grammar review packet

7/21/2019 Grammar Review Packet

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Matt Applegate, ENG 100 Page 1

Grammar Review Packet

ENG 100

Professor: Matt Applegate

Parts of Speech

There are eight parts of speech in the English language. Think of each part of speech likea category or placeholder. Each part of speech defines how a particular functions in a

sentence.

1. Nouns

A noun is a person, place, thing or idea.

Example: cat, dog, grass

2. Pronouns

A pronoun is any substitute for a noun or noun phrase.

Example: Jack took his bike to school.

3. Adjectives

An adjective is a qualifier of a noun or pronoun.

Example: The white cat only eats tuna.

4. Adverbs

An adverb is a qualifier of an adjective, verb, clause, sentence or another adverb.Example: The white cat is very fat.

5. Interjections

An interjection is an exclamation.Example: Incredible! I got an A!

6. PrepositionsA preposition indicates location.

Example: The cat is on the table.

7. Conjunctions

A conjunction connects parts of a sentence.

Example: I want to eat ice cream, but I know I should eat salad.

8. Verbs

A verb refers to any action, occurrence, or state of being in a sentence.

Example: He walks fast.


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The Noun

The noun is the name of:1. A person: President Barack Obama; Lady Gaga; Matt Applegate

2. A place: Long Island; Mount Rushmore; New York City

3. A thing: table, cat, chair4. A quality: anger, bravery, attractiveness5. An activity: running, eating, shopping

6. A concept: Communism, Anarchism, Capitalism

7. A condition: peace, war

Types of Nouns

1. Common: A common noun names general items.Examples: coffee shop, human, chair, cat, etc.

2. Proper: A proper names specific items.Examples: Big-Mac, Jimmy Fallon, Audre Lorde, etc.

3. Abstract: The name of a non-tangible thing or an idea.

Examples: Bravery, deceit, curiosity, etc.

4. Concrete: A concrete noun is something one can sense (as in with ones five senses).

Examples: cat, sunshine, bitterness

5. General: A general noun is the broad term for naming all the members of a group.

Examples: human, fruit, vegetable

6. Specific: A specific noun names a particular member of a group.

Examples: African American, strawberry, broccoli

7. Collective: A collective noun names a group composed of members.

Examples: navy, jury, team

Case

Nouns and pronouns both have case. There are three cases in the English language. Case

is a category into which one puts a noun depending on its function in a sentence.

1. Subjective (Nominative) Case

Used for a noun or pronoun that is the subject of a verb (The cat ran up thewall.)

Used for direct address (Rosalie, come here.)

Used for an appositive (an appositive is a noun or noun phrase that

renames another right beside it) of a sentence (My cat, Rosco, lost

weight).


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And for predicate nominative, or, the noun following a linking verb thatrestates or stands for the subject (At the end of the tournament, Lebron

James was the scoring leader.)

2. Objective Case

Used as the direct object of a verb (I want a new car.) Used as the indirect object of a verb (Give Harold a dog treat.)

Used as the object of a preposition (Give the treat back to Harold.)

Used as the appositive of an infinitive (Give the treat to my dog, Harold.)

Used as the subject of an infinitive (They need Mary to get the drinks from the

car.)

Used as an objective complement (The United Sates elected Barack ObamaPresident).

3. Possessive (Genitive) Case

Shows ownership (That is Matts laptop.)

The possessive case is the only case that changes the form of the word. Singular plural: Matt = Matts, President Obama = President Obamas, etc.

Plural possessive: the Jeffersons = the Jeffersons, classes = classes

Gender of Nouns

Nouns display one of three genders in the English language. The gender reflects the sex

of the entity.

1. Masculine Nouns: man, rooster, bull

2. Feminine Nouns: woman, hen, cow

3. Neuter Nouns (nouns without a designated sex): ceiling, fan, shroud

Number of Nouns

Nouns can be either singular or plural. Plural nouns are typically formed by adding an s

to the singular form, e.g., cat = cats, rat = rats, etc.

There are a few exceptions to the rule.1. Nouns ending in (s, z, sh, ch, x) form their plural by adding es to the singular form.

Examples: bush = bushes, arch = arches, etc.

2.Nouns ending in a consonant + y change the y to an i and add es to to form their

plural.Examples: city = cities, country = countries, etc.


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The Pronoun

The pronoun is a word that functions as a substitute for a noun or another pronoun. Thenoun for which the pronoun is a substitute is called the antecedent of the pronoun.

Example: Shelly asked if Shelly could have some ice / Shelly asked if she could have

come ice.

Number of Pronouns

Like nouns, pronouns can be either singular or plural.

Gender of Pronouns

Like nouns, pronouns fall under the three primary gender categories: Masculine,

Feminine, and Neuter.

Person

Pronouns change their form depending on how they are used in a sentence. There are

three forms or persons a pronoun can take.1. First Person (I, us, we, our)

2. Second Person (you, your, yours, yourself)

3. Third Person (he, she, it, one, they, them)

Types of Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns: refer specifically to the three persons(first, second, third) that a

pronoun can take.

2. Impersonal Pronouns: refer to everything not human (it, they)

3. Relative Pronouns: refer to persons or things and relate a dependent clause to the restof the sentence (that, what, which, who, etc.)

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: point to something (this, these, that, those)

5. Interrogative Pronouns: ask questions (who? Which? Etc.)

6. Reflexive Pronouns: repeat or intensify the antecedent (I myself, yourself, himself,

herself, etc.)

7. Reciprocal Pronouns: express mutual action or relationship (each other, one another)

8. Indefinite Pronouns: do not refer to a particular person or thing

CasePronouns take on the same three cases as nouns. This is a list of pronouns by case.

SubjectiveI, you, ye, thou, he, she, it, we, they, who


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The AdjectiveAdjectives are words or phrases that modify or describe another word or phrase, typically

a person or a thing, in a sentence. Adjectives typically appear before the noun theydescribe or modify.

Examples:1. The cat is fat.2. Brilliant words are not often uttered.

3. The pig that won the blue ribbon lived a long life.

Scale of Comparison

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison.

1. Positive Adjectives: adjectives that describes one thing and offers no comparison.

Examples: young, old, smart, etc.

2. Comparative Adjectives: adjectives that compares two things.

Examples: older, younger, more beautiful, less beautifulNote: More or less correspond to the comparative degree if the adjective has more

than two syllables.

3. Superlative Adjectives: adjectives that compare more than two things.Examples: oldest, youngest, most beautiful, least beautiful

Note: Most or less correspond to the superlative degree if the adjective has more

than two syllables.

Irregular Comparatives

Good, better, best

Well, better, bestNigh, near, next

Bad, worse, worst

Little, less, least

Absolute Adjectives

There are a number of adjectives that are absolute in degree, meaning they do not fit intothe scale of comparison above. Another way think about these adjectives is that there are

no degrees in their use.

Dead, pregnant, full, empty, unique, complete, perfect

The Adjective Clause

An adjective clause is a group of words that functions as an adjective. Adjective clauses

have meet three basic criteria.

1. Adjective clauses contain a subject and a verb.2. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun [who, whom, whose, that, or which] or

a relative adverb [when, where, or why].

3. Adjective clauses answer questions likeHow many? What kind?or, Which one?


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The AdverbAn adverb is a word that describes a verb, adjective, or adverb. Most words that end in

ly are adverbs, but not all.Examples:

She walks quickly. (How does she walk?)

The cat eats slowly. (How does the cat eat?)He drives an extremely old car. (How old is his car?)

Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase has two features. First, an adverb phrase must contain a subject and averb. Second, an adverb phrase must modify the verb of a sentence.

Example:

When I graduate, Im shaving my head.

I get the hiccups when I eat quickly.

Intensifiers

Adverbs function as intensifiers.1. Emphasizers: He really likes ice cream.

2. Amplifiers: I absolutely endorse Stacy for class president.

3. Downtoners: I almost quit my job today.


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The InterjectionAn interjection is a word that interrupts or precedes a sentence to express surprise or

emotion.

Examples:

Wow! I cant believe that just happened!Ouch!Indeed, the water was cold.


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PrepositionsA preposition is placed before a noun or pronoun to show the noun or pronouns

relationship to another word in the sentence.

Examples:

Give the fish to the cat. To shows a relationship between give and cat.

The nightstand is beside the bed. Beside shows a relationship between

nightstand and bed.

Common Prepositions

In, of, between, beside, over, around, through, like, near, by, within, according to, among,

above, off, with, without, after, against, past, from, beyond, into, behind.

The Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is composed of:

The preposition + its object and whatever modifies that object.

Examples:

over the moon, into the unknown, etc.

Prepositional phrases can be used as both adjectives and adverbs.

Examples:

Adjective: The computer on the left is the newest.Adverb: The cat jumped off the ground.


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The VerbVerbs express the idea of action or a state of being in a sentence. Verbs are the only

essential word in a sentence.

Types of Verbs

1. Action Verbs: express a physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual action.Examples:The cat jumped off of the table.

The rain fell lightly on the grass.

We went bowling.

2. Linking Verbs: Linking verbs connect the subject of the verb to additional information

about the subject. Linking verbs also show a state of existence.

Examples:The cat is depressed.

The President seemed tense.

Pollution smells terrible.

3. Helping Verbs: Also called auxiliary verbs, helping verbs give more detail to the

main verb in a sentence.

Examples:The cat should have slept more.

Would you pick me up?

You may not skip class.

Verb Tenses

Tense refers to the time at which the action or state of being of the verb was performed.

Verbs have six tenses and each tense has its own sub-categories.

Simple Tenses

1. Present Tenses: the action occurs now.A. Simple Present: The cat eats.

B. Emphatic Present: The cat does eat.

C. Progressive Present: The cat is eating.

2. Past Tense: the action is completed.

A. Simple Past: The cat ate.

B. Emphatic Past: The cat did eat.C. Progressive Past: The cat was eating.

3. Future Tense: the action will occur later.

A. Simple Future: The cat shall eat.B. Emphatic Future: The cat will eat.

C. Future Progressive: The cat will be eating.


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Perfect Tenses

Perfect means completed; these tenses identify action completed with respect to other

actions. Perfect tenses use the helping verb to have.

1. Present Perfect: have, has + past participle. The action began in the past and ends now

and may continue.John has helped me every Saturday for a month. (The action began a month agoand, as of now, he has helped me for one monthone months work is

completed.

2. Past Perfect: had + past participle. (An action was completed in the past before another

action occurred in the past.)

The cat had had a stomachache before she fell off of the table.

Will had drawn water from the well everyday before it went dry.

3. Future Perfect: shall, will have + past participle. (An action is completed in the future

before another future action occurs.)The cat will have eaten thousands of fish before she turns fourteen.

The Voice of Verbs

Voice is a property of action verbs. It identifies whether or not the subject acts.

1. Active Voice: the subject acts, acted, or will act.

Examples:The cat ate fish.

The woman dunked the basketball.

2. Passive Voice: the subject is, was, or will be acted upon. The passive voice consists ofthe verb to be plus the past participle.

Examples:

The fish were eaten by the cat.The basketball was dunked by the woman.

MoodMood or as sometimes referred to, Mode, is the manner in which the speaker means a

verb. The English language has three moods:

1. Indicative Mood: the speaker makes a statement or asks a question.Examples:

I am prepared.

She makes the best bread.

Forms:

I ask, you ask, he asks, we ask, you ask, they ask

I am, you are, he is, we are, you are, they areI was, you were, he was, we were, you were, they were


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Passive Voice: being passed

2. Past Participle: usually ends ined or-t.Active Voice: earned

Passive Voice: had earned

Perfect Tense Active Voice: having earnedPerfect Tense Passive Voice: having been earned

Participles remain verbs and can take adverb modifiers and objects; the participle, its

modifiers, and any objects or complements are called the participle phrase.The cat, eating her fish quietly, had it all to herself.

Participle: eating

Adverb: quietly

Object: fish

The GerundThe gerund is the simplest form of verbal. The gerund always ends ining. The gerund is

always a noun.

Gerunds remain verbs, can take adverbial modifiers, and can take objects:Example:

Labeling the can clearly is easy.

Gerund Phrase: Labeling the can clearlyGerund: Labeling

Object: can

Adverb: clearly


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The PhraseA phrase is a group of two or more words that does not contain a subject and a verb.

Remember, phrases do not ever form a complete sentence.

Prepositional Phrase

A prepositional phrase is a preposition + its object.Examples:On the road

In the tank

Over the moonBy the nightstand

With kindness

Beside the table

Prepositional phrases can be adjectives.

Examples:

The cat on the table is mine.The ant with wings is the largest.

Prepositional phrases can be adverbs.

Examples:I began my job with trepidation.

Shannon went to an appointment.

Infinitive Phrase

An infinite phrase is an infinitive + its modifier + its object.

Examples:

To walk briskly (modifier)To take aspirin (object)

To laugh out loud (modifier)

To be a cat (object)

Infinitive phrases may be nouns.

Examples:I want to eat pizza. (The thing I want)

To be humble means to put others before you. (Each phrase is the name of

something.)

Infinitive phrases may be adjectives.

Examples:

I have a desire to fly without a plane. (describes desire)

The computer to buy for school is here. (describes computer)

Infinitive phrases may be adverbs.

Examples:The cat went to eat fish. (tells us why the cat went)


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The cat was excited to eat the tuna. (tells us why the cat was excited)

Participial PhraseA participle phrase is a participle + its object + its modifier.

Examples:

Eating an apple loudlyConceptualizing a problem on the flyDancing in the street

Forged in the fire

All participial phrases are adjectives.

Examples:

The cat, eating the tuna, is fat.

Dancing in the street, the couple laughed.

Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase is a gerund + its object + its modifier.Examples:

Reading a text effectively

Eating the tuna

Playing basketball wellRoasting a pig

All gerund phrases are nouns.Examples:

The cat hates walking on a leash. (the thing the cat hates)

Eating vegetables is a delight. (the name of the activity)


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The ClauseA clause is a group of words containing a statement (a subject + a predicate).

The subject is the topic of the statement. The predicate is the assertion or point made

about the subject.

Examples:

1. Amber (subject) called her friend (predicate).

2. You (subject) are confused (predicate).

3. The tuna (subject) was eaten by the cat (predicate).4. I (subject) do not like clauses (predicate).

Predicates

Predicates consist of the verb and its complement.

1. Action verbs:

The verb may stand alone.Example: Tim sang.

The verb may take an adverb.

Example: Tim sang softly.

The verb may take a direct object.

Example: Sandra ate the apple.

The verb may take an indirect object.

Example: Give the cat some tuna. (Direct object = tuna; indirect object = cat).

The verb may take an objective complement (a word which completes the object).

Example: You made the cad sad.

2. Copulative Verbs

Copulative verbs cannot take objects. Copulative verbs show no action, and therefore

cannot be affected by an action.

The verb can take an adjective.

Example: Matt is happy.

The verb can take a noun or pronoun.

Example: It is he.

Independent ClausesAn independent clause is a clause that can stand alone as a sentence.

Example:

When the sun set, we walked to the beach.


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Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause cannot stand on its own, even though it contains both a subject and a

verb.Example:

When the sun set, we walked to the beach.

Placing a relative pronoun or a subordinate conjunction in front of the clause forms adependent clause:

1. Relative Pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, what, that

2. Subordinate Conjunction: how, when, where, why, if, because, since, though,although, unless, after, before, whence, while, until, as, etc.

The Sentence

A sentence is a group of words that contains at least one independent clause. There arethree different kinds of complete sentences.

1. The Simple Sentence: simple sentences only contain an independent clause.Example: The cat cleaned her fur.

2. The Compound Sentence: compound sentences contain at least two independent

clauses but no dependent clauses.Example: The cat cleaned her fur, but she is still dirty.

3. The Complex Sentence: complex sentences contain an independent and a dependentclause.

Example: When the cat cleans her fur, she always misses a spot.

The Sentence FragmentA sentence fragment is a group of words that is punctuated like a sentence, but does not

contain either a subject of a verb.

Example:Running to the store.

The cat with the brown patches.


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PunctuationPunctuation refers to the grammatical marks used to separate sentences and their

elements and to clarify meaning. Punctuation can also be used tone.

End Punctuation

There are several grammatical marks that are used to conclude a sentence. These are theperiod (.), the question mark (?), and the exclamation point (!).

A period is concludes a sentence with seriousness, factual content, or no emotion.

Example:The cat is fat.

A question mark concludes a sentence by ending a question or a statement of doubt.

Example:Is everything OK?

An exclamation point concludes a sentence with strong emotion or by stating a command.Example:

Go to work!

The CommaThe comma (,) signifies a brief pause. It can be used in a variety of ways.

1. Commas are used to separate clauses in a compound sentence when the clauses areconnected by a coordinating conjunction (and, yet, but, or, nor, for).

Example:

The cat is whiny, but loveable.

The car is cramped, and only has two doors, but it drives well.

2. Commas are used to separate items in a series.

Example:The apartment is large, affordable, clean, and in an accessible location.

3. Commas are used to separate nonrestrictive modifiers from the reset of the sentence (anonrestrictive modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is not essential to the sentence).

Example:

My cat, which I love dearly, is pathetic.

4. Commas are used to separate appositives from the rest of the sentence (appositives are

alternate ways of making a point already made in a sentence).

Example:

My cat, the pathetic animal, sleeps all day.

5. Commas are used to separate parenthetical elements from the rest of the sentence (a

parenthetical element interrupts the sentence to add a word of explanation).Example:


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Your grammar text, scheduled in the coming weeks, will be challenging.

6. Commas are used to separate introductory remarks.Example:

Therefore, you all should study for your grammar exam.

7. Commas are used to separate items in a date or address from the first item.Example:

Molloy College is located in Rockville Centre, New York.

8. Commas are used to separate address from the rest of the sentence.

Example:

Rosalie, come over here.

9. Commas are used to introduce a short quotation or to separate an interruption from the

rest of the quotation.

Example:The student asked, Why do I have to take a grammar exam?

10. Commas are used to prevent misreading.

Example:Confusing: Lets eat Grandma!

Clear: Lets eat, Grandma!


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The SemicolonSemicolons indicate a pause longer than a comma, but shorter than the pause enacted by a

period. Semicolons have two primary uses.

1. Use a semicolon to separate independent clauses in a compound sentence.

Example:We want freedom; we believe it is deserved.

2. Use a semicolon to separate items in a series when one or more of those items contains

a comma.Example:

I went to Columbus, Ohio; Sacramento, California; and Binghamton, New York.


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The ApostropheThe apostrophe indicates the omission of a letter.

1. Possessive Case: Singular nouns and pronouns form their possessive cases with the

apostrophe + s.

Example:Cat = CatsTed Cruz = Ted Cruzs

Singular pronouns that form their possessive with the apostrophe are the indefinitepronouns only (someone, anyone, everybody, another, etc.).

Example:

Someone = someones

Plural nouns ending is s form their possessive cases by adding an apostrophe only.

Example:

Girls = GirlsAlbatross = Albatross

2. Contractions: A contraction is the union of two words in which one or more letters are

omitted in the new word. The omission is marked by an apostrophe.Example:

Cannot = Cant

Would not = Wouldnt

3. Plural of Letters & Numbers: the plural of letters and numbers is formed with an

apostrophe.

Example:Crazy 8s

Ts and Cs are common consonants.


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Quotation MarksQuotation marks set off an exact reproduction of a persons words or spoken language.

Example:Jackson said, I am sad.

Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision; it is the skeleton

architecture of our lives. It lays the foundations for a future of change, a bridgeacross our fears of what has never been before.

1. Punctuation of Quotes:

Introduce a quotation with a comma is the quotation is short.Introduce a quotation with a colon is the quotation is long.

Periods and commas are placed inside quotation marks.

Colons, semicolons, and dashes are placed outside of quotation marks.

Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside quotation marks if they are partof the quotation, if not, then they are placed outside of the quotation marks.

2. Alterations of Quotes: quotations cannot be altered without clear indication of thealteration to the reader.

Example:

The man said, Why should I to Obama?

The man said, Why should I listen to [President] Obama?

Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision; it is the skeleton

architecture of our lives. It lays the foundations for a future of change, a bridgeacross our fears of what has never been before.

Adure Lorde wrote: Poetry is not only a dream and vision [. . .] It lays the

foundations for a future of change, a bridge across our fears of what has neverbeen before.


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Underlining, Italics, and Quotation Marks for TitlesUnderline or Italicize the title of a complete work. Quote the title of any work that is part

of a larger work.Example:

The Oxford English Dictionary

The Book of the Grotesque is a short story that appears in SherwoodAndersons Winesburg, Ohio.


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Parentheses and BracketsParentheses separate extraneous comments or explanatory remarks from the rest of the

sentence. They are stronger separators than commas and dashes.Example:

HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the base language of data visualization.

Brackets are not interchangeable with parentheses. Brackets are used exclusively toindicate that something has been inserted into the direct quotation of another writers

words.

Example:Jackson said: I am sad [sad, not depressed] because I dont have a cat.


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The EllipsisAn ellipsis consists of three evenly spaced periods (. . .). It denotes that something has

been omitted from a quotation.Example:

Quotation:We must develop and maintain the capacity to forgive. He who is devoid of the power toforgive is devoid of the power to love. There is some good in the worst of us and some

evil in the best of us. When we discover this, we are less prone to hate our enemies.

Martin Luther King Jr.

Quotation with an ellipsis:

We must develop and maintain the capacity to forgive. [. . .] There is some good in the

worst of us and some evil in the best of us. When we discover this, we are less prone tohate our enemies.

Martin Luther King Jr.

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