrBaTbcff

faTb

452

shin uship e

ship rl 'rl rcopa6necrpor-

MafaBLIHa

sickness ['srknrs] n 6o.neanrside [sard] n 6orc, cropoua

side by side ['sard bar'sard] 6ox-o.6eHsigh [saI] u BoAbrxarbsight [saIt] n BnA, Bpenraesightseer ['sart.si:e] n ror, Kro ocMafpnFe* HHF t.rr !il

MEqATEJIbIIOCTITsign [sarn] n uo4nracbrBarbsignal turret ['slgnal't,rret] crnrna.nsHFF EgE|€€significance [srg'nrfikens] n BHarreH*Esilent ['sarlent] d MoJrlraJrIanHfi, rnrElsilver ['srlve] n cepe6posimilar ['srrnrle] o roxox(rrfi, rarofi f,€

{?1

similarly ['srmrleh] adu uoxo'tclrM o6paaowr

simple [srmPl] 4 rrpocro

sin [sln] n rpexsince [srns] PreP csincerity [srn'srentt] n ucrpeHuocrbsinful ['srnful] o rpexoBnbrnsing tsiql (sang, sung) u rlerb.

single [srrgl] " "ii"Zl"euurtfi' o4rarounu#

ti"t-fttttiisank, sunk) u roHyrb' vtqrv Ko Ar{y' ro

)Karbcfisite [sart] n Mecro' Mecronaxo]+cAerr]re

rito.t"a ['srtjuertr{l pp pacrorro*ceu

;il;i""' l.srtju'etJnj n pacttono)$euue' cr4ryaqlrn

size Isarz] n "PaBMePtf."1.ft tstetJi n cnertl' na6pocox

skilful ['skrlful] a vrcwycubrvL

skilfullY ['skrlfuh] adu ucxYcno

skills [skrlz] n :u.aBbrrvr' yMeHr4s

sky [skar] n se6oslave [slerv] n Pa6tl".n"ry ['slervarr] n Pa6crnosledge [slerft] n calr'vr

;iffitd ;.!-1'tli'ptt1 .ba3l cna;r*r'ft Meruo*

sleePY ['sli:Pl] cr courrbrlrsleeve [sli:v] tx PYKaB

slogan ['slougen] n JroBYr{r

snow [snou] n cuerso that ['sou 6at] TaK qro, rarc .rro6rrsoap [soup] z uruoso-called ['sou'kc:ld] a Tar' nasrrsaevrrrfisocial ['souJel] 4 corl]raJrrHufisocial work ['souJel'we:k] o6qecrBeunaff pa6orasociety [se'saratr] n o6rqecrnosocks tsckjl n Hocnusoft [scft] a u,srrcufisoil [scll] n roqBasolar system ['soule'srstem] conue'ruas cncreMasold [sould] car. sellsoldier ['souldge] n coJrAarsole [soul] n roAorrrBasolitary ['schtarr] a og:a:r'oxlatrtsolution [sa'lu:Jn] n perrenuTesolve [sclv] u peurarbson [s,rn] n cbrrsong [sc4] n recr{ffsorfow ['scrou] n uerraJrbsound [saund] n BByKsource [sc:s] n rrcrotrnr4x, racrox percrrsouth [sau0] n rorsouth-east ['sauOi:st] n roro-nocroxsouthern ['s,r6en] o roxcnrrfisouthernmost ['srr6enmoust] a camrrft roxnrrftsouthwards ['sau0wadzf adu K Iorysouth-westerly ['sau0'westeh] a rcro-3ara4ntrfisovereign ['scveren] n coBepensparsely populated ['spo:sh.pcpju'lertrd] peAno Bace-

niinnrrftsparrow ['sprerou] n uopo6efispeak [spi:k] (spoke, spoken) u paoroBapnnarbspeaker ['spi:ke] n Bbrcryrrarcuqnir, crrrrep (a uapaarrleu'rtt)spear [spra] z rourtispecial ['speJal] o creqna.nrnrrfi

411

spices ['sPaIsrz] n rpsrrocrrrspinner ['sprne] n rrpfi'Eerrlbrrlrrrc

spinster ['sPrnste] n crapafi AeBa

spoon [sPu:n] n JrorfiKaspot [sPct] n uarno' Mecro

;;;dd [spred] (spread, spread) u pacnpocrpaunrb'

upocTr{parbcEsp"ead [spred] n rpora)rcilnnoctrsquare [skwee] n rJroulagbsquire [skware] z crcnafiPsquirrel ['skwlrel] n 6enxastable [sterbl] n KoHIourHatt"tt tttotfl ri rutat, KoJrJIeKrtrn pa6ornurcoa

456

stage [sterft] n cqena; u craBlrrb rra cqenestar [sto:] n aBeBAastarling ['sto:lr4] n crBopeqstart [sto:t] n crapT, HaqaJro, orrpaBJreHrrestarvation [sto:'verJn] n ro.rro4starve [sto:v] u roJroAarbstate [stert] u saffBJrsrb; n rocyAapcrBostatement ['stertment] n aaannenriestatesman ['stertsman] rocy4apcrBeHHblfi gearelrstation [stedn] n cra*\wsstatue ['stetju] n craryastatus ['stertes] n crarycstay [ster] u ocraBarsca, upe6brBarbsteadily ['sterdrh] adu upovno, railp4o, ycrofi'rltgosteal [sti:l] (stole, stolen) u BopoBarbsteam [sti:m] n rapsteam-engine ['sti:m'endgtn] n rapoBa,ff Marrrr4uasteel [sti:l] n cra:r'bsteep [sti:p] a rcpytofisteeply ['sti:pL] adu xpyrostep [step] n ruar, crynenbxastill [strl] a ruxwit; adu r,ce er4|stockings ['stckrqz] n vylrnrtstole [stoul] c.rve. stealstolen ['stoulan] c.,ru. stealstone [stoun] n KaMerrbstore [stc:] n crcJra,4; u Barracarb, cnJraAbrBarbstorm [stc:m] n 6ypastove [stouv] n reubstraight [strert] a rpaMostrait [strert] n rporrrrBstrange [strerndg] o ctpannrrfistrangely ['strerndghi adu crpanHostranger ['strernd3e] n HesnaxoMeqstrategy ['stretad3r] n crparerllfistraw [strc:] n coJroMa

41't

stream [stri:m] n rorox, py.reftstrength [streq0] n cwastrengthen ['Stre40an] u ycu.nlrBarbstretch [stred] u rpocrlrparbc,fl, rrpor,flrr4Barbcffstrict [stnkt] a crporufrstrictly ['strrkth] adu crporostrike [strark] (struck, struck) u yAapnrbstrike [strark] z sa6acrosrastriker ['strarke] n aa6acroBrrl?rxstrong [strc4] a cwnrlar,rirstrongly ['strc4h] adu clz.nsr'ostruck [strnk] c"n. strikestructure ['strnktJe] n crpyrcrypastruggle [str,rgl] n 6opr6astubborn ['st,rban] a yrpflMbrft, ynopnsrfistudy ['stndr] u r4gyrlarbstyle [starl] n crvrrrbsubdivide [.s,rbdr'vard] u no4paoAerrsrbsubject ['s,rbd3rkt] tx rpeAMer, reMasubmarine [,srrbme'ri:nf n roABoAHaff JroAKasubmit [seb'mIt] u roArrtrgffrbcflsuburb ['snba:b] n rpuropoAsuburban [s,rb'e:ben] a upkrlopoAnrrfisucceed [se'ksi:d] u rpeycreBarbsuccess [se'kses] n ycnexsuccessful [se'ksesful] o ycuerrrrrurfisuccessfully [se'kse sfuhf adu ycreruHosuccession [sa'kseJn] z HacneAoBaHr4esuccessor [se'kseJe] n [ocJreAoBareJrb, HacJreAHLrKsudden [sldn] o snesauHrrfisuffer ['_snfa] u crpaAarbsugar ['.|uga] n caxapsuggest [se'dgest] u rpeArrararbsuit [sju:t] n rcocrrcM; u noAxoAr{rbsuitable ['sju:tabl] o rroAxoA ar4:r.ilrsun [snn] n coJrHqe

458

sung [s,rq] cn. singsunk [srrqk] cn. sinksunny ['snnl] a conne.rnrrfisuperintendent [ . sj upenn'tendent] n yupaRJrs rc u1n ii, na 4-

SLIpaTeJIbsuperior [sju'prerre] a nr;rcntui1 flpeBocxolllr rr1u i.l

supervision [,sj upe'vryn'l n na6nro4euuesupplement ['s,tplmant] n AoroJruer{r4o, rl)nJtol(onHosupplies [se'plarz] n sarracb1 cna6xceuue, trpnln(it,rsupport [se'pc:t] u rroAAepxcuBarbsupporter [se'pc:te] n rroMorqnux, cropoltHntcsuppress [se'pres] u noAaBJrfrbsupreme [sju'pri:m] a srrcrrrnftsure [Jua] a: be sure 6rrrr yBepennbtMsurface ['sa:fis] n rroBepxHocrbsurgeon ['se:d3en] n xupyprsurprise [se'prarz] n crcpnpus, yA]r6JtoHE€i u y/lltHlnt't,r,surprised [se'prarzd] pp y p.r4BJrdHuarftsurprisingly [se'praruryltl adu y pual{t'€fl BHnsurrender [se'renda] u cAaBarbcfi; n 6ARqEsurround [se'raund] u oKpyrrcarbsurroundings [se'raundr4z] n orcpyn(€EH€survival [se'varvel] z Bbr]rcr,rBaHr0surviving [se'varvrn] o ocranruufieg H tdHFhtEswamp [swcmp] n 6onorosweep [swi:p] u Mecr?r, cMerBTt,sweetheart ['swi:tho:t] n noanrl6nexgafrswift [swrft] a 6rrcrpufiswing [swrr1] n :r,a-v.eilvrswitch on ['swrtJ'cn] u ux"rrrovarr,sword [sc:d] Ft rrrfiara, Merrsympathetically [.srmpo'Octrkolll adu eoqyE€faEHnrrsympathize ['srmpeO avf u coqyuotH€Fef hsynthesizer [.srnOe'sarze] n cfi r!r,eBHTopsystem ['srstem] n cracreMa

41tr

I

Ttactics ['tektrks] n rar'Tvr"atailor ['terle] n uoptnofitake [terk] (took, taken) u 6parr

take care ['terk'kea] aa6otzrrcstake off ['terk'cfl cHrrMarbtake part in ['terk'po:t In] npuru{Marb } racrr4e B

taken [teftn] cn. lake 'talented ['trelantrd] a raJranTJrusbrfttall [tc:l] a sl;rcoxuirtask [ta:sk] z sa4a.Ia, aarqaurretaste [terst] u upo6oaarbi n BKyctaught ltc:tl cn. teach

team [ti:m] n KoMaHAatea-party ['ti:,po:tr] n '+,aefivrrvretear [tee] (tore, torn) u pBarb

tear apart ['tear e'po:t] paoopBarb Ha Kycrr4technologT [tek'nclaftl] n texnoJrorrrffteenager ['ti:n,erdgal n rmnefig*cep (vra.nrvurc

AeBoqKa B Boopacre or 13 4o 19 .rret)temperate ['tempnt] a. yurepennrrfitemperature ['temprrtJe] z reMreparypatemple [templ] n xpaMtend [tend] u ctpennrrbc,fl, r4Merb renAeHrlnrotense [tens] o Harrpff)r(dnnufitension [tencn] n Harpff)KeHrretent [tent] n rraJrarKaterm [ta:m] n repMrrrrterrible ['tenbl] o yxacnrrfiterritory ['tentarr] n repprrropuaterror ['tere] n yfitae, reppoptest [test] n trcrrl;rrafinei u tTcrrbrrblBarb

460

than [6ren] adu qervr

theatre ['Oreta] n rearptheme [Oi:m] n reMatheory ['Oren] n reoprrntherefore ['6eefc:] adu uoerovrythick [0rk] o rorcrrrft, rycrofithief [Oi:fl n nopthin [0rn] o ronrcrafi, ncu4rcufit!in\ [Oqk] (thought, thought) u AyMarbthinker ['0r4ke] n MbrcJrrrreJrbthough [dou] adu xorathought [Oc:t] cz. thinkthoughtfully ['Oc:tfuhf adu BaAyMtruBothoughts [Oc:ts] n :lrbrcrr:a, paaAyMbgthreat [Oret] n yrpooathreaten [0retn] u yrpo]rcarbthrew [Oru:] c"n. throwthrone [Oroun] n rponthrough [Oru:] prep c:r"Boob, qepe3throughout [Oru'aut] aq, HacKBoBb, rroBceMecr*othrow [Orou] (threw, thrown) u 6pocarr

throw off ['0rou'cfl c6pacrrsarithrown [0roun] c.le. throwthunder ['Omde] n rpoMthus [dzrs] adu rax, raKilM o6paeoutide [tard] n npvJrvrB, orJr]rBties [taz] n cBs.sntight [talt] a recnrrfi, nlrornrrfi

r tin [trn] z oJroBo

1 tiny ['tarnr] a rcporueunrrft, tip [trp] z KoHrruK, tireless ['tarahs] o neycrannrrft, title [tanl] n rvrryrr, HaBBaHrae

toast [toust] n rocrtoga ['touga] n roFatolerance ['tclerans] n reprruMocrb

udii{,l*

'ri$

rd

aun{

:l{.il

t",

d

461

tolerant ['tclerant] a repnnwrrrfitomb [tu:m] z rpo6nrzqatook [tuk] cu. taketool [tu:l] n LTHcrpyMeHrtop [tcp] n Bepx, Beprrr{Ha, Bepxymratore [tc:] cm. teartorn [tc:n] cn. teartotalltoulll a nonnb.rft, secrtotal length ['toutl'leq0] o6u1aa Arrla.natouch [tntJ] u rporarbtour [tua] fl Typ, roeBAKatourist ['tuenst] n ryplrcrtowards [te'wc:dz] prep fio HarpaBrrenuro Ktowel [tauel] n rroJroreHqetower [taue] n 6annns.town [taun] n ropoAtownsfolk ['taunzfouk] z ropomanetownspeople ['taunzpi:pl] n ropo)rcaHetrade [trerd] n roproBJrff, peMecJro; u roproBarbtrade unions ['trerdJu:nranz] upoQcoroabrtrader ['trerde] n roproBeqtradesman ['trerdzman] z roproBerltradition [tre'drJn] n. rpa1vrwts.traditionally Itra'dd n ahf a du rpaArrrlr{ourrotraffic ['trrefik] n Aopo]Kuoe ABrr)rceHr{etragic ['tradgrk] a rparrqecr<lairtrain [trern] u rpeur{poBarb, o6yvarrtrained [trernd] pp rpeurrponauxrrfi , o6yvennsrfitransform [trrens'fc:m] u rpancQopMrrpoBarbtranslate [trcns'lert] u repeBoArlrbtranslation [trens'lerJn] n repeBoAtransmit [fenz'rut] u [epeAaBarb rro pa4r{o, renenr,r4enrarltransport ['transpc:t] n rpancroprtransport [trrens'pc:t] u repeBoBr(Tbtrap [trrp] z "nonymrca, KarrKaH; u JroBrtrbtravel ['traval] u rryreruecrBoBarb

462

traveller ['trrevele] n rryrernecrBenHnxtreacherously ['tretJeresh] adu npegareJrbcxr,rtreason [tri:zn] n rocyAapcrBeHHaff noMerratreasure ['tre3e] n coxpoBr4rrletreat [tri:t] u o6parqatcn ctreatment ['tri:tment] z o6paqeuue, JreqeHnetreaty ['tri:tl] n AoroBoptrench [trentJ] n rpanrrrefltrend [trend] n HarrpaBJrenr4etrial [traral] z cy4triangle ['tralrerlgl] n rpeyroJrbHrrxtribe [trarb] n rrrreMntriumph ['trarem{l z rpuyvretriumphant [trar'lmfant] a uo6e4onocnrrfitroops [tru:ps] n softcxatrouble [tr,rbl] n 6ega, xrrorrorbrtrousers f'trauzezl n 6prcxntruly ['tru:h] adu nepyo, rorrcrnuetrumpeter ['trrrmprte] z ropnucrtry [trar] u rrbrrarbcfftuneless ['tju:nhs] a HeMeJro4u.rnrrfitunic ['tju:ruk] n rynuna, py6axatunnel [t,rnl] n ryunerrbturkey ['ta:kl] n un1etrrr<aturn [te:n] u uonopaqriBarb; n noBopor, orrepeAb

turn down ['te:n'daun] ornepruyrbturn into ['ta:n rnte] rpeBparr4Tbcff B

turnip ['ta:nrp] n penatutor ['tju:te] n BocurrrareJrbtwice [twars] adu gr,awgrrtype [tarp] n rvrrttypical ['trprkel] a r:nrru.ntrrir

Uunable [,,rn'erbl] a He B cocroanrarruncertainty [,nn'se:tentr] z HeyBepenHocrb

I

t

I

461

undergraduate [,,rnde'gredjutt] n cryAenrKypcaKypca ,

underground railway [,rt nde'graund'rerlwer]'no4eennng*CeJIeBHaA AOpOra -'i

understand [,rrnde'strend] (understood, understood)'IIOT{IIMATb i

understanding [,^nda'staendrq] n uorrrtManl4e )

understood [,rrnde'stu :dl cn. understandundertake [,lnde'telk] (undertook, undertaken)'

UTu o neY4o6xrrfi 1

u t, undergone) u roABqi

rarbc,fiundergone [,rrnde'gcrrf cn. undergo

unite [iu'nart] u o6regunrrrbcaunited [iu'nartrd] pp o6l'legnnEnnsrfiuniversal_Uunr've:sel] a yuznepcanrnsrft , nceo6rqzftuniverse [Juruve:s] n scenetuasuniversity ffuru've:s ftrl n yHr4Bepcrrerunknown [,,rn'noun] pp rrer4aBecrurrfiun oTIUtIgTe oTunun

rr, HeBaMyrrcH,fl,E

unplanned [.rrn'plandl pp HeoarrJranrrpoBannbrfi, ane_nJranosrrfi

unpoprr_lar [,nn'pcpjuls] a HenorryJr,ffpHufiunreal [,nn'nel] a nepeansnrrfiunskilful [,nn'skrlful] a Heyrrnenrrfi, nexnanu$LTTIH_

poaanHsrfi

unwillingly [,nn'wrl nltf adu rreoxornounwise [,rrn'waz] a nepaay*rnrrfiupland ['zrplend] n BooBbrrrreHuocrbupper class [',rpe'klo:s] sbrcurufi KJraccupright ['lprart] a BeprlrKa.rrrxsrfiuprising [,rp'razrq] n Boccraurreupstairs_[',rpsteez] adu naaepxy, HaBepxupstart ['a,psto:t] n BbrcKoqraupwards [',rpwedz] adu nnepxurban ['e:ben] a ropo4crcoftuse [u:z] u rrrcrroJrbgoBarbuse [u:s] n noJrboauseful [ju:sful] a no.negnrrft

vvalley ['vreh] n EoJtu:na

npeAEpPIHrrMaTbundertaken [,,rnde'terkn] cutt. undertake r

undertook [.rrnde'tuk] c.rr. undertakeunderwent [,,rnda'wentl cm. undergo ';lll,lllEl' wgll! Lrl\uss vvvu!.! v."' E"ev-D

uneducateil[.rrnedju'kertrd] pp ueolpaaosaHubrfi ,i

unemployed [,nrum'plcrd] a 6eepadotnrrfiunemployment [,nrum'plcrment] z 6eepa6orr{qa

464 465

- -- -------d L -

veto ['vi:tou] n Bero; u HaJroxcrrrb Bero ,1

victoiious [vrk'tc:rjas] o no6e4onocnrrfi i

value ['velju] n qerrHocrbvaried ['veerld] o paanoo6pasnrrfivariety [va'raratr] n paenoo6paarlevarious ['vearlas] a pas.nnunrrfivassal ['vasal] n Baccarvault [vc:lt] n cBoA, cKJreIrvegetables ['ved3etebl,zf n oBoulra t

vegetation [,ved3r'terJn] n pacrl{reJrbuocrb'velvet'['velvet] z 6aPxatverse [ve:s] .n crvrxz, crrlxorBoperrr4e i

vertically ['ve:tIkeh] adu neprnxaJrbno

victory ['vrkterl] n no6egaview [vju:] n'BBIJr.EA, Torrxa opeHuflvilla ['vIle] n r.vrrrrravillage ['vrhft] n AePeBHE.villager ['vrhd3e] n AepeBeHcxnit lrcrrrerrb

visit ['vrzlt'l n nwsnr; u troceqarb' HauocrlTb Br,faerr

vivid ['vrvId] a apxlaf,rvolcanic [vcl'kanrk] 4 ByJrKaHu'recrcrafivolume ['vc:lju:m] rt roM :

vote [vout] u ronocoBarbvoter ['vouta] n roJrocyrcr\Yrirvoting ['voutrq] n roJrocoBanrlevoyage ['vcud3] n Mopcrcoe rryreruecrBlte

wwage [werft] (a war) u Becrn (eoilnY )wages ['weldgrz] n saprrJrarawaist [welst] n ralrufiwandering ['wcndenrl) n exnraHra,ffwar [wc:] n r,oiru.awarehouse ['weehaus] z crcaa4

466

violent ['varalent] a cratrst+;rtrt l

virtuous ['ve:tjues] a 4o6po4etearxrrfi

warlike ['wc:lark] a BoltncrBennrrfiwarm [wc:m] a rilnnrrfiwarmth [wc:mO] n rerrJrowarn [wc:n] u rpeAytrperrcAarbwarrior ['wcrra] n Boytrwarship [wc:Jrp] rL Boenrrbrfi rcopa6nrwash [wcJ] u vrrrrr(ca)waste [werst] u rparurb Bpffwastes [wersts] z or6pocrrwasteful ['werstful] a pacror{r4renrnxfiwatch [*cd] u na6.nro4ar6, crreAr,rrbwater ['wc:to] n r,o4awaterfall ['wc:tefc:l] n BoAoraAwatermill ['wc:temrl] n uo4anaff MeJrbnrrqawater supply ['wcte se'plar] BoAorpoBoAwaterway ['wctawer] n ro4nrrft rryrbwave [werv] n BoJrHaway [wer] n rryrb, cnoco6weak [wi:k] a c:na6rrirweaken ['wi:ken] u ocna6nsrrweakening ['wi:kenn1] z oc;ra6nenraewealth [wel0] z 6orarcrsowealthy ['wel0r] a 6orarl;rir, Baxcnroeurrfiweapon ['wepen] n opy)rcrdewear [wee] (wore, worn) u Hocnrb

wear away ['weer e'wer] r{BHarur{Barbcfiweasel [wi:zl] z ropnocrafiweather ['we6e] n roroAaweaver ['wi:ve] n rna.+.welcome ['welkam] u rprrBercrBoBarbwell [wel] n KoJIoAerIwell [wel] adu: as well as rar ,Ke KaK nwell-being ['wel'bi : rr1f n 6 lnarococro,Eulrewest [west] n sarraqwestern ['westen] a eaua4nrrfiwestward ['westwed] adu x sarraAy

467

wet [wet] a morprrfi, crrpoftwharf [wc:fl n aepQrwheat [wi:t] n rrrueu?rqa :

wheel [wi:l] n KoJreco l

whereas ['weerez] adu rorqa xaxwherever ['weer'eve] adv rge 6rr nu; KyAa 6sr nnwhole [houl] a Becb, qe.nufiwide [ward] a rrtupoxuir.widely ['wardh] adu utmpoxowidespread ['wardspred] a pacupocrpandnnrrfiwife [wufl n ,rcenawild [warldl a gmxlailrwill [wtl] n Bolnwillingly ['wrhqh] adu oxorsowin [wrn] (won, won) u BblnrpbrBarbwind [wmd] n Berepwindmill ['wrndmtl] n Berpffrras MeJrburrqawinner Iwrna] z no6e4nte.nrwish [*r.|] u HceJlarb; rt )rceJlannewithdraw [wr6'drc:] (withdrew, withdrawn) u srraecrll,

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468

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GogepxaHue

SECTION ONE. GENERAL INFORMATION ........ 3gHAprER 1. GEOGRAPHICAL SURVEY ........... 3Part 1. Geographical Position. . .......... 3Pafi2. Nature. ......... fPart 3. Coasts. .......!........... 6Part 4. Relief. .........7Part 5. Climate. .... IPart 6. Inland Waters. ..........10Part 7. Vegetation. ......... .........I2Part 8. Animal Life.Part 9. Mineral Resources. ..... .......15Part 10. Economy ....15CHAPTER REVIEW ..... ......18CIIAPTER 2. COMPOSITION OF THE COUNTRY19Part 1. England. ...19Part 2. Scotland. .....20.Part 3. Wales. ................2LPart 4. Northern lreland.cHAprER REVIEW ......... ......23CHAPTER 3. POLITICAL SYSTEM ..........,.24Part 1. The Constitution. ...25Pafi 2. Three Branches of Government. ......26Part 3. Political Parties. .......31Part 4. The British C-ommonwealth of Nations. ...32cHAprER REVIEW ......... ........34SECTION TWO. HISTORY .........36UNIT ONE. THE EARLY DAYS OF BRITAIN....36CHAPTER 1. ANCIENT BRITONS ....36Part 1. The Ancient Population. ...36Parl 2. Who were the Britons?.. ........38Part 3. Their Religion. ........40

CHAPTER REVTEW ......:..........41CHAPTER 2. THE ROMANS ..............42Part 1. The Coming of the Romans. .,..,.....42Part 2. The Revolt of Queen Boadicea ...............45Part 3. Britain under the Romans.... .......48Part 4. Hadrian's Wall. ........51Part 5. Roman Towns. ...........52CHAPTER REVTEW ....... ............56CHAPTER 3. ANGLO-SAXON ENGLAND .........57Part 1. The Invasion by Anglo-Saxons. ..............57Part 2. Christianity...... ..............61Part 3. The Raids of the Danes. Uniting

the Country. .... .......63Pafi 4. Alfred the Great .,.64Part 5. England after Alfred the Great's Reign. .66CHAPTER REVIEW...... ...67UNIT REVIEW .....68UNIT TWO. MEDIEVAL BRITAIN ... ........69CHAPTER 4. ENGLAND AFTER THE

NORMAN CONQUEST... ........70Part 1. William the Conqueror. ...........70Part 2. English Kings of the 11th and 12th

Centuries ...75Part 3. Education. The First Universities. .........77Part 4. A Medieval Town .......81CHAPTER REVIEW.....CHAPTER 5. WARS ABROAD AND AT HOME..85Part 1. England in the 14th century. ................85Part 2. The Hundred Years' 'War. ....87Part 3. The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 ..........89Part 4. The War of the Roses. ..........91CHAPTER REVTEW ......... ....93UNIT REVIEW .....94

471470 ;,t,

UNIT THREE. ABSOLUTE MONARCHY ....95CHAPTER 6. THE NEW MONARCHY .. .....95Part 1. HenrY VII. .... .....95Part 2. HenrY VIII. ........"97Part 3. The Protestant-Catholic Struggle. . 100

Part 4. Elizabeth I..... ..... t02CHAPTER REVIEW .... ............ 104

CHAPTER 7. GAINING POWERAND EXPANDING .... .. 105

Part 1. The New Foreign Policy ....... 105

Part 2. Wales and Ireland. . ..... 109

Part 3. England and Scotland......... ....... 110

Part 4. A Scottish King for England. .. ..... 111

CHAPTER REVIEW..... ..LLzCHAPTER 8. GOVERNMENT AND SOCIETY .. 113

Part 1. Tudor Parliaments......Parl 2. Changes in the Life of People. ..... 115

Part 3. EconomY ..... 116

Part 4. The Problem of the Poor. ...... 118

Part 5. Domestic Life. .... 119

Part 6. Language and Culture. .. .-.., LztCHAPTER REVIEW ..... ... L23UNIT REVIEW ..,...I24UNIT FOUR. THE STUARTS..... ..... T25

CHAPTER 9. THE CROWNAND PARLIAMENT . .. L25

Part 1. James I. .... ...L25Part 2. Religious Disagreement. . ..... L27

Part 3. The Civil War. ...I29CHAPTER REVIEW... .... 130

CHAPTER 10. REPUBLICANAND RESTORATION BRITAIN .... 131

Part 1. Republic in Britain. .. ... 131

472

Part 2. Restoration....... .......... 135Part 3. Foreign Relations ... 139CHAPTER REVIEW . L4OCHAPTER 11. THE 17th CENTURY SOCIETY . T4TPart 1. Reconsidering Religious Dogmas..... .....I4LPart 2. Revolution in Scientific Thinking. ....... 143Part 3. Life in the Stuart Age. .....I45CHAPTER REVIEW ... ...., T49UNIT REVIEW .... 150UNIT FIVE. BRITAIN

IN THE 18TH CENTURY.... ....... 151CHAPTER 12. CHANGES IN POLITICAL LIFE 152Part 1. Politics and Money. ... .152Part 2. Developing Public Opinion. ..157Part 3" Ireland. ... 160Part 4. Scotland. .... 160CHAPTER REVIEW ... ... L62CHAPTER 13. LIFE IN TOTWN

AND IN THE COUNTRYSIDE ...... 163Part 1. Life in Towns. ....... 163Parl 2. Life in the Countryside. ...... 164CHAPTER REVIEW... .... 166CHAPTER 14. THE YEARS OF REVOLUTION .167Part 1. Industrial Revolution. . ...,.... L67Part 2. Society and Religion. ... ... 169Part 3. Revoiution in France.... ,.....I72Part 4. The War with Napoleon. .....173CHAPTER REVIEW ... ... L75UNIT REVIEW ...176UNIT SIX. THE AGE OF POWER

AND PROSPERITY. .I77CHAPTER 15. BRITAIN IN THE FIRST HALF

OF THE 19th CENTURY ...,..... L77473

Part 1. Britain's International Policy. ............. 1

Paft 2. The Situation at Home. ............'.......,.. 1

Part 3. Reforming the Parliamentary System. .. 1

Part 4. Workers' Revolts. ..... 1

Part 3. Robert Peel's Reforms. ....-..... 1

CHAPTER REVIEW......... ............... 1

CHAPTER 16. THE YEARSoF SELF-CONFIDENCE ................ 1

Part 1. Industrial Power. .........-.....-. 1

Part 2. The Rise of the Middle Class. ...... 1

Part 3. Life in Towns.Pafi 4. Population and Politics. ........ 1

Part 5. The British Empire. ..........................- 1

Part 6. Ireland. ....------.2CIIAPTER REVIEW ...CHAPTER 17. THE END OF AN AGEPart 1. Social and Economic Improvements. .....Part 2. Sport.Part 3. Changes in Thinking. ........Part 4. The Storm Clouds of War.CHAPTER REVIEW .........UNIT REVIEW .....27UNIT SEVEN. THE 2OTH CENTURY.... ..........27CIIAPTER 18. THE FIRST WORLD WAR

AND ITS AFTER-EFFECTS ........................ 2 1

Part 1. The first World War. .........-.- 21

Part 2. The Rise of the Labour Party. ..-.2tPart 3. Ireland. .....-.-.2tPart 4. Disappointment and Depression. ......--..2tCIIAPTER REVIEW......... ...............22CHAPTER 19. THE SECOND WORLD WAR ,...22Part 1. The First Period of the War. ...............22Pafi 2. Alone against the Nazis .........22474

Part 3. The Mistakes of Germany and Japan.The End of the War. .............224

CIIAPTER REVIEW ... .......226CIIAPTER 20. THE AGE OF UNCERTAINTY ..227Part 1. The United Nations .......227Part 2. A Change of Britain's Role

on the International Arena. ...... .....228Part 3. The Welfare State. .....229Part 4. A Popular Monarchy. ........ ....233Part 5. The Loss of Empire .....234Part 6. The Situation in Northern Ireland. .......296Part 7. The Years of Discontent. .............237Part 8. Margaret Thatcher. ..24OPart 9. Britain Today. Ties with the Past

and Thoughts of the Future........... .............243CHAPTER REVIEW ... .....245UNIT REVTEW ...........246SECTION THREE. PRESENT-DAY BRITAIN ...247CHAPTER 1. BRITISH OR ENGLISH? ............247Part 1. The British Isles. ............247Part 2. Great Britain. .........248Part 3. The United Kingdom.......... ...249Part 4. Forming the Nation. .... .....25IPart 5. Language ..252Part 6. Immigrants in Britain. ..........253Part 7. The Union Jack. ............. ......254CHAPTER REVIEW ... ....255CHAPTER 2. HOW THEY LIVE ........256Part 1. The Way of Life. .....256Part 2. Education .....257Part 3. Culture, Leisure, Entertainment. .........259Part 4. Sport. ...........263Part 5. Young People's Groups. .........265

475

Part 6. Holidays.Paft 7. Traditions. .... ......27CHAPTER REVIEW......CHAPTER 3. LONDONPart 1. The City.Part 2. The East End. ..Part 3. The West End. .

Part 4. Westminster. ....Part 5 Royal London.Part 6. Knightsbridge.CHAPTER REVIEW....CHAPTER 4. PI,ACES TO SEE IN BRITAIN ....Part 1. Stonehenge. ..Pafi 2. The Lake District.Part 3. Canterbury. ...Part 4. Windsor Castle.Part 5. Hampton Court Palace.Part 6. Oxford.Part 7. Cambridge. ....Part 8. Liverpool and the Beatles. ...........8CHAPTER REVIEW...... .......3SECTION FOUR. FAMOUS BRITONSKing Alfred the Great ...... 3Queen Elizabeth I.....

Isaac Newton ;...SdBonnie Prince Charlie .........381James Cook .... S4James Watt .... BflRobert Burns ..........8{476

477

Horatio Nelson .,...947George Gordon Byron ..949Walter ScottQueen Victoria .......3bbCharles Dickens ....... .....587Florence Nightingale ..... ............ 860Captain Robert Scott .. 868Ernest Rutherford......... ....... 966Winston Churchill ...........868Agatha Christie ...87OMargaret Thatcher ....;........ ........828SUPPLEMENT. The British Monarchs (List)List of proper names......... .... BZ8List of geographical names ...... ....... B8gEnglish-Russian vocabulary ...... ..... Bg0

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