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GRAMMAR BOOK

Near certainty in the pas t: must have / cant have

When we are unsure of occurrences in the past, we can use theseexpressions to

indicate an assumption of the event that probably took place in a past moment.

Structure Use

subject + must have + past participle Deduction

Near certainty in the past

Example:

John wasnt in class yesterday. He must have been sick.


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Structure Use

subject + cant have + past participle A deduction aboutsomething that

didnt happen in the past.

Example:

I saw Joh n in the pub. He cant have been sick.


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eClass English

5Questions

Questions without interrogative words

Examples

The Verb to be

To be + subject Are you married?


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GRAMMAR BOOK

Interrogative Words

Interrogative words are used to ask very specific questionsrelated to the person, place,

reason, etc. that an action occurs.

Interrogative word Use Example

Who refers to people Who is he?

Who do you know?

Which refers to people or things Which do you prefer tea or coffee?

when there is a choice


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What refers to things What sport do you play?

How refers to manner or means How do you spell your name? (manner)

How do you go to work? (means)

Why asks about reason Why dont you like her?

Where refers to location Where is the museum?

When refers to time or date When does the store open?

When do you leave?

Whose refers to possession Whose pen is this?

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eClass English

How long

How long

is used to ask

questions about

duration.

Structure Example

How long + to be How long + is/are + noun How long is yourvacation?

How long are the books?

How long + present simple How long + do/does + How long do youtake to


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subject + verb eat breakfast?

How long does it take to get to work?

Beginner level should only study the twostructures above.

Below are some examples of how long withother tenses.

Structure Example

How long + preterit (past simple) How long + did + subject + verb Howlong did you spend in Italy?

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long haveyou had that car?

subject + past participle

How long + present perfect How long + have / has + How long haveyou been

continuous subject + been+ gerund stu dying English?


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GRAMMAR BOOK

Past Interrogatives

The verb to be

Was / were + subject

was I? Where was Ann yesterday?

he? Was the weather good?

she?

it?

were we? Were they expensive?

you?

they?


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The Preterit (Past Simple)

Did + subject + verb

I

you What did you do yesterday?

he Where did he go on holiday?

Did she watch? Did it rain on Saturday?

it

we

they


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eClass English

Questions Tags

Question tags are mini -questions placed at the end of asentence.

A positive sentence A negative question tag

A negative sentence A positive question tag

Examples

The verb to be Present Continuous

Youre a doctor, arent you? He is studying English, isnt he?

He is not here today, is he? Youre not meeting Jim, are you?

Present SimplePreterit/ Past Simple

They work together, dont they? He went on vacation, didnt he?

She doesnt eat meat, does she? They didnt work yesterday, did they?

Question tags can be formed for all tenses. Your


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teacher will give

you examples for the tenses you have learned so far.

The meaning of a question tag depends on how you say it.

If your voice -

You arent really asking a question; you are onlyGoes down

inviting the listener to agree with you.

Example : Its a beautiful day, isnt it?

Yes, lovely.

Its a beautiful

day, isnt it?

Yes, lovely.

You are asking a real question.

Example : You didnt see Mary, did you?


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No, Im afraid not.

Goes up

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Which / What

Which, What

= both are used for choices. They are often used

interchangeably.

What - a choice between or among things. What books do you prefer?

(usually objects) What kind of services do you want?

Which a choice between or among a Which do you prefer: romance novelsor

limited number of things/possibilities science fiction?

(usually objects and people) Which of these shirts is yours?


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How long..(for) / Since when

Structure Examples

How long + have/has + subject + Q: How long have you been waitingfor?

been + verb -ing + for? A: I have been waiting for over an hour.

We use for when we say a period of t ime.

(two hours, a week, 20 minutes, six months etc.)

Since when + have/has + subject + Q: Since when has it beensnowing?

been+ verb ing A: It has been snowing since yesterday.

We use since when we say the start of a period of time.

(8 oclock, Monday, 12 May, 1990, lunchtime etc.)


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eClass English

Short Questions

In informal everyday and professional situations, you may useshort questions.

They ask forfeedback,

You can only use check understanding,ask

These are questionsfor clarification, ask

forformed with them when the

context has beenadvice / suggestions,

makeincomplete sentences.

clearly established.requests and verify


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agreement.

Here are some examples:

Short Questions Possible complete form

Any thoughts? Do you have any thoughts on what I just said?

Suggestions? Do you have any suggestions?

Ideas? Can you give me some ideas?

Any problems? Have you been having any problems?

Objections? Does anyone have any objections to my proposal?

Anything serious? Are the problems serious?

Louder, please? Could you speak a bit louder, please?

Sorry? Sorry? I didnt hear what you said.


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GRAMMAR BOOK

6Articles and Nouns

Definite and Indefinite Articles

An article is a word that is combined with a noun to indicate thetype of reference being

made by the noun.

A definite article indicates that its noun is a particular one. Anindefinite article indicates

that its noun is not yet a particular one.


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Language Use ExampleThe indefinite article - one thing or person. He is a teacher.

A - a noun in a general context.

The definite article - a noun in a specific context. He is the teacher.

The

Language Use Example

The indefinite article is used before words that begin I am a man.

A with consonants.

The indefinite article is used before words that begin This is an orange.

An with vowels (a,e,i,o,u)

or vowels sounds Its an honor.


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Exceptions:

an hour (h is not pronounced: an (h)our)

a university (pronounced yuniversity)

a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

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eClass English

The Plural

Plural rules Examples

To make a noun plural add

s a flower two flowers

a book two books

For nouns ending in:

s / sh / ch / x es bus : buses dish : dishes

box : boxes church : churches

Also: potato : potatoes

tomato: tomatoes


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y ies baby : babies party : parties

but ay / ey / oy ys day : days monkey: monkeys


f / fe ves shelf : shelves wife: wives

Some nouns have irregular endings man men

woman women

foot feet

child children

person people

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Names of Countries: Capitals


a European country (pronounced yeuropean)

Names of

countries have

capital letters.


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Hes a friend from France.

They live in Spain.


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I am from the United

States!

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eClass English

Countable and Uncountable Nouns


A noun can be

or

uncountablecountable


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Countable nouns

You can use one/two/three etc. + (a) car

countable nouns. (you can count them) (a) man

(a) house

Countable nouns can be singular or plural. (an) idea

Examples I have a car.

I have two cars.

Uncountable nouns

You cannot say one/two/three etc. water

rice

Uncountable nouns only have one form. money

You cannot use a/ an + uncountable nouns. salt

music

Uncountable nouns are always singular.

Examples I have money.

I have some money.


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Exclamations with what a

What a /an (+adjective) + singular countable noun What a rude man!

What a nice dress!

What (+ adjective) + uncountable / plural noun What beautiful weather!

What lovely flowers!

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Construction of Compound Nouns

A compound noun

=

two nouns joined together.

One noun modifies the other.

Example:

tooth, paste: toothpaste


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Compound nouns can bewritten in these ways:

There are not many rules for joining compound nouns. You must

check a dictionary for the correct form.

1. The two words are joined together.

Example: tooth + paste = toothpaste | bed + room = bedroom

2. They are joined using a hyphen.

Example: check-in

3. They appear as two separate words.

Example: full moon

Other Examples:

ski boots, alarm clock , housework, great-grandfather


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eClass English

The use and omission of the

Use Examples

The We use the before plural nouns or Tom sat down on a chair.

uncountable nouns when we are (perhaps one of many chairs)

thinking of one particular thing. Tom sat on the chair nearest the door.

(a particular chair)

No the When we are talking about things or Im afraid of dogs. (not thedogs)

people in general, we do not use the. Children learn a lot from playing.

(children in general)


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No the We do not use the with names of people, I visited Europe lastyear.

countries, continents, states, regions, (not the Europe)

islands, cities, mountains.

The But we do use the in names with I live in the USA.

Republic, Kingdom, States, oceans, She is from the Republic of

Ireland.

seas, rivers and canals. The Atlantic Ocean is very big.

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No the The names of streets, squares, monuments Carnaby Street, HydePark,

and parks. ( generally) Wesminister Abbey

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eClass English

Nouns without singular forms

Some plural nouns have no singular forms.

Nouns referring to objects composed of Scissors, glasses, trousers, jeans,shorts,

2 symmetrical parts tights, pyjamas

When used as a countable noun, use

pair of

Some collective nouns Clothes, goods, people, cattle, police, savings

Negation of the indefinite article


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The negative form of the indefinite article is expressed like this:

Structure ExamplesWith a singular countable noun: I havent got a pen./ I dont have a pen.

Not..a

With plural countable nouns and There arent any buses here.

uncountable nouns It doesnt require any equipment.

Notany

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Pronouns andDeterminers

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Subject Pronouns

Subject Pronouns

I

You (singular)

He

She

It

We


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You (plural)

They

Object Pronouns

Object Pronouns Examples Use

(subject (object

pronoun) pronoun)

I me Ann knows me. We use:

You you Ann knows you. a verb +

He him Ann knows him. object pronoun

She her Ann knows her.

It it Ann knows it.

We us Ann knows us.

They them Ann knows them.

Its nice.


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Theyre nice.

I Iike it.I like them.

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eClass English

Possessive Pronouns

MineOursHisHersTheirsYours

my/your etc. + a noun(possessiveWe use

pronoun)My hands are cold.

I my mine

mine/yours etc. without a nounyou your yoursWe use

he his hisIs this book mine or yours?

she her herswe our oursPossessive pronouns show possession and answer

they their theirsthe question whose.


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Reflexive Pronouns

Reflexive Pronouns Use Examples

I myself

You yourself I talk to myself when I am nervous.

He himself We use reflexive pronouns

She herself when the subject and object of a We blame ourselves for theresults

It itself sentence are the same person of the test.

We ourselves or non-person.

You yourselves It saw itself in the mirror.

They themselves

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GRAMMAR BOOK

No / None

No Use Examples

No + noun When we want to - We have no bread.

exclude all possibilities. - There were no problems.

None Use Examples

None When no part of - Do you have any more pie?

something is left. No, sorry, I have none.

When none exists, not even - When she returned to the

a group of people or a small amount office, none of us

of something. recognized her with her new haircut.

The Possessive

To show possession for people, countries, groups andinstitutions we use s


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Examples:

s birthday. (not the birthday of John)It is John

Its my mothers umbrella.

Chiles economy is doing well.

fr iends and friends

My houseOur house

My friends house = one friend My friends house = 2 or morefriends

(=his house or her house)(= their house)

(singular)(plural)


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More uses of the Possessive

The possessive s can alsoDates Sundays weather

Tomorrows flight

be used with dates, durations

Next years budget

and distances.

Durations Three weeks vacation

We add s to a singular noun

and an apostrophe () to aDistances A hundred miles drive

plural noun, for example:

The Indefinite Possessive


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Use Structure Examples

I met a friend of Lucys.

We cant usually put a possessive determiner + noun + of Have you heardthis new

before another determiner and a noun. + possessive idea of your bosss?

s)We can say my friend but not (

a my friend. So we use these ( a, this = determiners)

structures.

determiner + noun + of Hows that brother of yours?

+ possessive

(mine, yours, his, hers, Peter is a cousin of mine.

ours, theirs)

( a, that = determiners)


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GRAMMAR BOOK

Use of the pronoun one

The pronoun one or ones is used after an adjective toreplace:

a countable noun already expressed

a noun that hasnt been expressed

These

chocolates are niceWould you like one? =

Would you like one?Would you like a chocolate?

One = a /an (a chocolate / an appleetc.)

Which one


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This onedo you want?

One (singular)

Which one? = which hat?

Which one The white

do you want?ones

Ones (plural)

Which ones? = which

flowers?


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Demonstrative Pr onouns: This, That, These, Those

The demonstratives this, that, these, those show where an objector person is in relation

to the speaker.

thisthatthesethose

This (singular) Refers to an object or person near the speaker

These (plural) Examples:


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Is this Johns house?

This is a nice surprise!

That (singular) Refers to an object or person further away

Those (plural) Examples:

Who owns that house?

Thats nothing to do with me.

Position Examples:

a) Before a noun. This car looks cleaner than that car.

b) Before the word one. This one is more expensive.

c) Before an adjective + noun. Do you remember that wonderful day in June?

d) Alone when the noun is understood. Ill never forget this.

Here / There

Here is used for something that is near to us. Here is the money (in myhand).


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There is used for something that is far from us. There is the bank, about 2 blocks away.

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Any: in negative sentences

I havent got any money.

and questionsDo you have any information?

I dont have

any money.

Any: to express totalFeel free to ask questions at any time.

permission, possibility,

or restriction .Any of these designs are fine.

Any: to express possibility or indifference.


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eClass English

A lot of, Much / Many

Use a lot of with mass and count nouns in Ann has a lot of meetings.

positive sentences, negative sentences

and questions. I have a lot of work to do.

Use much with mass nouns in negative Ann doesnt have much time tosee New York.

sentences and in questions.

How much coffee did you drink?

Use many with count nouns in negative I dont have many classes today.

sentences, positive sentences and in questions.


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Did many people come to the party?

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GRAMMAR BOOK

How much / How many

How much/many = to ask questions about quantity

How much + uncountable nouns How much money do you want?

How much time do you have?

How many + plural countable nouns How many friends do you have?

How many books are there?

As much as / As many as

To compare two things that are the same.

as much as Use with: Examples:

singular, uncountable nouns You have as much money as I do.

(= the same amount)


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not as much as You dont have as much money as I do.

as many as plural, countable nouns There are as many parks in Santiago

as there are in Buenos Aires.

not as many as There arent as many parks in Santiago

as there are in Buenos Aires.

We can use as much as + as many as without a noun also.

Here the comparative refers to the previous clause or an implied or previously stated noun.

Its twice as much as the rent.

(=Its twice as much money as the rent)

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eClass English

Some / Any: singular or plural?

Some, any, none, all, most Examples:

When they refer to a singular noun, Some of the meal was really good.

the verb is singular. None of the presentation is interesting.

When they refer to a plural noun, the Some of the books are quite funny.

verb is plural. None of the stories are interesting.

Eitheror

A negative clause must never contain more than one negation. So, we useeither after a negative verb.

Either is always placed at the end of a clause. It means too / as well

Im not happy.

Im not happy either. ( not Im not too) Im not Im not


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happy either.happy.

I cant cook.

I cant cook either. ( not I cant too)

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GRAMMAR BOOK

Either. or / Neither .nor

Use Example

Either.or A choice between 2 things I want either fruit juice or coffee.

or ?Either you come to class or you do the ?

work at home.Either

Neither..nor To exclude 2 things I can neither read nor write French.

Shes neither nice nor helpful.

neither

(not + either)

Everybody / Nobody


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Everybody (everyone) singular Everybody need s friends.

(all the people) All the people need

friends.

Nobody (no one) singular Nobody is here.

(no people) No people are here.

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Somebody (someone) singular Somebody has to go

shopping, dont they?

( a person but we dont know who)

Nobody (no one) singular Nobody really knows, do

they?

(no people)

Nobody + verb in the positive form. Example: Nobody likes Mike.


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GRAMMAR BOOK

Each other / One another

Each other and one another can be used interchangeably.

They show a reciprocal relationship between the subjects in thesentence.

John and Paul looked at each other.

(= John looked at Paul / Paul looked at John)

Each other and one another can be used in the possessive.

They took each others hands.

We often meet at one anothers places.

Formerly, it was said that each other was used for arelationship


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between two subjects whereas one another was used

for a

relationship between more than two subjects. Today,however,

most do not observe this distinction.

Maria and Jorge love each other. (Two subjects)

The children are sitting opposite one another.

(More than two subjects)


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eClass English

Different meanings of all

All = all of

something limited.It is used with uncountable or

plural countable nouns.

All + noun All cities have the same problem.

All (of) + the All the children at this school are tall.

this/that/these/those (demonstrative) All these books are mine.

my/your etc. (possessive adjective) I have spent all my money.


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Personal Pronouns

personal pronoun + all Have you read these books?

Ive read them all.

all of + personal pronoun Ive read all of them.

with Subject Pronouns

Subject (pronoun) + all + simple verb The girls all left.

Subject (pronoun) + modal auxiliary / to be + all We will all have some juice.

They are all ready to go.

With a singular countable noun = every

Every student in the class passed the exam.

Every country has a national flag.

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GRAMMAR BOOK

A little / A bit

A little / A bit = a small quantity

Structure Use Examples

A little Use with uncountable nouns. We want a li ttle fresh air.

It can also replace the noun to Do you want some coffee?

avoid repetition. A little, please.

A bit of Use with uncountable nouns. We want a bit of fresh air.

A little Adverb of degree. Were a little busy today.

A little + adjective This tooth aches a little.

Verb + a little


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Little Use with countable nouns. I have little time to finish the report.

(negative connotation)

A bit Often replaces a little as an adverb. Can you drive a bit slower?

A few Us e with countable nouns. I have a few books I can lend you.

It can also replace the noun to avoid How many science fiction novels

repetition. do you have?

Few A few.

(negative connotation) Use with countable nouns. I am lonely. I have fewfriends.

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eClass English

Use of both

Both = two elements

With nouns I want both books.

Both shirts are good.

With determiners

Before a noun with a determiner (the, this, I want both (of) those books.

my, your, those etc.) both and both Both (of) the books.

of are possible.

With object pronouns

(me, you, him, her, it, us, them) Both of them are my sisters.


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Use both of before the pronoun. She has invited both of us.

Both can be put after object pronouns. She ha s invited us both.

With verbs

Both goes after auxiliaries and before We have both gone to the beach.

other verbs. We both want to go.

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GRAMMAR BOOK Relative Clauses and

Dependent Clauses

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Relative Pronouns and Adverbs

Relative pronouns are used in relative clauses. A clause is partof a sentence. A

relative clause tells us which person or thing the speakermeans.

The woman who lives next door is a doctor.

relative clause

A relative clause joins two sentences:

I met a woman. She speaks two languages.


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in the relative clause)

The woman whom I wanted to see was away on holiday.

( I wanted to see her)

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eClass English

There are two types of

relative clauses.

Defining Relative Clauses Non- defining Relative Clauses

The woman who lives next door is a doctor. My brother Jim, who lives inLondon, is a doctor.

The relative clause tells you which person or thing The relative clause doesnot tell you which person

the speaker means.or thing the speaker means. (We already know

which thing or person is meant.)

This is extra information about the person orthing.

We do NOT use commas. We use commas.


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GRAMMAR BOOK

That and Dependent Clauses

A dependent clause cannot stand alone as a sentence. It isusually attached to an

independent clause.

When the main clause is in the preterit, the dependent clause(introduced by that or

a relative pronoun) is also in the preterit. If it is in the present,then the dependent

clause is in the present also.

Reported Speech

When that is us ed in reported speech, the dependent clause should followthe rule of agreement. (see

reported speech)

Relative Clauses (Omission of that)

That is used as a relative pronoun in relative clauses. When the relative pronoun is an object pronoun it

can be omitted in a defining relative clause*.


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*see relative pronouns and adverbs for an explanation on the difference between a defining

and non-defining clauses.

Subject or Object Pronoun?

Subject Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a verb.

the apple that is laying on the table

Object Pronoun = the relative pronoun is followed by a noun or pronoun.

the apple (that) George laid on the table

Examples of when that can/ cannot be omitted.

We stayed at the hotel (that) Ann recommended.

that + noun (Ann) = object pronoun . This is a defining relative clause.

This morning I met somebody (that) I hadnt met for ages.

that + pronoun (I) = object pronoun. This is a defining relative clause.


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Barbara works for a company that makes washing machines.

that + verb (makes) = subject pronoun.

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eClass English

When that may be left out

That may be left out in the followin g situations: .

Reported speech After many reporting verbs that can be James said (that)he was

left out. feeling better.

Examples: said, thought, suggested

However, that cannot be dropped after James replied that he was

certain verbs feeling better.

Examples: replied, shouted, disagreed

After adjectives In that clauses after some adjectives, Im glad (that) youreall right.

that can be left out.

Conjunctions That can be left out in an informal style Come in quietly so(that)


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in some common two- word she doesnt hear you.

conjunctions such as:

I was having such a nice

so that time (that) I didnt want to

suchthat leave.

now that

providing that

provided that

supposing that

considering that

assuming that

Relative structures Leave out the relative pronoun that Look! There arethe

when it is the object in a relative clause. people (that) we met in

*See that + dependent clauses Brighton


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GRAMMAR BOOK

To hope + Dependent Clause

Structure e Examples

To hope + future She hopes hell come.

I hope you wont have any problems getting h ome.


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To hope + present simple He hopes the traffic is all right.

(refers to the future) I hope the water is not too cold.

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eClass English

Adjectives and Adverbs

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Possessive Adjectives

A possessive adjective is used with a noun to indicate possession, ownership or close

relationship.

Possessive adjectives Examples Use

(subject pronoun) We use:

I my I like my job. possessive adjective + a noun

You your You like your job. to show possession

He his He likes his job

She her She likes her job.

It its It likes its food. (The dog)


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We our We like our jobs.

They their They like their jobs.

my hatour hatsyour hat

her hattheir hats


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GRAMMAR BOOK

Too / Too much/ Too many

Too / too much / too many

=

More than you want, more than is good.

This is a negative concept.

Structure Examples

Too + adjective/adverb The music is too loud.


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Too much + uncountable nouns There is too much sugar in my tea.

Too many + plural countable nouns She has too many books.

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Placement of Enough

Enough

=

sufficient, adequate

He cant r each the shelf.

Hes not tall enough.

Structure Examples

After adjectives and adverbs Im not tall enough.

You drive fast enough.

Before nouns and noun phrases There isnt enough time.

After verbs (including past participles) He doesnt work enough.

Ive eaten enough.


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Also / As well / Too

Also As well Too

Before a verb and after to be At the end of a sentence At the end o f aclause or for

emphasis (with commas)

I also have a dog. I have a dog as well. I have a dog too.

I, too, have a dog.

She also studies English. She studies English as well. She studiesEnglish too.

She, too, studies English.

She is also tall. She is tall as well. She is tall too.

She, too, is tall.

We are also Chinese. We are Chinese as well. We are Chinesetoo.

We, too, are Chinese.


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Adverbs

An adverb modifies a verb. It helps to tell how, when orwhere the action took place.

To make an adverb: Adjective + ly

Examples:

Accidently Quickly

Angrily Safely

Badly

Exceptions and Irregular adverbs:

These are some words that are adjectives and adverbs: hard, fast, late, early

Good (adjective) well (adverb)

Your English is very good.

You speak English very well.

Spelling Rules -If the adjective ends in /y/ add ily

Easy Easily, Heavy Heavily

-If the adjective ends in /e/, we keep /e/ before the /ly/


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Polite Politely, Extreme Extremely

-If the adjective end in /le/, we do not keep the /e/ before the /ly/

Simply Simply, Terrible Terribly

Adverbs of Time / FrequencyAdverbs of time or frequency are adverbs that tell us how oftenwe do something.

How often do you go to the mall?

I sometimes go to the mall.

never

seldom/rarely

sometimes*

often

usually

aways

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Adverb placement Examples


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Before a verb I never go to the mall.

I always play basketball on the weekends.

She often practices English.

After verb to be I am always tired.

She is usually late for English class.

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The Adverb that

that as an adverb

Structure Use Example

That + adjective/ adverb To intensify the mea ning Are you that afraid?

of the adjective/ adverb I had no idea I was that far from home.

Adverbs of Manner

Adverbs of manner tell us how something happens or howsomebody does something.

They are usually placed after the main verb or after the object.


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Examples:

The train stopped suddenly.

I opened the door slowly.

Be careful with the differences between adjectives and adverbs:

Adjective Adverb

-Sue is very quiet. -Sue speaks very quietly. (Not speaks very quiet)

-It was a bad game. (Describes the game -Our team played badly. (Describeshow the team played)

which is a noun)

-I am nervous. -I waited nervously.

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Yet / Not yet

Yet = until now

Bill will beWheres Bill? here soon.Hes very late.


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Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill. They are still waiting for Bill.

Bill hasnt come yet.

Use Examples

Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?

She is nt here yet.

Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?

No, not yet..

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Still / YetStill

=

something is the same as before

THE RAIN HASNT STOPPED

An hour ago it wasraining.It is still raining now.

Example: I had a lot to eat but Im still hungry. (= I was hungry before andIm hungry now)


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Yet

=

until now

Bill will beWheres Bill.

here soon.Hes very late.

Twenty minutes ago they were waiting for Bill.They are still waiting forBill.

Bill hasnt come yet.

Use Examples

Yet Use in negative sentences and questions Where is Diane?

She is nt here yet.


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Yet is usually at the end of a sentence. Are you ready to go yet?

Not yet.

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Compound Adjectives

A compound adjective is formed when two or

more adjectives work together to modify

the same noun.

The second part of the compound adjective may be:

An adjective ice-cold

A present participle heartbreaking


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A past participle well-deserved

HEART BREAKING

A noun + ed old-fashioned

Irregular

(Do not follow the second-hand

structures above)


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Adjectives ending in ing and ed

Ending in ing Use Examples

Subject + verb to be + When the adjective ends I hate snakes. Theyreterrifying.

adjective + ing in ing, it means that the

particular person or thing

causes a particular effect.

Ending in ed Use Examples

Subject + verb to be + When the adjective ends in Snakes terrify me. I am

alwaysadjective + ed ed, it means that the terrified when I see one.

particular person or thing

experiences a particular effect.

Adjectives ending in ing

Some adjectives are made by adding ing to the verb.


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The past participle as an adjective

Some past participles can be used as adjectives.

Regular Verbs add ed or d

Examples: worked, finished, boiled

Irregular Verbs No general rules

Some common irregular past participles

break broken drive driven

write written eat eaten

fall fallen forget forgotten

give given see seen


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take taken know known

fly flown drink drunk

swim swum throw thrown

Examples:

That is a broken cup.

We are visiting the forgotten city of the Incas.

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Adverbs of Degree

Describe the strength or intensity of something that happens.

Many adverbs are gradable, which means we can intensify them.

They answer these questions: How much ..? or How little...?

Highest Intensity ++ Lowest Intensity

totally somewhat hardly

completely somehow scarcely

entirely fairly barely

thoroughly rather

absolutely kind of

definitely

positively

+++ +

almost slightly

very a bit


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extremely a little

really

quite

practically

Use / Structure Example

Place the adverb before the adjective or The water was extremely cold.

adverb they are modifying

Place the adverb before the main verb She has almost finished.

Examples:

Im really enjoying working on this project.

The exam was fairly easy.

He has barely worked this year.


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Adverbs and Adjectives

Adverbs are used to modify nouns, verbs, adjectives or otheradverbs. This way we

can indicate how things are done. Refer to the chart below forexamples:

Adverb Adjective Other uses

good well

difficult with difficulty

public publicly

deep deep (place) deeply (feeling)


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direct direct directly (=soon)

hard hard hardly (=seldom)

high high (place) highly (figurative)

late late lately (=recently)

most most mostly (=usually)

near near nearly (=almost)

pretty pretty (=rather) prettily

short short shortly (=soon)The following adjectives are daily, enough, early, far, fast,hourly, little,

also used as adverbs long, low, monthly, much, straight,

(without modification) weekly, yearly,

adverbs are also used to give extrainformation

about adjectives (or other adverbs).


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Uses of so

Structure + Examples

So + adjective or adverb = an exclamation

Youre so kind!

Dont be so sensitive!

that clauses sothat

It was so cold that we stopped playing. (not It was very cold that westopped playing)


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He was driving so fast that he went through a red light.

Substitute word

So can be used in some structures instead of repeating an adjective or adverb.

The weather is stormy and will remain so over the weekend.

We thank you for flying with us and hope youll do so again.

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The placement of even

UseWe use even to say that something is surprising or unusual.

Example

Tina loves watching television. She has a TV set in every room of the house,even the bathroom.

Use

We ca n use even + a comparative (cheaper / more expensive)

Example


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I got up very early, but John got up even earlier.

Position of even

Even + nominal group* / pronoun + verb

Even my sister will be there.

Even you can come.

Auxiliary + even + verb

I dont even know you.

I have even invited John.

*A nominal group typically comprises a noun surrounded by other words thatall in some way

characterize that noun.

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Even though / Even if

Even if and even though mean basically the same thing:although . They have the

following distinct meanings:

Structure Use Examples

Even though Concession. Even though you re my

Describes a reality that friend, I cant trust you.

seems to contradict main clause.

Even though she tried her

best, she fell twice.

Even if Something hypothetical or theoretical. Even if you were my friend,

A contradiction of some h ypotheses. I wouldnt trust you.

All conditional forms can be used.

He wont transfer to Africa,

even if they double his salary.


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Quite / Quite a few

Use Examples

Quite = less than very but more than a little Its quite cold. Youd better put a coat on.

Quite goes before a/an Quite a nice day. ( not a quite nice day)

Quite a few = modifies plural nouns to indicate large quantities.

Example: I have quite a few letters for you.

Quite also means completely .

Example: Are you sure? Yes, quite sure . (= completely sure)

With theses adjectives, quite means completely:

sure right true clear different incredible amazing certain wrongsafe obvious

unnecessary extraordinary impossible


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Comparatives andSuperlatives

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Comparing equals using asas

Structure

as + adjective / adverb + as

Use

To compare two people or things according to a common trait.


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Examples

My brother is as tall as my dad.

Im as old as you are.

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Regular and Irregular Comparatives S

Im 93. Im 92.

5040

KGKG

oldolderheavyheavier

Comparatives are used to compare two things. You can usesentences

with than, or you can use a conjunction like but.

1 syllable adjectives add -er My brother is older than my sister.

old older


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2 syllable adjectives ending in y add -ier English is easier than Russian.

easy easier

2 or more syllables add more (before the adjective) Helen is more beautifulthan Jane.

beautiful more beautiful

Spelling Rules

Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the end.(Double the consonant.)

Example:

hot hotter big bigger fat fatter

Irregular Comparatives

good better

bad worse

far farther/further

much/many more

little less


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Regular and Irregular Superlatives

Box A is bigger than Box B.

Box A is bigger than all the other boxes.

Box A is the biggest box.

Superlatives are used to compare more than two things.Superlative sentences usually use

the, because there is only one superlative.

1 syllable adjectives add the -est My brother is the oldest of my siblings.


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old the oldest

2 syllable adjectives ending in y add the -iest English is the easiestlanguage to learn.

easy the easiest

2 or more syllables add the most Helen is the most beautiful in her family.

(before the adjective)

beautiful the most beautiful

Spelling Rules

Words with one syllable ending with a vowel and a consonant at the enddouble the consonant.

Example:

hot hottest big biggest fat fattest

Irregular Superlatives

good the best

bad the worst

far the farthest/ the furthest


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much/many the most

little the least

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The more . . . the more

Structure

the + comparative..............., the + comparative

Parallel progression: we use comparatives with the....the.... to say thingschange or vary together.

Examples

The younger you are, the easier it is to learn a language.

The more I learn, the more I know.

The older I get, the happier I am.

A use of the comparative

Structure Examples

the + comparative The younger generation

(as opposed to the older generation)


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Use

Sometimes a comparative may express an This class is for the moreintelligent students

opposition between 2 elements without actually (as opposed to the slowerstudents)

stating both elements (the second element is implied)

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Prepositions

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Prepositions of Time

A preposition of time connects words in a sentence showing therelationship of a noun

and the moment/day/time/date of the action.

Preposition Use Example

At Time I start work at 9 oclock.

I go to bed at midnight.

The shops close at 5.30.

On Days of the week I have class on Tuesdays.th

Specific dates My birthday is on May 25 .


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Prepositions of Place

A preposition of place connects words in a sentence showing therelationship of a

noun and the location/area/position/surface of an object.

AtInOn

Surface Inside of a place

General location

Country, city, district

Precise point in larger

spacesomething is located in

at the cornerin the gardenon the wall

at the bus stopin Londonon the ceiling

at the doorin Franceon the door

at the front deskin a caron a page


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Here are some prepositions of place.

onaboveoverin front of

behindunderbelowbeside


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Final Preposition

A final preposition is a word which comes after the verb andrequests the results between

the action performed and the subject or object of the sentence.

Verb + preposition

Some verbs are commonly followed by a preposition in order to indicate acommon action.

Examples:

Listen to

Look at

Look for (search for, try to find)

Look after (take care of)

Talk about

Talk to

Worry about

Pay for

Depend on


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Complain about

Go to

Go for

Go on

Go in

In some structures we put the preposition at the end of the sentence:

Interrogative questions What are you looking at?

(when the question word is the object of the What kind of music do you liketo listen to?

preposition)

Relative clausesThis is the house that I am talking about.

(when the relative pronoun is the object of Thats what I m worried about.

the preposition)

Infinitive clauses Ive gothas lotsnothing of music to complainto listenabout. to.She


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Conjunctions

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Conjunctions

A conjunction is a word that joins the words in a sentence toeach other in order to send a

logical message. It literally connects parts of a sentence.

Frequently Used Conjunctions: Examples:

And

- To suggest that one idea is chronologically Karen sent in her applicationsand

sequential to another. waited by the phone for a response.

-To suggest that one idea is the result of Kevin heard the weather report and

another. packed his camping gear.


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- To suggest that one idea is in contrast to Juan is brilliant, and Sandra has a

another. pleasant personality.

-To suggest an element of surprise. Melipilla is a beautiful town and suffers

from severe pollution.

-To suggest that one clause is dependent Use your credit cards frequently,and

upon another, conditionally. youll soon find yourself deep in debt.

-To suggest a kind of comment on the My lazy friend Charlie failed themath test

first clause. and that didnt surprise anyone.

Yet

-To suggest addition, more of something. She is a simple, yet very intelligentwoman.

-Despite, even though The story is unbelievable, yet supposedly its all true.

-To indicate that something can eventually occur. They may yet win thegame.


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Nor

-Used with neither for negative sentences. He is neither young norambitious.

-Used with other negative expressions. That is not what I meant, nor shouldyou

misinterpret my statement.

But

- To suggest a contrast that is unexpected based Joey lost his job last year, but he still

on the first clause. seems able to live quite comfortably.

- To suggest in an affirmative sense what the first The students never studiedfor the test,

part of the sentence implied in a negative way. but used their notes to workon the

assignment in class.

- To use with the meaning of with Everybody but Mark is trying out for theteam.


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the exception of.

Or

- To suggest that only one possibility can be You can study hard for thisexam or you

achieved, excluding one or the other. can fail. (= only one of these things canhappen)

- To suggest the inclusive combination We can broil chicken on the grilltonight,

of alternatives. or we can eat hamburgers.

- To suggest a refinement of the first Smart English is the best languagecenter in the

clause. country, or so it seems to most students at the UAI.

- To suggest a restatement or correction There are no ra ttlesnakes in thiscanyon,

of the first part of the sentence. or so our guide tells us.

- To suggest a negative condition. Either you participate in class or get a 1.0grade for

class participation.

- To suggest a negative alternative without They must like her style or they


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wouldnt keep asking

the use of an imperative. her to design the uniforms each year.

For

Though used as a preposition, we can use for John thought he had a goodchance to

as a conjunctive when we introduce the reason for get the job, for his fatherwas on the

the preceding clause. companys board of trustees.

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So

- To connect two independent clauses together Steve has always beennervous in large

with a comma. gatherings, so it is no surprise that he

avoids crowds when he is at the beach.

- To indicate as well or in addition. John is not the only Olympic athletein his

family, so are his uncle, sister, and his

aunt Sally.

- At the beginning of a sentence, so will act as a So, the sheriff promptlyremoved the child

kind of summing up device or transition, and when it from the custody ofhis parents.

does, it is often set off from the rest of the sentence

with a comma.


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Use of so to express a goal

Examples:

Im saving money so I can travel in the summer.

She gave him more time so he could finish the assignment.

So that + may or can

Objectives are expressed using so that followed by:

Structure Example


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Present simple Hell take a tax i so that he arrives on time.

May / might can / could He stayed after school so that hecould help me

with my homework.

Will / would I wrote it in my daily planner so that I wouldntforget.

In an informal style, that is often dropped.

Example:

Ive come early so I can talk to you.


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Similarity: like and as

Use

We can use like or as to say that things are similar.

Structure Example

Like

- is similar to a preposition

Like + noun / pronoun You look like your sister.

He ran like the wind.

We can use like to give examples Shes good at scientific subjects, likechemistry.

As

- is a conjunction

As + clause (subject + verb) They did as they promised.

As comes before nouns designating He worked as a taxi driver.

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Like and as can both be used a s prepositions but have differentmeanings.

Like = similar to

As = in the position of, in the form of

Compare:

As Brenda Casey is the manager of a company. As the manager,she has to make many

important decisions.

(As the manager = in her position as the manager)

Like Mary Stone is the assistant manager. Like the manager(Brenda Casey), she also has to

make important decisions.

(Like the manager = similar to the man ager)


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Gerunds andInfinitives

13Gerunds and Infinitives

The infinitive (to + verb) is used:


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To say why you do somet hing

I go to the gym to get some exercise.

To say why something exists

Heres an example to help you.

After too and enough

Its too cold to go swimming.

The gerund (verb ending in ing) is used:

After prepositions (see below)

Hes made a lot of friends by joining the tennis club.

As non -count nouns

Climbing is safer than it looks

PREPOSITIONS: after before by for on despite

without since

If verbs are followed by another verb, that verb is either in the infinitive orthe gerund form.


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Verbs Followed by an Infinitive

She agreed to speak before the game.

agree consent hope prepare try

aim continue hurry proceed use

appear dare intend promise wait

arrange decide leap propose want

ask deserve leave refuse wish

attempt expect long remember

be able fail mean say

beg forget neglect shoot

begin get offer stop

bother happen ought strive

care have plan swear

choose hesitate prefer threaten


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Verbs Followed by an Object and an Infinitive

Everyone expected her to win.

advise choose have order send

allow command hire pay teach

ask dare instruct permit tell

beg direct invite persuade urge

bring encourage lead prepare want

build expect leave promise warn

buy forbid let remind

challenge force motivate require

Note: Some of these verbs are included in the list above and may be usedwithout an object.

Verbs Followed by a Gerund

They enjoyed working on the boat.

admit delay get through practice risk

advise deny have quit spend (time)

appreciate enjoy imagine recall suggest

avoid escape mind report tolerate


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Verbs followed by either an infinitive or a gerund

begin love dislike prefer

continue like hate start

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Get used to

We use get used to to say that an action or situation becomes less strange ornew. We can use the

expression in present simple, interrogative and present continuous forms.

Structure:

get used to + noun or gerund

It took them a long time to get used Have you got used to driving She isgetting used to waking up

to the new office. on the left side of the road yet? early for her new job.

Be used to

We use the expression be used to to say that we have already become

familiar with something/someone which

was in the past new or strange. We can use the expression in the presentsimple, negative and affirmative

sentences, in question form and when the object involves a verb, we use the


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gerund form.

Structure:

subject + be + used to + object.

Mary is used to horses. Are you used to horses? We are used to taking the bus.

Kurt is not used to horses.

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Verbs: Reactions and Preferences

Some verbs that express reactions and preferences are followed by a verb in the gerund

(verb ending in ing). Some are followed by a verb in theinfinitive (to + verb) or a gerund.

Followed by the gerund To enjoy

To mind

To resent

To object to

To miss

Cannot stand

They enjoy dancing very much.

I miss going to my English class.


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Followed by gerund

or infinitive To like

To love

To dislike

To hate

To loathe

To prefer

Cannot bear

I love eating.

I love to eat.

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Verb + Infinitive Clause

Verbs that express a command, wish, preference and prohibitionfollow this structure.

Verbs: allow, command, forbid, hate, instruct, like, love, need,oblige, recommend, want

verb + object + infinitive

Examples:

He wants John to rent a car.

They dont allow people to smoke.


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Many of these verbs can also be used in

the passive structure.

Subject + passive verb + infinitive

Examples:

We were advised to come early.

We were instructed to put down our pens.

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Verbs expressing a wish to act

Verbs expressing a wish to act may be followed by infinitives(to + verb) or gerunds (verbs

ending in ing).

To intend Infinitive or gerund* He intends to go to New York.gerund with this verb He intends going to new York.* *A

is only used in British English.

To propose Infinitive or gerund What did he propose doing?

What did he propose to do?

To try Infinitive I am trying to do this exercise.

(attempt to do, make

an effort to )


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To try Gerund I wouldn t try rafting; it is very

(do something as an

dangerous.

experiment or test)

To agree Infinitive He agreed to help her.

To consent Infinitive She consented to go with her.

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Verb + Preposition at / to

Verb + at Verb + to

Look / have a look / stare / glance AT. Talk / speak TO

Laugh / smile AT Listen TO

Aim / point AT Write TO

Invite (somebody) TO

-Why are you looking at me? Explain (something) TO (someone)

-I was laughing at his joke. Apologize TO (someone)

-Can I speak to Jane please?

-I invited 200 people to my wedding.

-I need to apologize to my friend because

I shouted at her yesterday.

Some verbs can be followed by at or to, but there is a differencein meaning.


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Shout AT somebody when you are angry

Shout TO somebody so that they can hear you

Throw something AT somebody/something in order to hit them

Throw something TO somebody for somebody to catch

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Conditionals

14Conditionals

Zero, First, and Second Conditionals (Sequence of tenses withif)*


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* For construction of the present conditional, see second intable below.

For sequence of tenses with if see zero, first, second andthird below.

Conditionals are used to talk about possibility.

Conditional Structure Uses

Examples

Zero If + subject + present simpl e , subject + Used to describe somethingthat is

present simple generally or always true.

If water boils, it reaches 100 degrees.

First If + subject+ present simple, subject + will Used to describe asituation that is likely.

+ infinitive wit hout to

If the weather is good, I will go to the beach.

Second If + subject + past simple, subject + Used to describe a situation that

(present) would + infinitive without to is not likely.


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The Perfect Conditional / Third Conditional

If + subject + past perfect, subject + would + have + past participle

If I had seen you, I would have said hello.

Describes hypothetical situations in the past. These situations are in the pastand therefore they are impossible

and never happened.

Example:

Last month Gary was in hospital for an operation. Liz didnt know this, soshe didnt go to visit him. They met a

few days ago. Liz said:

If I had known you were in hospital, I would have gone to visit you.

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The Perfect Conditional using should

Structure

Should + have + past participle

Use Example

Regret or reproach (to blame someone) I should have studied harder. (regret)

You should have gotten up earlier. (reproach)

(unfulfilled) expectation or assumption You should have received my e-mail.

regarding the past I sent it half an hour ago.

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Subjunctive andWishes

15Present Subjunctive

FORM


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Use the simple form of the verb. The simple form is theinfinitive without the to. The

simple form of the verb to go is go. The Sub junctive is onlynoticeable in certain forms

and tenses.

USE

The Subjunctive is used to emphasize urgency or importance. Itis used after certain

expressions (see below).

Examples:

I suggest that he study.

Is it essential that we be there?

Don recommended that you join the committee.

NOTICE:

The Subjunctive is only noticeable in certain forms and tenses.In the examples below, the


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Subjunctive is not noticeable in the you-form of the verb, but itis noticeable in the he/she-

form of the verb.

Examples:

YOU- FORM OF TRY: HE -FORM OF TRY:

You try to study often. He tries to study often.

SUBJUNCTIVE FORM OF TRY LOOKS THE SAME: SUBJUNCTIVEFORM OF TRY IS NOTICEABLE:

It is important that you try to study often. I t is important that he try to studyoften.

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Verbs Followed by the Subjunctive

The Subjunctive is used after the following verbs:

to advise (that)

to ask (that)

to command (that)

to demand (that)

to desire (that)

to insist (that)

to propose (that)

to recommend (that)

to request (that)

to suggest (that)

to urge (that)

Examples

Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of themonth.

Donna requested Frank come to the party.


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It is recommended tha t he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hiketo the bottom of the

Grand Canyon.

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Negative Forms of Subjunctive

The Subjunctive can be used in negative, continuous and passive forms.

Examples:

The boss insisted that Sam not be at the meeting.

The company asked that employees not accept personal phone calls during

business hours.I suggest that you not take the job without renegotiating the salary.

The Past Subjunctive

Past Forms of the Subjunctive

The past tense of the subjunctive has the same forms as the indicative.

Present: The President requests that they stop the invasion.

Past: The President requested that they stop the invasion.

However, we usually use the subjunctive were instead of was after ifand other words with similar meanings.


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(was is often used informally in speech)

Examples

He wishes he were a better student.

If I were seven feet tall, Id be a great basketball player.*

*This is also a second conditional. See below.

The past subjunctive is commonly used with these expressions if only, Iwish, suppose, as if.

Examples

If only I had more money.

I wish I were thinner.

Suppose she were married.

Its not as if I were ugly.

Note: Some sentences combine a past subjunctive with a conditional. In thisexample, part 1 is a subjunctive

and part 2 a conditional.

If only I had more money, I would buy a new car.

1 2


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Wishes and Regrets

Wish Regret

==

To show you want a To feel sorrow or

situation to be differentremorse for somethingyou did/did not do.

Wishes in the present

To make wishes about the present, use the past tense.

For the verb to be, use were.

Situation: My sister is untidy.

Wish: I wish she were tidier.

Wishes in the past (regret)


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To make wishes about the past, use the past perfect.

Situation: I didnt go on a vacation this year.

Wish: I wish I had gone on a vacation this year.

Wishes about ability

To make wishes about ability use could.

Situation: I cant play a musical instrument.

Wish: I wish I could play a musical instrument.

Wishes about habit and free will

To make wishes about habit and free will use would.

Situation: He sings in the office.

Wish: I wish he wouldnt sing in the office.

(In this sentence you are stressing the fact he wants to sing and makes a habitof it.)


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Passives

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The Passive Voice

Passive Voice = To be + past participle

The passive exists in every tense.

We use an active verb to say what the subject does.

We use a passive verb to say what happens to the subject.

When we use the passive, who or what causes the action is often unknownor unimportant.

If we want to say who does or what causes the action, we use by


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Tense Active Passive

Present Simple He cleans the room. The room is cleaned by him.

Present Continuous He is cleaning the room. The room is being cleaned byhim.

Past Simple He cleaned the room. The room was cleaned by him.

Past Continuous He was cleaning the room. The room was being cleaned byhim.

Future simple will He will clean the room The room will be cleaned by him.

To be going to future He is going to clean the room. The room is going to be cleaned by him.

Present Perfect He has cleaned the room. The room has been cleaned by him.

Past Perfect He had cleaned the room. The room had been cleaned by him.


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The Impersonal Structure

An impersonal structure is used to talk about people in general.Here are some different

ways to form an impersonal structure.

Passive form without the agent We are expected at 7pm.

(Somebody expects us)

The personal pronouns we, you, they We drive on the left side of the road.

(the speaker is included in the group of people

in question)

You drink a lot of tea in Britain.

(the listener is included)

They are very friendly in Ireland.

(neither the speaker nor listener is included)


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People (plural meaning) People in Ireland are very friendly.

Somebody/someone (singular meaning) Someone is on the phone for you.

Other Impersonal Structures:

gerund + object + to be conjugated + Reading English newspapers is oftendifficult.

(adverb of frequency) + adjective

Playing tennis is excellent exercise.

It + to be conjugated + It is sometimes exciting to walk in the

(adverb of frequency) + adjective pouring rain.

+ infinitive

It was strange to say that Russian is

easier than English.


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Reported Speech

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The Sequence of Tenses / Reported Speech

Reported Speech is used to communicate what someone elsesaid, but without using the

exact words.

Im feeling ill.

You want to tell someone else what Tom said. There are 2 ways of doingthis:

1. You can repeat Toms words (direct speech)


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Tom said, Im feeling ill

2. You can use reported speech.

Tom said that he was feeling ill.

Reported speech:

-The main sentence of the verb is usually in the past tense. (said, told)

-The rest of the sentence is usually in a past tense too. (each tense goesa step back in time)

-That is optional.

Here are the changes in tense (sequence of tenses) in reported speech:

Direct speech Reported speech

She said I watch TV every day. She said (that) she watched TV everyday.

She said I am watching. She said she was watching TV.

She said I watched TV. She said she had watched TV.

She said I have watched TV. She said she had watched TV.

She said I will watch TV. She said she would watch TV.

She said I am going to watch TV. She said she was going to watch TV.


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She said I can watch TV. She said she could watch TV.

She said I may watch TV. She said she might w atch TV.

She said I must watch TV. She said she had to watch TV.

She said I should watch TV. She said she should watch TV.

She said I ought to watch TV. She said she ought to watch TV.

She said Watch TV. She told someone to watch TV. *

*The imperative changes to the infinitive. Tell is usually used insteadof say.

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General Guidelines for Reported Speech

1. This formal sequence of tenses is used both in speaking and writing.

2. However, sometimes in spoken English no change is made if the speaker isreporting something

immediately after it was said.

Immediate Reporting: What did the teacher just say?

He said he wants us to read Chapter Six.

Later Reporting: I didnt go to the class yesterday. Did Mr. Jones give any

assignments?

He said he wanted us to read Chapter Six.

3. If the sentence is a general truth, sometimes the present tense is retained.


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She said that Alaska is the largest state in the USA.

4. The past simple can stay the same in reported speech or you can change itto the past perfect.

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Phrasal Verbs

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The Main Postpositions / Common Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb consists of a verb and a preposition or adverbthat modifies or changes the

meaning.

Here are some common phrasal verbs in English.

Preposition Use Example

Away Estrangement: to go away All evidence of the crime was swept away.

Disappearance: to sweep away

Back Backward movement: to stand back The student answered back to theteacher.

Return to point of departure: to bring back


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Reply: to answer back

Down Downward movement: to go down Please turn down the radio; it isvery loud.

Writing: to write down

Decrease: to turn down

In Inward movement: to get in I will drop in later and see how you are doing.

Visit: to drop in

Off Averting: to put off I have put off my dental appointment.

Departure: to go off / to take off because I have a class.

On Start: to turn on / switch on Can you turn on the fan please?

Continuation: to go on

Out Outward movement: to move out I always eat out on Fridays.

Outside: to eat out

Distribution: to give out

Over Repetition: to say over I will have to think over your offer carefully.

Action done with care: to think over


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Up Upward movement: to climb up Speak up, I cant hear you.

Increased volume: to speak up

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Phrasal Verbs

A phrasal verb is a verb plus a preposition or adverb which creates a meaningdifferent from the

original verb.

Example:

I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. RUN + INTO = MEET

He ran away when he was 15. RUN + AWAY = LEAVE HOME

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. An intransitive verb cannot be

followed by an object.

Example:

He suddenly showed up. SHOW UP cannot take an object.


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Some phrasal verbs are transitive. A transitive verb can befollowed by an

object.

Example:

I made up the story. Story is the object of made up.

Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between

the verb and the preposition.

Example:

I talked my mother into letting me borrow the car. TALK INTO =PERSUADE

Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placedafter the

preposition.

Example:

I ran into an old friend yesterday. RUN INTO = MEET BYCHANCE

Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.

Example:

I looked the number up in the phone book.


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I looked up the number in the phone book.

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WARNING!

Although many phrasal

grammar book copy

Documents