Grammer

Jojo American literature Block F

Clause

Definition:

a group of words that contains a verb (and usually other components too)

!   may form part of a sentence or it may be a complete sentence in itself

Types of Clause

!   Independent Clause

!   Dependent Clause---- Noun Clause

Adjective Clause

Adverb Clause

Independent Clause

!   contain both a subject and a verb

!   can stand alone as a sentence

!   Example: My dog loves play.

In this example dog is the subject and loves is the verb.

Dependent Clause

!   contain both a subject and a verb

!   cannot stand alone as a sentence

!   does not express a complete thought

!   Example: Whenever lazy students whine, Mrs. Heather throws chalk erasers at their heads

Independent clauses can also be joined to other

independent clauses, by using a conjunction.

!   Ex: and, but, in addition, also, however, so

Example: I have a high fever today, but I still go to school.

Noun Clause

!   A dependent clause that is used as a noun

!   Used as a subject, a predicate nominative, a direct object, an indirect object, or an object of a preposition

!   Example: William talked at length about how she had won the pizza-eating contest.

（object of the preposition about）

Adjective Clause

!   A dependent clause that modifies a noun or a pronoun

!   Must connect to the independent clause in order to finish the thought.

!   Example: The vegetables that people leave uneaten are often the most nutritious.

Adjective Clause

Essential Clause

!   provides information that is necessary to the meaning of a sentence

!   Example: The vegetables that people leave uneaten are often the most nutritious.

Nonessential Clause

!   provides additional information that can be omitted without changing the basic meaning of a sentence

!   Example: Broccoli, which people often leave uneaten, is very nutritious.

Adverb Clause

!   A dependent clause that modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb

!   Tells how, when, where, why, to what extent, or under what condition

!   Example: Ping’s three cats bolted from the driveway once they saw her car turn the corner.

(When did the cats bolt? Once they saw her car turn the corner)

Subject-Verb Agreement

!   Subject: the person or thing that is being discussed or describes in a sentence

!   Ex: I want to have a toy. (I is the subject)

!   Verb: the word use to describe an action

!   Ex: I want to have a toy. (want is the verb)

Singular

!   Ex:

!   I → go

!   You→ go

!   He/ She→ goes

!   It→ goes

!   Mr. Ted→ goes

! Mr. Ted is a kind person.

Plural

!   Ex:

!   You→ go

!   They→ go

!   We→ go

!   Mr. Ted & me→ go

! Mr. Ted and me are kind people.

Agree with the tense

Jojo: runs (present)

ran (past)

is running (present continuous)

Important Rules

!  Used Plural: One of … who… a number of… (many)

!  Used Singular: the only one … who… the number of , every

!   Ex: She is one of the students who do not enjoy classic concerts.

!   Every student in the classroom is hard working.

Verbals

!   Definition: Verbals are verbs that being changed into different form of Noun, Adjective, Adverb.

Three different kinds of verbals: !   Infinitive- is a verb form that start with the word “To”

!   Ex: To sleep, To talk, To run

!   Participle –using it in describing and modifying the subject

!   Ex: Running along the path.

!   Gerund – a verb with “-ing”

!   Ex: Chrewing gum in class is not allowed.

Sentence Fragments

!   Definition: It is part of a sentence that you must add to a main clause because it is not complete by itself

!   Cannot use a sentence fragment alone

!   But if you add the fragment to the main clause that will be a good sentence

!   Example: I won't leave the house. Until I hear from you.

Types of Sentence Fragment !   Prepositional Phrase- the fragment starts with a

preposition(of, to, and, in, on…)

Ex: In the rain, I enjoyed my run.

!   Appositional Phrase- is a noun based fragment Ex: My friend, Lily, is jealous of me.

!   Participial Phrase- uses a specific type of past tense verb that acts like an adjective, but the participial verb is not a true verb.

!   Ex: Dissatisfied with my coffee, I went to the store to buy milk.

Types of Sentence Fragment !   Gerund Phrase-uses a verb with an “ing” ending Ex:

Running to school, I afraid to late.

!   Infinitive Phrase- uses the infinitive form of the verb “to”

!   Ex: I stand the top of the hill to see the view of the whole country.

!   Afterthought Phrase-clarifies earlier information by providing specific details. (especially, including, for example)

!   Ex: Some people are very talkative, for example: vincent.

Comma-Splices

!   Definition: the error when you combine tow independent clauses in a compound sentence by inserting only a comma between the without the necessary conjunction.

!   Ex: Vincent has a lot of friends, he is very kind. (X)

Run on sentecne

!   Definition: the error when you combine two independent clauses by inserting only a conjunction between them without the necessary comma.

!   Ex: This has been as very dry summer and supply of water in the reservoirs is low.. (X)

Fused Sentence

!   Definition: the error when you combine two independent clauses with nothing in between. The two clauses are just jammed up next to each other (fused) with neither conjunction nor punctuation.

!   Ex: Grandma still use rides her Harley motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket. (X)

How to fixed the problems

!   Use a period (.)

!   Use a semi-colon (;)

!   Use a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS, F=for, A=and, N=nor, B=but, O=or, Y=yet, S=so)

!   Use a subordinating conjunction (although, as, even thought, if, because, since, until and so on)

Example to fix the problem !   Fused Sentence: Grandma still use rides her Harley

motorcycle her toy poodle balances in a basket.

!   Use a period:　Grandma still use rides her Harley motorcycle．Ｈｅｒ toy poodle balances in a basket.

!   Andy went to the gym everyday he lost a lof of weight.

!   Use a semi colon: Andy went to the gym everyday; he lost a lof of weight.

Example to fix the problem !   This has been as very dry summer and the supply

of water in the reservoirs is low. (Run on sentence)

!   Use a coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS)

!   This has been as very dry summer, so the supply of water in the reservoirs is low.

Example to fix the problem

!   Vincent has a lot of friends, he is very kind. (comma splice)

!   Use a subordinating conjunction

!   Vincent has a lot of friends because he is very kind.

Misplaced Modifier

!   Definition:

!   A word, phrase, or clause that is separated from the word it modifies/ describes

!   Example: On his way home, Bob found a gold man’s watch.(X) (this means that gold man owns watch)

!   On his way home, Bob found a man’s gold watch. (this means that the watch is gold not the man)

Types of misplaced

Misplaced Clauses:

A sentence that sounds awkward and does not make any sense because the sentence was placed incorrectly.

I held the ticket tightly in my hand that my friend gave me. (X)

I held the ticket that my friend gave me tightly in my hand.

Misplaced Modifier

!   Misplaced Adjectives:

!   Adjective phrase that is separated from the noun that it modifies, which might change the meaning of the whole sentence.

!   Ex: The beautiful student’s bag lay on the floor.(X)

!   The student’s beautiful bag lay on the floor.

Misplaced Modifier

!   Misplaced Adverbs:

!   Ex: We ate the lunch that we had brought slowly. (X)

!   We slowly ate the lunch that we had brought.

Dangling Modifier

!   Dangling Participle:

!   found at the beginning of a sentence, that appears from its position to modify an element of the sentence other than the one it was intended to modify

!   Ex: Rushing to the catch the bus, Bob's wallet fell out of his pocket.

Dangling Modifier

!   Dangling Gerund:

!   A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. The term verbal indicates that a gerund, like the other two kinds of verbal, is based on a verb and therefore expresses action or a state of being

!   Ex: We drinking our coffee, the lions approached our camp.

Dangling Modifier

!   Dangling Infinitive:

!   Start with the infinitive form of a verb (such as to tango, to simmer, to cogitate, etc

!   After having danced all night, they realized it was late and no restaurants were open.

!   Ex: To survive in this heat, new plants must be watered daily.

Dangling Modifier !   Dangling Elliptical Clause:

!   An elliptical clause will dangle if a writer does not make sure that the word it refers to is the subject of the main clause

!   - To ensure accuracy, we evaluated N2 selectivity only when the no conversion exceeded 10%.

!   Ex: While driving a car, traffic regulations must be observed.

Lack of Agreement Between

Pronoun and Antecedent !   What is pronoun?

!   Pronoun replace nouns (pronouns are usually short words)

!   Pronouns like “he, which, none, you” to make your sentences less cumbersome and less repetitive

Types of Pronoun

!   Personal Pronoun: the subjective personal pronouns are “I, you, she, he, it we, they”

!   Ex: It is on the table.

!   Objective Personal pronoun: the objective personal pronouns are “me, you, her, him, it, us, them”

!   Ex: Bobby threw it into the garbage can.

Types of Pronoun

!   Possessive Personal Pronouns: “mine, yours, hers, his, its, our, theirs”

!   Ex: Don’t you dare touch the bag! It’s mine!

!   Demonstrative Pronouns – this and these refer to things that are nearby either in space or in time, while that and those refer to things that are farther away in space or time

!   Ex: This is not good, you should not do it.

Types of Pronouns

!   Interrogative pronouns: “who, whom, which, what and the compounds formed with the suffix ever whoever, whomever whichever and whatever”

!   Ex: Which one do you like best?

!   Indefinite Pronouns: all, another, any, anybody…

!   Ex: Give a book to each.

Types of Pronouns

!   Reflexive Pronouns: myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves and themselves

!   Ex: He usually sends a copy of email to himself.

!   Intensive Pronouns: used to emphasize its antecedent

!   Ex: Amanda herself thinks that her boyfriend is the worst guy out here.

Examples of sentences without pronouns !   Joe plays basketball with Jack because Joe

really likes Jack.

!   Bob wants to eat so badly because Bob is very hungry.

!   My mother cannot resist the smell of corn soup because corn soup is my mother’s favorite.

Lack of Agreement Between Pronoun and Antecedent !   What is an antecedent?

!   “Ante” in the word antecedent is prefix for something that goes before. For example, antediluvian that describes something old fashioned or out of date

!   A pronoun takes places for a noun that you’ve once mentioned, such as “he” used it to replace “Jack”, or “it” that is used to replace a “dog”

Allusion

!   Definition: An allusion is a figure of speech that makes a reference to , or a representation of, people, events, literary works, myths, or work of arts.

Types of Allusion !   Biblical Allusion- is when the writer makes

reference to someone or event in the Bible.

!   Ex: The Crucible Act two: Elizabeth states Abigail brings the other girls into the court, and where she walks the crowds will part like the sea for Israel.

!   This is referring to Moses, who parted the seas of Israel for the Israelites to escape from the Pharaoh’s armies.

Types of Allusion !   Historical Allusion- is used when someone make reference

to an individual or event in the past.

!   Ex: Crucible Act Two: At the beginning of Act 2, a kind of cold war exists between John and Elizabeth because of past events.

!   Literary Allusion-is used when the writer refers to a book or a person, place or event in a book or play.

!   Ex: Crucible Act Two: Although an honest and strong man, John Procter has an Achilles heel his relationship to Abigail.

Epiphany

!   Definition:

!   a moment of sudden revelation or insight

!   the point in literature works when the character experiences a sudden deep understanding or realization of someone or something

Idiom

Definition: Idioms can be classified based on their structural properties. There are many different ways to classify them, and none are considered to be the totally wrong or right.

Types of Idioms

!   Lexemic idioms- that function as a familiar part of speech. They have to be longer than one word but not as long as a sentence

!   Ex: Give in: To admit to be defeated or not to be able to do something.

! Sememci idioms: Functions as a sentence. Never to get to first base: To fail to achieve the first state of significance in an activity.

Irony

!   Definition:

!   Is a literary device in which words are used to express a contradiction between appearance and reality

!   In irony is usually the opposite of what it seems

!   In literature there are three types of irony

Types of Irony

!   Verbal irony – is when a speaker of writer says one thing but actually means the opposite

!   Ex: When your mon walks into you filthy bedroom and says, “I see you’ve cleaned your room.”

!   (Sarcasm in one type of verbal irony)

Types of Irony

!   Situational Irony- is when the outcome of a situation is inconsistent with what we expect would logically or normally occur. It is the reverse of what we expect will be or happen. An example of situational irony would be.

!   Ex: If a thief’s house was broken into at the same time he was robbing someone’s house.

Types of Irony

!   Dramatic Irony- is when the audience or the reader is aware of something that a character dose not know.

!   Ex: When Romeo believes Juliet is dead, but the audience know that she has only been given a potion to sleep.

Themes

!   Definition: The main idea of text, expressed directly and indirectly. Themes are the fundamental and often universal ideas explored in a literary work. �

!  The theme is not the topic of the work, but a point made about the topic. �

How to find the theme

!  First, what is the topic, or big idea of the work? �

!  Second, what do the characters say or do that relates to the topic? �

!  Third, what do these things tell you that is important to learn about the topic? �

Example: !  Themes are usually about big ideas like freedom,

trust, friendship family good versus evil, love, courage, religion, death, survival and so on. �

Ex: Romeo and Juliet is the Love and Tragedy

The Adventure of Huckleberry Finn: Religion and Supersition

!   Harry Potter: Adventure and mystery�

!   Hunger Games: Survival and love

Motifs (Definition) !  Motif is not the same as motive �

!  A decorative design or pattern �

!  A distinctive feature or dominant idea in an artistic or literary composition �

!  To summarize, motif is a symbolic idea or a pattern that reoccurring again and again �

Why motif is so important !   Understanding motif will help us identify the theme of a

story�

!   Motif can also show different aspects of the story and its character �

!   Motif can help us understand a story that has many different part�

!   Motif can help writers centralize the message that the they try to express �

Motif (example)

!   In the Animal Farm by George Orwell one of the major motif is the song, poem, and slogan like “the Beasts of England.” This represent propaganda and the authors opinion on communism

!   In Slaughter House Five, one of the motif in the novel is the phrase, “so it goes.” This phrase follow every mention of death in the novel. This phrase reflect what Tralfamadorian’s idea on death

Other types of Motif

!  Motif also appears in many types of music and art�

!   In music: �

Motif is a short rhythmic passage that repeats throughout the song or composition �

!   In arts: �

!  A repeated design in architecture or decoration �

Paradox

!   Definition:

!   A seemingly contradictory statement that may nonetheless be true.

Types of Paradox

!   Veridical Paradox - is a counter-intuitive result which can be demonstrated to be true. 

!   Ex: A man who is 20 years old but had only have 5 birthdays.

! Fasidical Paradox - is a result being absurd on the surface, is the result of faulty reasoning and so is genuinely false. 

Types of Paradox !   Antinomy - presents a statement, question or

problem that seems to have no answer

!   Ex:   Assumes there is a town in which "the barber shaves all and only those men in town who do not shave themselves." The question that is posed is who shaves the barber

!   Dialethia - is a statement which is paradoxical through the fact that it is both true and false at the same time.

Rhetorical Question

!   Definition:

!   A rhetorical question is a question that does not expect an answer. It is a question that is making a point, and not really asking a question.

Types of rhetorical !   Negative assertions- is intended as a challenge

with the implication that the question is difficult or impossible to answer.

!   Ex: Smoking can lead to lung cancer, who knew?

!   As a metaphor- one common form is where a rhetorical question is used as a metaphor for a question already ask.

!   Ex: How do you catch a cloud and pin it down?

Types of rhetorical

!   Other forms- sometimes the implied answer to a rhetorical question is “Yes but I wish it were not so” or vice versa

!   Ex: Eh, why not?

!   Ex: When you parents are angry at you, they will say, “Are you a little child?”

!   (It is not asking a question, but making point that your behavior is like a little child)

Satire

!   Definition: is a literary work in which human voice or folly is attacked through wit, sarcasm and irony

Types of Satire ! Horation: humorous, lighthearted jabbing

!   Ex: Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice

! Juvenalian: harsh, bitter, cruel mocking

!   Ex: William Golding’s lord of the files.

! Menippean: spreads its mental barbs at a wide number of targets.

!   Ex: Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland.

Weapons of Satire

!   Humor

!   Ex: the class was so boring; everyone fell asleep in three seconds.

!   Comic Juxtaposition

!   Ex: Pop’s line in Rape of the Lock: “Puffs, patches, and bibles.”

Weapons of Satire !   Diminution

!   Ex: Treating the Canadian Members of Parliament as a squabbling group of little boys.

!   Invective

!   You are a liar.

!   Lampoon

!   Jed Babbin: “Going to war without the French is like going deer hunting without your accordion.”

Sarcasm (what is sarcasm)

!   The use of language that subverts the user’s true meaning or position in order to be harsh or attacking

!   Sarcasm is intended to be cutting or hurt to a third party in one’s subversive use of language

!   A form of irony that is widely used in English especially when people being humorous

!   Is a verbal irony but not every verbal irony is sarcasm

!   While satire can mostly be found in literature sarcasm can be found mostly by speaking

Example of Sarcasm

!   Jacky is very tall.

!   I work 40 hours a week to be this poor.

!   And which dwarf are you?

THANK YOU

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