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Unit 21

Gerunds and Infinitives: Verb + Gerund or Infinitive

Some verbs can be followed by an infinitive or a gerund. These verbs in turn can be subdividedinto two groups, verbs with little difference in meaning, and verbs with a distinct change inmeaning.

Verb + Gerund or Infinitive: Little difference in meaning.

Here are some common verbs that can be followed by gerunds or infinitives with little change inmeaning. A change of meaning may still exist however, as there are almost limitlesscombinations of verbs and gerunds/infinitives.

begin - She began to sing. - He began woring here last year.bother - !on"t bother to wash the dishes. #"ll do it. - !on"t bother washing the dishes. #"ll doit.continue - $ou can continue to live here for % months. - $ou can continue living here for %months.

start - # started to learn the clarinet when # was &. # started learning the clarinet when # was&.

love / like / hate /prefer

These four verbs use the gerund for situations or actions in progress. The infinitive is used forfactual information.

hate - # hate working at my new 'ob (#"m worng there now.)- # hate to work on Sundays. (specific time and situation)

like - # lie playing the piano. (# lie the process andfeeling of playing the piano.)- # lie to play the piano. (#t"s a fact # lie to play the piano.)

love - # love living in the country. (#"m probably living there now.)- # love to live in the country. (*enerally speaing # lie the country, maybe #"m not living therenow.)

prefer - # prefer to study by myself. (Sounds factual)- # prefer studying by myself. (Sounds more personal, perhaps #"m studying now.)

These verbs are also often used with would and the infinitive, and refer to specific situations.+or example- # would love to go to hina.- e would prefer to meet at .00.

llow / permit

Allow and permit have one pattern for gerunds and another for infinitives.allow 1 gerund - 2y teacher doesn"t allow eating in class.allow 1 ob'ect 1 infinitive - 2y teacher doesn"t allow us to eat in class.permit 1 gerund - 2y teacher doesn"t permit eating in class.permit 1 ob'ect 1 infinitive - 2y teacher doesn"t permit us to eat in class.

omplete the sentences using a gerund or an infinitive.

!"ample: The 3ules ommittee allowed each candidate 44444 for five minutes.

a) taling b) to tal - The answer is b) to tal----------

5. 6ur teacher doesn"t allow 44444 in Study Hall.

a) taling b) to tal

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7. This license permits 44444 under certain conditions.

a) driving b) to drive

8. ould you be willing to allow me 44444 my own opinion9

a) having b) to have

:. Should we permit foreigners 44444 campaign contributions9

a) maing b) to mae

;. +or the protection of our campers, we cannot permit 44444.

a) wandering b) to wander

%. 6ur wor schedules do not permit us 44444 our children long distances.

a) driving b) to drive

. $ou"ll be surprised how preparing ahead will allow 44444 some extra fun too.

a) having b) to have

&. How can you permit your children 44444 around <ew $or at the dead of night9

a) wandering b) to wander

=. This nife has a particularly fine blade that allows 44444 precise cuts and incisions.

a) maing b) to mae

50. *roup wor allows students 44444 about their understandings and discoveries with peers.

a) taling b) to tal

#nit $$

%onditionals

>nglish conditional statements are grouped into four main types - ?ero, first, second, and thirdconditional.

&ero %onditional

@ero conditional is used for statements and facts which are perceived to be true.

@ero conditional has the form if + present simple + present simple. +or example- #f you run fast you get tired.All conditionals have two clauses, the if clause

- #f you have time, ...and the main clause - ...come and visit us.

>ither of these two clauses can come first- #f it rains tae an umbrella - or also- Tae an umbrella if it rains.

The ?ero conditional is often used with imperatives. +or example- #f you feel sic, see a doctor.- #f you can"t tae the heat, stay out of the kitchen.

The zero conditional (using If you can't...) is often found in old sayings and proverbs.

Complete the sayings and proverbs below using the clauses in the box.

you can't behelped.

better not showyour teeth.

be thanful forwhat you haveescaped.

then you'll !usthave to serve as ahorrible warning.

!oin them.

don't say anythingat all. ad!ust your sail. you can't rule. get out of theitchen. somebody elsewill.

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'. #f you can"t serve

$. #f you can"t beat them,

(. #f you can"t bite,

). #f you can"t tae advice,

*. #f you can"t control the wind,

. #f you can"t stand the heat,

,. #f you can"t laugh at yourself,

-. #f you can"t say anything nice,

. #f you can"t be a good example,

'. #f you can"t be content with what you have received,

#nit $(

0irst %onditional

+irst conditional is used for statements and facts which will be true, if a certain condition is met.

+irst conditional has the form if + present simple + will + base verb. +or example- #f it"s sunny, we"ll go to the beach.- #f # have time, #"ll meet you at wor.- #f we don"t go now, we"ll be late.As with all conditionals the first conditonal has two clauses, the if clause

- #f you help us, ...and the main clause - ...we"ll help you..

>ither of these two clauses can come first

- #f he gets a new 'ob we"ll move to Bondon. - or also- e"ll move to Bondon if he gets a new 'ob.

#n the first conditional will is a modal verb expressing certainty. 6ther modal verbs can also beused to show various degrees of certainty. +or example- #f you lie Asian food, you"ll love this restaurant. (There is a 500C chance you"ll love therestaurant.)- #f you lie Asian food, you should lie this restaurant. (&0C)- #f you lie Asian food, you might lie this restaurant. (;0C)- #f you lie Asian food, you probably won"t lie this restaurant. (70C)- #f you lie Asian food, you won"t lie this restaurant. (0C)

Dsing the rules for first conditionals, complete the sentences below.

!"ample: #f the teacher 44444 come, who 444449

a) doesn"t... will teach

b) does... won"t teach - The answer is a) doesn"t... will teach----------

5. # 44444 say anything if you 44444.

a) don"t... won"t b) won"t... don"t

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7. hat 44444 if you 44444 get a 'ob9

a) do you do... won"t b) will you do... don"t

8. #f a soufflE 44444 punctured or shaen it 44444.

a) is... will collapse b) will be... collapses

:. #f teachers 44444 earn respect, students 44444 give it.

a) don"t... won"t b) won"t... don"t

;. $ou 44444 ased to leave if you 44444 follow the rules.

a) are... won"t b) will be... don"t

%. #f you 44444 eep up with the payments, you 44444 your home.

a) don"t... will lose b) won"t... lose

. Badybugs 44444 fly if the temperature 44444 below 58 degrees elsius.

a) don"t... will be b) won"t... is

&. hat 44444 you get if you 44444 a huge, hairy monster with a penguin9

a) do... will cross b) will... cross

=. e 44444 your deposit if you 44444 your reservation more than days in advance.

a) return... will cancel b) will return... cancel

50. #f the company 44444 banrupt, how 44444 able to pay our bills and feed our families9

a) goes... will we be b) will go... are we

#nit $)

Indefinite 1ronouns

Indefinite pronouns replace specific things with general, non-specific concepts. +or example- # want to live abroad in #taly.- # want to live abroad somewhere.This unit covers indefinite pronouns made with some, any , no, and every .

2ome / any

Some and any can be combined with -thing to refer to an undefined ob'ect. +or example- There"s someone outside the door.- There isn"t anyone in the office.

Some and any can be combined with -where to refer to an undefined location. +or example- #"m looing for somewhere to live.- e don"t want to live anywhere near here.

Some and any can be combined with -body or -one to refer to an undefined person. There isvery little difference in meaning between -body and -one. +or example- #f you have a problem, someone/somebody will help you.- !o you now anyone/anybody who can help9

These compound nouns follow the same rules as some and any , that is some is used inaffirmative statements, and any is used in negative statements and Fuestions. +or example- # need something from the supermaret.- # don"t need anything from the supermaret.- !o you need anything from the supermaret9

3o

No can be combined with various nouns to mean an absence of something. +or example- !id you find your wallet9 <o, there"s nothing here.- !id anything happen9 <o, nothing happened.

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- This 'ob is going nowhere. (#t"s not getting better.)- 3owhere is as good as here. (# lie here the best.)

- #s anybody here9 <o, there"s nobody here.- # waited for an hour but nobody came.

Sometimes words with no- can have more emphasis than words with any . +or example

- # didn"t tell anyone what happened.- # told nobody what happened.

!very

Every can be used to mean a group or total of individual things. +or example- !verything in this house is simple and useful.- Gane was sic last night, but everything is 6 now.

- !veryone was at 2ichael"s birthday party last night.

- Iaseball caps come from America, but people wear them everywhere.

omplete the sentences below with the correct indefinite pronoun.

!"ample: # have 44444 to go.

a) nowhere b) nobody - The answer is a) nowhere----------

5. 44444 you can do, # can do better.

a) Anybody b) Anything

7. # have 44444 important to tell you.

a) somebody b) something

8. an 44444 reliably predict an earthFuae9

a) anyone b) anywhere

:. e"re bored because there"s 44444 to do.

a) anything b) nothing

;. # thought # had heard voices, but 44444 was there.

a) nobody b) somebody

%. Here"s fifty dollars. $ou can buy 44444 you want.

a) anyone b) anything

. e don"t want 44444 telling us what we should do.

a) anybody b) nobody

&. 44444 tastes as good as ola 3ola. #t"s the best drin in the houseJ

a) Anything b) <othing

=. <o one is really sure how the universe and 44444 in it was created.

a) everything b) nothing

50. Are you taing her 44444 special tonight, lie an expensive restaurant9

a) anywhere b) everywhere

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#nit $*

4ust and 5ave to 6 3ecessity

2ust and have to are modal verbs often used to convey necessity.- # have to go home now.- # must arrive by 57.00.

Have to is used for general necessity. +or example- # have to finish this before 57.00. (# have a general obligation to finish this by 57.00)Must is used for necessity which we feel personally.- # must finish this before 57.00. (# have a sense of strong personal responsibility to finish this.)

Must does not have a past form, we have to use have to for the past.- # had to get up early this morning.- # must got up early this morning. This is incorrect.

<ote that have to inflects lie a normal verb, it can have different tenses and uses auxiliaryverbs for Fuestions and negatives. +or example

- 7o we have to go out tonight9- $ou don8t have to come with us.

Must doesn"t use auxiliary verbs or different tenses.- 4ust we go out tonight9 (This sounds rather Iritish, # really don"t want to go out tonight.)- e mustn8t forget the ticets. (<o auxiliary verb to do, 'ust add not .)

3egative 0orms

Don't have to means that something is not necessary, but possible.- $ou don8t have to come, but you can if you want to.- e don8t have to leave today.

4ust not is strong and means that something is prohibited.- $ou must not push the red button.- e mustn"t be late.

4ust and have to 6 %ertainty

2ust and have to can also express certainty.- This must be the right way.- This has to be the right way.

omplete the sentences below using must or a form of have to.

!"ample: $ou 44444 light a naed flame near the gas pumps.

a) don"t have to b) must not - The answer is b) must not----------

5. Kictoria 44444 wae up at :00 in the morning yesterday.

a) had to b) must

7. # strongly believe that they should 44444 as permission.

a) have to b) must

8. an 44444 reliably predict an earthFuae9

a) anyone b) anywhere

:. hen # was young, # 44444 do many things for myself.

a) didn"t have to b) must not

;. hile operating a motor vehicle, you 44444 drin and drive.

a) don"t have to b) must not

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%. hy 44444 a new year come for us to mae changes in our lives9

a) has to b) must

. $ou 44444 wear a tie, but you can wear one if you want to.

a) don"t have to b) must not

&. The weather became so severe that all of the worers 44444 be sent home.

a) had to b) must

=. Iill 44444 see everything at once because he can always visit again.

a) doesn"t have to b) must not

50. 44444 all of the current assumptions about the universe one day be revised9

a) Have to b) 2ust

#nit $

2hould / 9ught to

Should is a modal verb used to give advice and recommendation.- $ou should see a doctor.- $ou should eep your promises.- Should we buy her a present9

Should can also be used for obligation. +or example- # should call my 2um tomorrow.- He should apologi?e to 2ary.

Should is also used for when something is expected.- Tony should arrive here at 57.00.- #t"s 57.80, and Tony should be here.- This boo is wrong, tha answer should be A.

<ote that have to inflects lie a normal verb, it can have different tenses and uses auxiliaryverbs for Fuestions and negatives. +or example- 7o we have to go out tonight9- $ou don8t have to come with us.

Must doesn"t use auxiliary verbs or different tenses.- 4ust we go out tonight9 (This sounds rather Iritish, # really don"t want to go out tonight.)

- e mustn8t forget the ticets. (<o auxiliary verb to do, 'ust add not .)

9ught to

u!ht to can be used instead of should. #t is less common than should and sounds ratherIritish.- $ou ought to say than you for the present. ($ou should say than you for the present)

<egatives and Fuestions are less common and even more Iritish.- e ought not to be late for the meeting.Luestions are often made with !o you thin..- !o you thin # ought to get up earlier9

Luestions with 'ust ou!ht to are rare.- 6ught # to get up earlier9

The ?ero conditional (using #f you can"t...) is often found in old sayings and proverbs.

omplete the sayings and proverbs below using the clauses in the box.

!"ample: should apologi?e Gill to 2ar for being late.

nswer: Jill should apo

to 2ar for being late.

'. 6ught 2ary to clean up the mess she made.

clean up the mess she made.

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$. opposite the Shouldn"t of ?ero be everything9

of ?ero be everything9

(. loo should >veryone at the stars from time to time.

at the stars from time to time.

). should e have a plan when the going gets difficult.

when the going gets difficult.

*. turn we whom To should for inspiration and wisdom9

for inspiration and wisdom9

. study if ought !an to more he wants to pass the exam.

he wants to pass the exam.

,. to ought $ou worry not about things you can"t change.

things you can"t change.

-. schools that Some thin should things offer parenting classes.

offer parenting classes.

. ought Kegetables to canned be while they"re still fresh.

while they"re still fresh.

'. do you !on"t say something to ought unless you can actually do it.

unless you can actually do it.

#nit $,

1repositions and %onunctions of ;ime 6 for / during / while / when

0or

"or shows how long something happened. #t is used to refer to a period of time. +or example- e"re ging to live in 2alta for months.- She"s in <ew $or for a few days.- e went to Saudi Arabia for a week.

See also the related unit on the Mresent Merfect and since.

<hile / 7uring

Ioth durin! and while refer to a period of time in which something happens. +or example- 2y phone rang while # was in a meeting.- 2y phone rang during the meeting.

Durin! is used with a noun or noun phrase. +or example- e were busy during the weekend.- 7uring the night the cat woe me up.

- The Athenians suffered heavy losses during the battle of 2alamis.

#hile is used with a sub'ect and verb. +or example- e went shopping while you were sleeping.- $ou shouldn"t eat while you are in the library.- <hile I was working # got an email from Tamara.

<hen / <hile

#hen and while can both be used when two things happen at the same time.

hen two continuous actions happen at the same time, we usually use while. +or example

- <hile you were studying # went out shopping. Studyin! and shoppin! are actions.

50



hen two short events happen at the same time, we use when. +or example- =<hen # saw you # didn"t recogni?e you. I saw you and I didn't reco!ni$e you are individualevents.- # heard you when you opened the door.#n this situation while is incorrect. +or example=<hile # saw you # didn"t recogni?e you.

hen one continuous bacground situation occurs and one shorter event occurs at the sametime, when and while can both be used. +or example- <hen # was in 3ome # met my wife. - <hile # was in 3ome # met my wife.- # cut myself while # was cooing dinner. - # cut myself when # was cooing dinner.

The position of while and when clauses is interchangeable with usually little difference inmeaning.- !on"t forget to loc the door when you go out. - <hen you go out don"t forget to loc thedoor.- e"re still growing while other businesses are losing clients. - <hile other businesses arelosing clients, we"re still growing.

#nit $-

1repositions and %onunctions of ;ime $ 6 by / from / until

>y

%y shows a time limit for something to happen - an event must occur before a certain time isreached. +or example- $ou need to finish this report by 4onday.- #"ll be bac by si" o8clock.

- 6ur business will be maing a profit by ne"t 4arch.

51

omplete the sentences using during,for, while, and when.

!"ample: 44444 the night, the wind blewthe front door open.

a) !uring

b) hile

The answer is a) - !uring----------

5. The phone rang several times 44444dinner.

a) during

b) when

7. #t began to snow 44444 # was walinghome

a) for

b) while

8. e visited many relatives 44444 ourvacation.

a) during

b) when

". #usan has been studying $nglish %%%%% fiveyears.

a) for

b) when

;. The children have been playing videogames 44444 hours.

a) for

b) during

%. 44444 the hie up the mountain, wesaw a lot of deer.

a) !uring

b) hile

. # was shoced 44444 # saw my picturein the newspaper.

a) during

b) when

&. 44444 # got to wor, # noticed mycomputer was unplugged.

a) +or

b) hen

=. A car pulled out in front of me 44444 #was riding my bicycle.

a) during

b) while

50. 44444 the last guests finally left theparty, it was early morning.

a) +or

b) hen



There are three common phrases used with by

>y the time

# want to be a successful businessman by the time #"m 80.>y the time we arrive at the station, the train will be gone.

>y then

They have four months to prepare for the soccer game, so by then they should be a strongteam.The deadline for giving your essay is next 2onday at :.00. #f # don"t receive your essay by

then, it won"t be mared.

>y that time

e finished wor at =.00, but by that time it was too late to go out.# hope to go abroad next year, and by that time #"ll have enough money.

#ntil

Dntil means an action or situation continues up to a certain time. +or example

- e were woring last night until $.(.- $ou can stay at home until you feel better.- an you wait until I8m ready9

ompare until and &y - #"ll wor here until September. This means # eep woring here to September, then # stop.- #"ll wor here by September. This means that #"m not woring here now, but sometimebetween now and September # will start.

;ill

ill is another form of until , the meaning is generally the same although until is usually used at

the beginning of a sentence.

0rom ... to/until

"rom ((( to)until is used to mar the beginning and end of a period of time. +or example- estern people often wor from 2onday to +riday, but 6riental people often wor from 2onday to Saturday.- #"m staying in Saudi Arabia from the beginning of 2arch until the end of August."rom ... to is slightly more informal than from ... until .

52

omplete the sentences using by, from,and till /until.

!"ample: #"ll stay 44444 # feel it"s timeto go.

a) after

b) until

The answer is b) - until----------

5. The restaurant will stay open 44444700 am.

a) by

b) until

7. 44444 70; am, everyone will haveleft and the place will be empty.

a) Iy

b) Dntil

8. 2y wife and # hope we will have found

a house 44444 the end of Guly.a) by

b) from

". In the three&month period %%%%% ay touly house prices rose by **+.

a) from

b) until

,. I told ary I'd meet her at -*, so I/llstudy in the library %%%%% -00 pm.

a) by

b) till

-. %%%%% Christmas time ary and I willhave been together for seven months.

a) 1y

b) 2rom

3. The Cold 4ar lasted %%%%% the end of4orld 4ar II until the fall of #oviet 5nion.

a) from

b) till

6. %%%%% the time the 5.#.#.7. broe up itseconomy was in a severe state of collapse.

a) 1y

b) 5ntil



#nit $

1repositions and %onunctions of ;ime ( 6 before / after / as / as soon as

>efore

%efore is used for something that occurs before a certain time. +or example- e should finish this exercise before )..- # need to buy a present before Games comes.- >efore starting any business, it"s a good idea to write a business plan.

<ote that when a preposition is followed by a verb, the verb ends in ing. So for example- here did you live before coming to America9 orrect- here did you live before to come to America9 #ncorrect

fter

After is used for something that occurs after a certain time. +or example- #"ll see you after wor.- amilla won"t be home until after midnight.- !avid got promoted after 'ust two years with the company.

s 6 ;ime

As is used when two shorter actions happen together. +or example- # dropped my eys as # left my apartment.

As is also used when two longer actions happen together. +or example

- His health improved as he exercised more.- s time went by his >nglish got better.

As is also used when an action happens during a bacground situation.- # woe up as the sun was rising.- She arrived as you were leaving.

s 6 ?eason

As is often used to show one thing is the cause of another, lie the word because. +orexample- #"m going to bed early as # have to get up early tomorrow.

- s we"re not busy, let"s meet this afternoon for lunch.

s soon as

As soon as is used when something happens immediately after something else. +or example- #"ll give you a call as soon as #"m finished.- s soon as they go out let"s eat lunch.- e"ll send payment as soon as you fax the signed contract.

53

Complete the sentences using before, after , as, andas soon as.

1. You will not be hungry _____ you eat.

a) after

b) before

2. _____ the sun set, the shadows lengthened.

a) After

b) As

. !"ery night _____ # go to bed, # brush my teeth.

a) after

b) before

$. _____ the girl fell asleep, she had a strange dream.

a) After

b) %efore

&. _____ # was building a fire, smo'e 'ept getting inmy eyes.

a) As

b) %efore

(. # want to graduate from high school _____ possible.

a) after

b) as soon as



Unit 30

1resent 1erfect '

The Mresent Merfect is used to connect the past and the present. #t"s core purpose is to show thepresent relevancy of a past action or situation. +or example- Gohn has gone home.

Gohn went home in the past , but our real interest is where he is now . This sentence gives pastinformation to inform a present situation.

0orm

The Mresent Merfect is made with have/has (the auxiliary verb to have) and the pastparticiple. +or example- # have worked in Bondon.- She has worked in a ban.3egular past participles are made by adding -ed to the verb, for example wor* - wor*ed, play - played . There are however many irregular past participles which you can see at the #rregularKerb Mage.

Here are the Mresent Merfect forms of the verb to wor* .

2ingular 1lural

ffirmative # have wored$ou have woredHe has woredShe has wored#t has wored

e have wored$ou have woredThey have wored

3egative # haven"t wored (haven"t N have not)$ou haven"t woredHe hasn"t wored

She hasn"t wored#t hasn"t wored

e haven"t wored$ou haven"t woredThey haven"t wored

Interrogative Have # wored9Have you wored9Has he wored9Has she wored9Has it wored9

Have # wored9Have you wored9Have they wored9

#sage

Here are some of the many usages of the Mresent Merfect. Iear in mind that for all theseindividual cases the main purpose of connecting past and present is essentially the same.

. 1ast informing 1resent

'. The Mresent Merfect is used to give past information that is relevant to the present. +orexample- Have you been shopping9 $es, # went this morning.The Fuestion Have you been shopping9 ass about a past fact - did you go shopping or not.However this Fuestion is ased because of a present need - #f you have been shopping, we don"tneed to go now - #f you haven"t been shopping we need to go now . This Fuestion is about apresent need, not a past fact.

$. The Mresent Merfect is used to relate past experience. +or example

- Have you been to #taly9- <o, # haven"t been there.Again the Fuestion Have you been to #taly9 ass about a past fact, but the past time orcircumstances are not so important. #nstead we want this information for a present need -perhaps we are having a conversation about travel abroad, or maybe #"m interested in #taly. ecan"t tell from 'ust one sentence, but the focus here is on a present need, not a past fact.

(. The Mresent Merfect is used for achievements. +or example- Games has won first pri?e for math.Games won the pri?e in the past, but the focus is on his present achievement.

>. 1ast ;ime 6 1resent ;ime

54

http://www.1-language.com/englishcoursenew/unit51_grammar.htm#%23






'. The Mresent Merfect is used to show change from the past to the present.- Gohn"s >nglish wasn"t very good, but he"s got much better.Ietween a past time and the present, Gohn"s >nglish has improved. The focus is less on howpoor Gohn was in the past, but rather how much better he is now.

$. The Mresent Merfect is used for a situation or action that started in the past and continues tothe present. #t"s common to use for and since in these situations.+or example

- Gohn"s lived in Ioston for ; years.Gohn came to Ioston ; years ago, and he still lives there.- He"s been a lawyer for 57 years.

(. The Mresent Merfect is used for repeated actions that started in the past and continue to thepresent. +or example- e"ve been to >ngland : times.e went to >ngland several times the past, and it"s possible we could go there again in thefuture.

). The Mresent Merfect is used for a period of time that started in the past but still continues inthe present.- #"ve studied at the library every day this wee.This wee started in the past, but it"s still going on, it isn"t finished yet.

Indefinite and 7efinite ;ime

6ne convenient rule about the Mresent Merfect is it cannot be used with definite time. +orexample- #"ve been on vacation. 6- # went on vacation last month. 6- #"ve been on vacation last month. #ncorrect.e cannot use definite time with the Mresent Merfect. Iy definition the Mresent Merfect uses pastinformation to focus on the present time, so introducing a past time as well is non-sensical.

As a general rule #f the exact past time is important use the Mresent Simple - #f the exact pasttime is not important use the Mresent Merfect. +or example- # went to Maris last year. - +ocus is on the past time.- #"ve been to Maris. - +ocus is how our past experience affects the present.

The Mresent Merfect can be used with time adverbs. +or example- # haven"t had a vacation recently.

<ote the Mresent Merfect can be used with time periods that haven"t finished yet. +or example# haven"t had a vacation this year. 6 - This year isn"t finished yet, so the Mresent Merfect isused for a time that continues from past to present.# haven"t had a vacation last year. #ncorrect

55

Complete the sentences using have hashaven’t and hasn’t.

1. All of the patients in the study _____ signed wai"ers.

a) ha"e

b) has

c) ha"ent

d) hasnt

2. # _____ learned that a girl in one of my classes has anidentical twin.

a) ha"e

b) has

c) ha"ent

d) hasnt

. *he demand for apartments _____ been high and few"acancies e+ist.

a) ha"e

b) has

c) ha"ent

d) hasnt

". The attractions of the campus %%%%% changedat all since I was a student.

a) have

b) has

c) haven't

d) hasn't

,. 8lthough some of my youthful idealism %%%%%faded I am still an optimist at heart.

a) have

b) has

c) haven't

d) hasn't

-. 4e %%%%% wored late every day this weeso today they're letting us leave at 900.

a) have

b) has

c) haven't

d) hasn't



#nit ('

1resent 1erfect $ 6 !ver / 3ever / 5ave you ever...@

5ave you ever...@

Have you ever...9 is a common structure used to as about past experience. +or example- Have you ever met a famous person9This roughly means !o you have a past experience of meeting a famous person / !id you meeta famous person at any time in the past9- Have you ever flown in a plane9- Have you ever won a competition9- Haven"t you ever done this before9

!ver

Ever means at any time, the specific time is unnown or unnecessary.

Ever is used in Fuestions, see Have you ever..9 above.

Ever is also used with nothin!, no&ody and so on for things that haven"t happened before. +orexample- <obody has ever travelled through time.- That window"s been broen for months, but nothing has ever been done about it.

Ever is also used with the first time for first experiences. +or example- This is the first time #"ve been abroad.- #s this your first time on a plane9

- This is the first time #"ve ever eaten dog soup.

Ever can be used in afirmative sentences though it is more unusual and often old-fashioned. +ormore info you can chec out http//dictionary.reference.com/search9FNever

3ever

<ever is originally a contraction of not ever. Dsed with the Mresent Merfect it means thesub'ect hasn"t had a certain experience before. +or example- Have you ever been abroad9 <o, #"ve never been abroad.#"ve never had that experience before.- Have you ever been on a plane before9 <o, #"ve never been on a plane.

<egative Fuestions are also possible. +or example- Have you never eaten this before9This shows surprise that you"ve never had a certain experience before.- Have you never played soccer9

56

Complete the sentences using ever and never.

*. I have %%%%% been to 2rance.

a) ever

b) never

:. I thin I have %%%%% really nown you.

a) ever

b) never

9. That/s the smallest car I have %%%%% riddenin.

a) ever

b) never

". %%%%% have I suggested that a test shouldreplace a teacher.

a) ever

b) never

,. #he is probably the most fascinatingwoman I have %%%%% met.

a) ever

b) never

-. %%%%% have I met a person with suchconstantly terrible bad luc.

a) ever

b) never

3. If you %%%%% have ;uestions please don'thesitate to contact me personally.

a) ever

b) never

6. If you have %%%%% felt or nown real loveyou now it is well worth the wait.

a) ever

b) never

http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=ever

http://dictionary.reference.com/search?q=ever



Unit 32

1resent 1erfect ( 6 0or / 2ince

Since and for are both used for situations and actions that start in the past and continue to thepresent. +or example- #"ve been at home for : hours.- #"ve been at home since 57.00.

2ince

Since is used wiuth a point of time. +or example- #"ve lived here since 2arch.- #"ve been here since =.00 this morning.

Since is only used with perfect forms such as the Mresent Merfect, Mast Merfect and so on - itcannot be used with other forms. +or example- #"ve studied english since last year - orrect- # studied / # am studying / # will study >nglish since last year - #ncorrect

Since is also used with time clauses. +or example- #"ve studied >nglish since I was at universiity.- e haven"t seen my family since we got married.<ote that the main clause uses the Mresent Merfect, wheras the other clause uses the MastSimple.

0or

"or is used with a period of time. +or example- #"ve lived here for = months.- She"s been here for ; hours.

Dnlie since, for can be used with tenses other than perfect tenses. +or example- # lived here for = months - This period of time started and ended in the past, it is now finished.

- # will live here for a year - This period of time will start and end in the future, it hasn"t startedyet.- # have lived here for a long time - This period of time started in the past and continues to thepresent. #t isn"t finished yet.

57

Complete the sentences

*. 4hat have you been doing %%%%% we lastspoe<

a) for

b) since

:. 4hat has changed in your life %%%%% youmoved here<

a) for

b) since

9. I have been woring full&time %%%%% severalwees now.

a) for

b) since

". =onald hasn't wanted to tal to me %%%%%our argument.

a) for

b) since

,. Tony #wanson has been with the company

%%%%% twenty&five years.

a) for

b) since

-. The little girl was hungry because shehadn/t eaten anything %%%%% a while.

a) for

b) since

3. >uerto 7icans have been migrating to the5nited #tates %%%%% over a century.

a) for

b) since

6. ?uman beings have sought to now theunimaginable %%%%% the beginning of time.

a) for

b) since

@. It is believed that everything in theuniverse has existed %%%%% the 1ig 1ang *,billion years ago.

a) for

b) since



#nit ((

dverbs of ;ime 6 ago / already / anymore / ust / yet / still

These adverbs give additional information about when something happens.

go

A!o simply means in the past. +or example- # graduated university 8 years ago.- e moved to anada 'ust 7 months ago.

lready

Already is used when something happens before it is expected. +or example- He"s only 58, but he already speas three languages.- an you finish this by tomorrow9 Sure, it"s already finished.- $ou don"t need to feed the dog, #"ve already done it.

nymore

Anymore is used when something has has changed from what we expect. +or example- # want to email her, but her address isn"t woring anymore. (#t wored before, but not now)- 2y friend used to live here, but she doesn"t live here anymore.- # don"t want to wor here anymore. (# wanted to wor here, but no # don"t lie woring here.)

Aust

+ust is used for something that happened very recently. +or example- # 'ust found out my test score, # got an AJ- hat was that noise9 - Sorry, # 'ust broe a glass.

$ou can also use ' +ust a&out for something that will happen very soon.- Are you finished9 - $es, #"m 'ust about to go home.- #"m hungry. - #f you wait ; minutes, #"m 'ust about to mae some lunch.

2till

Still is used when something happens for longer than expected. +or example- !id you get a new 'ob9 <o, #"m still woring at my old one.- She"s %; years old, but she still exercises 8 times a wee.

Still is also used to confirm that an activity or situation is continuing and that nothing haschanged. +or example- Are you still studying >nglish9 $ep, # still study a little every day.- !o you still want to go abroad9 6f course, #"d love toJ

Bet

et is used when something hasn"t happened that is expected. #t is used negative sentences andFuestions. +or example- Are you finished9 <o, #"m not finished yet.- Has the mail come yet9 <o, it"s not here yet.

Still can be used with a similar meaning. +or example- 2y parents haven"t arrived yet.- 2y parents still haven"t arrived.Still in negative sentences and Fuestions often shows impatience or that something isunexpected.<ote that yet is usually at the end of the sentence, wheras still comes before the negative form.

omplete the sentences using adverbs of time.

58



!"ample: #Om almost finished, but #Om not done 44444.

a) yet

b) still

c) ago

#nit () 6 Cuestion ;ags

Luestion tags are small Fuestions tagged on to the end of a sentence to mae a Fuestion. +or

example

Sentence- She speas >nglish.

Luestion- !oes she spea >nglish9

Luestion Tag- She speas >nglish, doesn8t she9

0orm

Luestion tags are made from an auxiliary verb and the sub'ect.

#f the sentence is affirmative, we usually use a negative tag, for eaxmple

- That8s a great song, isn8t it9

- She8s a lawyer, isn8t she9

#f the sentence is negative, the tag is positive. +or example

- $ou"re not busy, are you9

- This way isn8t right, is it9

59

*. I %%%%% arrived ten minutes ago.

a) !ust

b) yet

c) still

:. I haven/t finished my essay %%%%%.

a) !ust

b) already

c) yet

9. I moved to Chicago about five years%%%%%.

a) anymore

b) ago

c) already

". I/ve only wored two hours and I/m %%%%%tired.

a) yet

b) already

c) anymore

,. I'm %%%%% at the college. I/ve been therethree years.

a) ago

b) anymore

c) still

-. I don't now my way around %%%%% but I/mlearning.

a) yet

b) !ust

c) already

3. I bought a house so I don/t live in anapartment %%%%%.

a) anymore

b) yet

c) !ust

6. This boo is so easy to read that I/m %%%%%in chapter *0.

a) ago

b) still

c) already

@. I hired someone today so I/m not

accepting applications %%%%%.

a) anymore

b) already

c) yet

*0. I %%%%% heard on the radio that a big snowstorm is coming our way.

a) ago

b) !ust

c) anymore



The auxiliary verb and sub'ect in the Fuestion tag match those in the main sentence. 6nly the

positive and negative past changes. +or example

- 5e can play the trumpet, can"t he9

- Bou haven"t finished yet, have you9

Here the sub'ect is in blue, and the auxiliary verb in green. #t"s 'ust whether each part of the

Fuestion is positive or negative that changes.

0unction

Luestion tags have two main purposes to confirm expected information and to Fuestion

unexpected information. $ou can tell which function is being used by the voice - when the voice

goes down it"s checing expected information - when the voice goes up it"s really asing a

Fuestion. +or example

- #ntonation going down - $ou haven"t finished yet, have you9

# expect you haven"t finished, #"m 'ust checing.

- #ntonation going up - $ou haven"t finished yet, have you9#"m really asing if you"re finished or not. #f you are finished it"s earlier than # expected, so #"m

surprised.

- $ou"re really busy now, aren"t you9 - $es, #"ve got to finish this by 2onday.

#"m confirming you"re busy now, possibly showing sympathy as well.

- hy are you watching TK9 $ou"re really busy now, aren"t you9 - <ot really, # did most of it last

night.

# thin you"re busy but #"m surprised, you should be woring not watching TK, so #"m asing

about an unexpected situation.

<egative sentences with positive tags are often used for reFuests, for example

- $ou don"t have a pencil, do you9

- $ou couldn"t change a P; bill, could you9

#mperative Fuestions tags usually use will , for example

- 6pen the door for me, wil you9

- Hang on a minute, will you9

Dnless used with informal language, Fuestion tags with imperatives can often sound impatient.

Luestion tags are an important part of natural speech and are particularly useful in small tal,

as they help to confirm and affirm ey information in a sympathetic way.

Choose the correct tag to finish the sentence.

1. Teresa is an accountant,___?

arent she doesnt she isnt she -he isnt

2. I am a good worker,___?

# am do # amnt # arent #

3. Peirre is a grandfather,___?

he isnt isnt he he is doesnt he

4. ate is a doctor, ___?

she is is she doesnt she isnt she

!. "ac#ues and $%icia are students, ___?

arent they are they isnt he isnt they

&. 'ario is at work right now, ___?

arent they isnt he is he isnt she

(. I)m here, ___?

am # not am not # amnt # arent you

*. +ou and I are bus right now, ___?

arent # arent we we arent arent you

60



am # arent they isnt it isnt he

61

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