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GRADUATE TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES ABOUT THE USEFULNESS OF
THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT OF DOMASI COLLEGE OF
EDUCATION IN ENABLING TEACHERS TO IMPROVE THEIR TEACHING COMPETENCES.
By
JOHN FOSTER JILL MOYO
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of the Degree of A
MASTER OF ARTS (MA) IN INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT
Of
The School of Education and Social Work, University of Sussex
August, 2015
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ABSTRACT
The study explored graduate teachers’ perceptions and experiences about the usefulness
of the Secondary School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) in improving teaching
competences. SSTEP is an in-service distance teacher preparation programme offered by
Domasi College of Education (DCE) in Malawi.
The study was empirical and employed a qualitative case study approach. Classroom
observations and semi-structured interviews were used as data collection methods.
Sampled teachers were those who had been trained through the SSTEP and were
conveniently sampled from Euthini Education Cluster. The findings of the study were
analysed using an inductive analysis methodology which aimed to establish the scope
to which the programme has been beneficial in improving teacher competences.
The outcomes of the study established that the SSTEP enriches teachers’ pedagogical
knowledge, lesson planning skills, classroom management and organization skills, and
teachers’ motivation for learning. However, the study also established that the sampled
SSTEP-Graduates demonstrated inadequacy in their possession of subject content
knowledge and communication skills.
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Statement of Original Authorship
I hereby certify that this research report does not incorporate, without
acknowledgment, any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university; and that to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any
material previously published or written by another person except where due reference
is made in the text.
DATED: Aug 28, 2015
Researcher
John Foster Jill Moyo, Dip. Ed. (Mw), B.Ed. (Mw).
Master of Arts (MA) Researcher
____________________________
Research Supervisor
Prof. Dr. John Pryor
Faculty of Education, University of Sussex
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I express my heart-felt gratitude to my supervisor, Prof. Dr. John Pryor, for his constant
academic guidance and personal support. He is an excellent academic who really helped me to
shape this research with his constructive criticism and solid research knowledge. He always
demonstrated support and encouraged me to believe in myself.
Thanks to the MAIED course leader, Prof. Dr. Mairead Dunne, for believing in me when I had
just started this MA journey. She saw in me more potential than I saw in myself, and always
encouraged me to do my best. I admire her as an academic, for all her contributions to the field
of international education, but also as a human being for the kind and welcoming approach
she always had with me and all of my classmates.
I also acknowledge the roles played by all MAIED colleagues namely Jinhee Kim, Tetsuya
Yamada, Camila Murcia, Kyoko Matsumoto, Mika Tema, Natalie Spyrou, Alice, Saki
Hyakutake, Sefut Shan, Yukari Ishida, Henry Francool and Yunina Mitsumori. During my year
as a MAIED student, I had productive interactions with all of them, especially Jinhee Kim, about
academic issues and common things that affect students’ lives. The moments shared
academically and socially made this journey nicer and more enjoyable.
I also express my thanks to the All Saints Education Trust (ASET) team, particularly Kevin
Mitchell and Janice Zvimba, for believing in my potential and giving me the opportunity to
study in England through the All Saints Education Trust Scholarship. Equally, Mr. Crescent
Rashid Kapira, then Headmaster of Euthini Secondary School, deserves special
acknowledgement for allowing me to travel to England for my MA studies, under very tricky
and difficult circumstances.
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DEDICATION
This MA academic work is dedicated to
My Father,
Adams Simplex Peter Moyo
AND
My Mother,
Clara Benadetta Nkhoma
Who have both been behind my academic success!
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem …………………………………………. 2
1.3 Research Aim …………………………………………………………... 3
1.4 Research Questions Guiding the Study ……………………….. 3
1.5 Significance of the Study …………………………………………. 3
1.6 Structure of the Dissertation …………………………………………. 4
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 5
2.2 The Concept of Distance Education …………………………………. 5
2.3 Rationale for Distance Teacher Preparation Programmes ………….. 7
2.4 Models of Distance Education ………………………………… 9
2.5 Domasi College of Education’s Distance Education Model(s) ……….. 11
2.6 Teacher Competence and Effectiveness ……………………….. 12
CHAPTER 3 THE CONTEXT AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 16
3.2 The Education System of Malawi …………………………………. 16
3.3 The Development of Distance Education in Malawi ………………. 17
3.4 Overview of Distance Teacher Education in Malawi ………………. 17
3.5 Examples of Distance Teacher Education Programmes ……………... 18
3.6 The Establishment of the SSTEP ……………………………………….. 20
3.7 Constructivism: Theoretical Framework that Guided the Study …… 21
3.6 Chapter Summary ………………………………………………………. 23
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CHAPTER 4 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 24
4.2 Rationale for Qualitative Case Study ………………………………… 25
4.3 Epistemological Position …………………………………………. 26
4.4 Sample Selection ………………………………………………….. 26
4.5 Data Collection Methods and Procedures ……………………….. 28
4.6 Data Analysis, Organisation and Interpretation ………………. 30
4.7 Ethical Considerations ………………………………………… 32
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 33
5.2 Brief Description of the Studied Teachers in Relation to SSTEP…….. 34
5.3 Summary of the Core Findings ………………………………… 38
5.4 Dissatisfaction with the Diploma Qualification ……………………… 42
5.5 Chapter Summary ………………………………………………….. 43
CHAPTER 6 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 44
6.2 Analysis by Emerging Research Themes ……………………….. 44
6.3 Chapter Summary ………………………………………………….. 50
CHAPTER 7 CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Introduction …………………………………………………………... 51
7.2 The Study’s Conclusions …………………………………………. 51
7.3 Implications of the Study’s Conclusions ……………………….. 52
7.4 The Study’s Recommendations ………………………………… 52
7.5 Limitations of the Study …………………………………………. 53
7.6 Chapter Summary ………………………………………………….. 54
LIST OF REFERENCES ………………………………………………………..………….. 55
APPENDICES ………………………………………………………………………….… 60
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LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
Table 2.1 Delivery Models of Distance Education ………………. 9
Table 2.2 Institutional Models of Distance Education ………………. 10
Table 2.1 SSTEP’s Programme of Activities ……………………….. 11
Table 2.3 DTE’s Core Teaching Competencies ……………………….. 13
Figure 4.1 Flow-Diagram of the Self-Developed Research Model …….. 24
Table 4.1 Stages in Inductive Data Analysis ……………………….. 31
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
CDSS Community Day Secondary School
CIDA Canadian International Development Agency
CODL Centre for Open and Distance Learning
DCE Domasi College of Education
DTED Department of Teacher Education and Development
DTE Department for Teacher Education
FPE Free Primary Education
MASTEP Malawi Special Teacher Education Programme
MCDE Malawi College of Distance Education
MITEP Malawi Integrated Teachers’ Education Programme
MoEST Ministry of Education, Science & Technology
NED Northern Education Division
SSTEP Secondary School Teacher Education Project
TTC Teacher Training College
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CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION AND STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
1.1 INTRODUCTION
With the rapid expansion of secondary school education in Malawi since 1998 through
the establishment of Community Day Secondary Schools (CDSSs), the demand for
secondary school teachers has been exceeding supply (Saiti, 2007:3). Worse still, the
capacity of teacher education institutions to train enough teachers through conventional
programmes has been limited by bed space (Chakwera & Saiti, 2005; Msiska, 2013). On
interim and responsive basis, the MoEST deploys the best qualified primary school
teachers to teach in CDSSs in spite of their under-qualification for secondary teaching.
In order to upgrade the under-qualified teachers in CDSSs to qualified secondary school
teacher status, the MoEST introduced a distance teacher preparation programme at
Domasi College of Education (DCE) through the Secondary School Teacher Education
Project (SSTEP). Implemented as an in-service programme, the SSTEP enrols and trains
the under-qualified CDSS teachers so that they acquire germane secondary school
teaching competences and qualifications. Since its establishment, the SSTEP has been
generally appraised as being significantly helpful in addressing teacher shortages at
secondary school level (Chakwera & Saiti, 2005).
However, subsequent to the introduction of the SSTEP, there has been a discourse shift
whereby the earlier fear of failure of conventional teacher training programmes to meet
teacher shortages has been replaced by concerns about the quality of distance
programmes. Specifically, due to the increasing demand for schools to have access to
effective teachers who can meet the new and more rigorous standards for teaching,
distance teacher education programmes have often been questioned on their ability to
provide trainees with relevant competences for effective teaching.
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1.2 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
Secondary school teacher education in Malawi has been offered predominantly through
conventional programmes. Distance programmes have just been recently introduced at
DCE and Mzuzu University with the aim of accelerating the training of teachers and
enhancing the quality of teaching in the recently established CDSSs. However, sceptics
feel that a form of education which does not offer direct intellectual interaction with
teachers and fellow students and the social benefits of campus life must be deficient and
lacking in depth and opportunities for personal development. Yet studies about distance
teacher education in Malawi have seemingly not so much given attention to issues of
quality. It is therefore, currently unclear if the programmes have been helpful in meeting
teacher quality demands thereby compounding fears that
Whereas the significance of distance teacher training can be a better approach to address
teacher shortages, the approach may sometimes just be a simple matter of volume and
economics that raises the question of effectiveness in terms of quality (Umar & Danaher,
2010).
Similarly, Burn (2011) suggests that
Without rigorous standards to assure the quality of distance-based teaching and materials
development, distance education has battled perceptions of inferior quality. And
without much in the way of longitudinal and comparative evaluation data, distance
education has struggled with perceptions of impact and effectiveness (Burn, 2011, pp.
242).
In light of the above, the problem that propagates this study, therefore, is that the
quality of distance teacher preparation programmes offered by Domasi College of
Education through the SSTEP has not been assessed to determine the extent to which
they enable teachers to acquire relevant teaching competences. This observation concurs
with an observation by Bates (2008:1) who argues that
Some African educational policymakers and planners remain sceptical about the
legitimacy and quality of open and distance learning due to, among other reasons, a
lack of an adequate research to support informed decisions (Bates, 2008:1).
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1.3 RESEARCH AIM AND METHODS
The main aim of the research was to gain greater understanding by exploring graduate
teachers’ perceptions and experiences about the usefulness of the SSTEP in enabling
teachers to acquire relevant teaching competences. To achieve the aim, a pre-defined
number of qualified CDSS teachers conveniently drawn from Euthini Cluster of the
Northern Education Division (NED) were studied using both classroom observations
and post-observation interviews.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS GUIDING THE STUDY
i. Do SSTEP graduates perceive that their distance training experience contributed
to the improvement of their teaching performance?
ii. To what extent does the classroom practice of the SSTEP graduates demonstrate
that the programme enabled them to acquire competencies necessary for
effective teaching?
1.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
It is obvious that the primary way for increasing the quality of teachers is through
effective teacher training (Oni, 2013). However, Burn (2011) is quick to observe that:
Without well-designed and rigorous evaluations, we cannot make claims about the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of a programme. Without evaluation, we have no idea
whether a distance education programme really works. And if a programme does fail, a
good evaluation can help planners and designers understand and learn from the failure
(Burn, 2011, pp. 253).
The expectancy behind this dissertation is that the outcomes of the study will contribute
to the understanding about the usefulness of secondary school teacher education
programmes offered at a distance. Particularly, it is anticipated that the resultant
information may help to inform distance teacher preparation institutions, policymakers,
planners, and funders about the strengths and weaknesses of DCE’s distance teacher
education programmes offered under the SSTEP and indicate what assumptions and
inputs should change and how.
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1.6 STRUCTURE OF THE DISSERTATION
The first chapter effectively introduces the research problem, main aim of the study, the
study’s research questions, and its importance. Review of literature related to distance
teacher preparation programmes is done in chapter two while chapter three considers
the educational country context and theoretical framework in which the study was
done. The fourth chapter presents the research methodology which explains the
procedures that were followed in conducting the study. Chapter five presents research
findings while chapter six analyses and discusses the results. And finally, chapter seven
brings out recommendations that can assist DCE and other stakeholders to improve on
the way they carry out their respective responsibilities in distance teacher education.
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 CHAPTER INTRODUCTION
This chapter reviews literature relevant to the research topic. Key issues reviewed
include a discussion of the concept of distance education, distance teacher preparation
programmes, effective teaching and teacher competences. The selected literature
fundamentally supported me to refine the research question(s), formulate relevant key
questions for the interviews, and to put the feedback of the interviewees into context.
2.2 THE CONCEPT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
The terminology about distance education is multifarious and at times confusing. The
purpose of defining and describing the concept of distance education at this point is to
synthesise a descriptor from a range of sources that is representative of the mode of
delivery of the SSTEP.
According to Perraton (1993), the term distance learning should be seen as:
An education process in which a significant proportion of the teaching is conducted by
someone removed in space or time from the learner (Perraton, 1993:63).
Equally, Maxwell (1995) defines distance education as:
A mode of delivering a course in which the majority of communication between teachers
and students occurs non-contiguously, and the two-way communication between
teacher and student necessary for the educational process is technologically mediated
(Maxwell, 1995: 43).
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In the same way, according to Burn (2011), a distance programme can be said to be
A planned learning experience characterized by quasi-permanent separation of the
instructor and learner(s) in which information and communication are exchanged
through print or electronic communications media (Burn, 2011).
Holmberg (1986), in his book entitled Growth and Structure of Distance Education is
more imaginative when he defines distance education as:
The various forms of study at all levels which are not under the continuous immediate
supervision of tutors present with their students in lecture rooms or on the same
premises, but which, nevertheless, benefit from the planning, guidance and tuition of a
tutorial organization (Holmberg, 1986).
From the definitions reviewed above, the emergent defining features of distance
education are the learning support role of the academic institutions and the physical
separation between teachers and learners which can be specified as follows:
a. Distance education does not require the continuous and immediate physical
presence of both the teacher and leaner in a physical classroom
b. In distance education, communication between the teacher and the learner is
technologically facilitated
c. And that in distance education, communication may take the form of either
print or electronic media or both.
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2.3 THE RATIONALE FOR DISTANCE TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
2.3.1 A General Perspective
Distance education has, in general, been all about improving access to education.
Traditionally, the primary purpose of distance education has been to provide for
learners who are unable to, or do not wish to, participate in campus-based learning. In
teacher training, distance education is commissioned to fulfil many roles depending on
context and circumstance. For example, Perraton (2010) notes that education systems,
especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, encounter the following various challenges that call for
the employment of distance teacher training programmes: shortage of teachers as pupil
numbers keep on rising; gender disparities in teacher recruitment in favour of men; the
huge number of serving teachers being untrained or under-trained; and the slow and
sometimes non-existent continuing professional development for teachers. His
argument in favour of distance teacher education for such contexts is that
International experience has demonstrated that open and distance education can be
effectively deployed for teacher education. While it has often been regarded as a
temporary expedient, adopted, dropped, and re-adopted, the evidence on its
effectiveness is in fact robust enough for it to be developed and treated instead as a
regular part of national systems of education (Perraton, 2010: 15).
Additionally, UNESCO (2001) asserts that distance teacher preparation programmes
have been used as an in-service vehicle to fulfil a mandate of upgrading the knowledge,
skills, and qualifications of an existing teaching force. UNESCO’s understanding is that
skills and knowledge needed by teachers are in a state of a flux thereby necessitating
that teachers should be given opportunities to learn throughout their careers.
Considering the perplexing circumstances surrounding teacher education in most Sub-
Sahara African countries, UNESCO (2001) sees distance learning as a prominent method
for enhancing teacher re-training in cases of curriculum reform or change re-orientation.
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For Moon & Leach (2005), distance teacher education programmes have been used as
a teacher preparation method in the context of high teacher attrition rate. Teaching as
a career option has to compete with new sorts of jobs in the growing knowledge
economies. HIV/AIDS is also impacting heavily on the demographic profiles of the
teaching force. These challenges result into the demand for teacher education in
developing countries becoming so great that policymakers, program planners, and
teacher educators have to explore alternatives to the existing conventional programs
(Moon & Leach, 2005). In such contexts, the need to provide new qualification routes
into teaching and the importance of upgrading the millions of unqualified teachers
represents a significant challenge of scale and logistics.
2.3.2 Rationale for Distance Secondary Teacher Education Programmes in Malawi
Primarily, the introduction of CDSSs in 1998 sharply increased demand for secondary
teachers in Malawi (UNESCO, 2008). Since ably qualified teachers were not available
at that time, the MoEST relocated, and still continues to relocate, a number of primary
school teachers to teach in CDSSs. These teachers are underqualified to teach at
secondary school level, therefore, need to be upgraded while they are teaching in their
respective duty stations.
Furthermore, secondary teacher education in Malawi is marked by low institutional
output (Mtika, 2008). The problem is attributed to the fact that university colleges
namely Chancellor College, the Polytechnic, DCE and Mzuzu University cannot produce
the required number of teachers through conventional programs due to limited bed
space (Chakwera & Saiti, 2005) hence the setting up of distance secondary teacher
education programmes.
Finally, there is high teacher attrition rate in Malawi, estimated at 10% per annum
(Mtika, 2008). This is exacerbated by extremely poor, harsh and expensive geographical
duty locations, illnesses and deaths due to HIV and AIDS and teachers’ search for greener
pastures. The high attrition rate contributes a dimension of the teacher supply challenge
which calls for the training of teachers in large numbers at relatively cheaper costs.
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2.4 MODELS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
2.4.1 Delivery Models
Distance education can be placed into two main categories: delivery models and
institutional models. Delivery models entail the various ways or methods used by
academic institutions to offer tuition to course candidates. In the table below, I
summarise Dodds’ delivery models of distance education:
Model Characteristics
1. Challenge
Model
Learning materials, syllabi, reading lists are provided
Students work on their own and later take
examinations
Sometimes learning is mediated at a distance with
tutorial support
2. Resource-
Based Learning
Model
Has good interactive learning materials
Strong element of occasional face-to-face contact
support
Strong institutionalised student support service
Suitable for adult secondary and tertiary students, and
professional upgrading students
3. Supervised-
Study Group
Model
Students study in groups
Supervisors structure and support the learning session
but do not teach
Face-to-face support is provided
4. In-School
Media
Enrichment
Model
Teacher-led media is used in class to improve quality
of teaching
Provides additional tuition to that of formal school
5. Media-Enabled
Adult Study
Groups Model
It is media led, especially radio
Group study is used
Extensively used by community and popular
education
Does not lead to certification
Table 2.1: Delivery Models of Distance Education as summarised from Dodds (1994)
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2.4.2. Institutional Models
Institutional models typify academic institutions into either single-mode or dual-mode.
In explaining the two types of distance learning institutions, Dodds (1994) uses a
differentiation system which spells out the differences as summarised in the table below:
SINGLE-MODE DUAL-MODE
Institutions which conform to
this model provide only distance
teaching, usually to part-time
students.
The curriculum, the media used to
teach, student support and
accreditation are designed in an
integrated way to suit students
studying at a distance.
The staff are totally committed
to distance students and have no
conflict of loyalties between on-
campus and off-campus students.
The staffs are also strongly
motivated to develop and
enhance distance education
methods and are free from the
demands of face-to-face teaching.
They (staff) normally have the
freedom to devise programmes
for new target groups and to
explore the full potential of new
teaching methods.
There are generally no on-
campus student activities, though
there may be a regional network
of study centres where students
and tutors meet.
Institutions described as dual mode
generally teach both full-time students
on campus and part-time students at a
distance.
Both types of student follow the same
syllabus, take the same examinations
and therefore are judged by the same
standards.
On-campus students may benefit from
the use of teaching materials which
have been developed for distance
learners.
Teachers have the stimulus of face-to-
face teaching and might have a greater
variety of jobs than in a single mode
institution, where there is usually more
specialisation.
Distance education services may be
handled in a special, separate unit with
staff whose sole responsibility is
teaching at a distance.
Essentially, distance education is
incorporated into the structure of a
traditional university, although dual
mode universities often have specialist
distance educational administration
and student support systems.
Table 2.2: Institutional Models of Distance Education as summarised from Dodds (1994)
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2.5 DESCRIPTION OF DCE’S SSTEP DISTANCE EDUCATION MODEL
DCE was established in 1993 as a conventional secondary school teacher training
institution. On the time of its establishment, DCE was a single-mode institution offering
face-to-face type of education. However, the introduction of the SSTEP in 2000 marked
the birth of distance education at DCE which runs parallel to the conventional face-to-
face programme. With the introduction of the SSTEP programme, DCE effectively
became a dual-mode institution (refer to Table 2.2).
The SSTEP uses resource-based learning model (refer to Table 2.1). The college has eight
weeks of residential face-to-face orientation split between two semesters i.e. four weeks
at the beginning of each academic semester. The face-to-face orientation is then
followed by forty weeks (twenty in each semester) of independent study at home using
course modules. During the forty weeks of independent study, student-teachers also
discharge their duties as teachers in their respective duty stations. The whole course is
completed in three years upon which successful students are awarded a Diploma in
Education. SSTEP activities are presented below:
Period Of Study Activities
Residential
(Face-to-face) (8
weeks/year)
Learners get introduced to instructional materials for the
whole year
Distribution of instructional modules, textbooks and
pamphlets
Lecturers give out continuous assessment assignments with
explanations on how to do them
Utilization and photocopying of other library resources
Writing examinations
Independent
Home Study (40
weeks/year)
Discussions of content in study circles (once in a week, on
Fridays). They are exempted from duty as teachers
Holding monthly seminars and meetings at Cluster Leading
School (coordinated by Field Supervisor)
During seminars, discussions pertaining to clarity of subject
content, effectiveness of teaching methods employed, and
professional topics are done.
Compilation of professional portfolios based on specific
guidelines
Writing continuous assessment exercises and teaching
practice
Table 2.3: The SSTEP Programme of Activities
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2.6 TEACHER COMPETENCE AND EFFECTIVENESS
2.6.1 The Concept of Teacher Competence
Though the concept of competence is a relatively new approach that structures the
vision of teaching, the possibilities for its misuse are numerous (Martinet et al., 2001),
consequently, it is important to understand its meaning from a variety of standpoints.
For a beginning, Crick (2008) asserts that competence is best described as a complex
combination of knowledge, skills, understanding, values, attitudes and desire which lead
to effective, embodied human action in a particular domain. Competence is, therefore,
the ability to perform complex acts with ease, precision and adaptability. When related
to teaching as a profession, teaching competences are thus intricate blends of
knowledge, skills, understanding, values and attitudes, leading to effective action in a
teaching situation.
Correspondingly, Caena (2011) argues that competence should be viewed as a holistic
concept which involves the dynamic combination of knowledge, understanding and
skills. He further suggests that competence is something that can be demonstrated to a
certain level of achievement along the following continuum; the ability to meet
complex demands by drawing on and mobilising psychosocial resources in context;
cognitive and practical skills; and knowledge or attitudes such as motivation, personal
value orientations, and emotions. The skills highlighted in the continuum are in essence
representative of the large number of instructional activities which teachers perform.
However, the effective organization of the activities is what should be defined as
teaching competence (Koster & Dengerink, 2008).
While an attempt to define teaching competence has been made in this section, my
point of view is that what constitutes the same may be controversial and can vary from
context to context. The term teaching competence is difficult to define in strict terms
just as the concept of quality is. Nevertheless high teaching competence is said to be a
recipe for high quality education.
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2.6.2 Core Teacher Professional Competencies
In spite of a definition crisis and the multiplicity of teacher competencies, some respected
academics have managed to identify core teacher competencies. For example, Martinet
et al. (2001) identify six broad categories of core teacher competencies which include
subject content knowledge, good lesson planning, classroom management and
organization, pedagogical knowledge, communication skills, and motivation for
learning.
Similarly, the Department for Teacher Education (DTE) (2004) outlines five dimensions
of teacher competence. Under each of the five dimensions are skill and knowledge sets
which competent teachers must possess. The researcher summarised DTE’s teacher core
competencies as follows:
COMPETENCE
DIMENSION
SKILL/KNOWLEDGE SET
1. FACILITATION OF
STUDENT
LEARNING
Engage students in purposeful and appropriate learning
experiences
Cater for diverse student learning styles and needs through
consistent application of a wide range of teaching strategies
Use exemplary teaching strategies and techniques that meet
the needs of individual students, groups and/or classes of
students in a highly responsive and inclusive manner
2. ASSESMENT OF
STUDENT
LEARNING
OUTCOMES
Monitor, assess, record and report student learning outcomes
Apply comprehensive systems of assessment and reporting in
relation to student attainment of learning outcomes
Consistently use exemplary assessment and reporting
strategies that are highly responsive and inclusive
3. ENGAGEMENT IN
PROFESSIONAL
LEARNING
Reflect critically on professional experiences in order to
enhance professional effectiveness
Contribute to the development of a learning community
Engage in a variety of learning activities that promote critical
self-reflection and the development of a learning community
4. PARTICIPATION
IN CURRICULUM
POLICY
Participate in curriculum policy and program teamwork
Provide support for curriculum policy or other program
teams
Provide leadership in the school by assuming a key role in
school development processes including curriculum planning
and policy formulation
5. FORMATION OF
PARTNERSHIP
WITHIN THE
SCHOOL
Establish partnerships with students, colleagues, parents and
other caregivers
Support student learning through partnerships and teamwork
with members of the school community
Facilitate teamwork within the school community
Table 2.3: Adapted from the Department for Teacher Education (DTE) (2004, pp. 8)
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2.6.3 The Relationship between Teacher Competence and Teaching Effectiveness
Markley (2002) presents a literature review which aims to define effective teaching. He,
for example, quotes Clark (1993, p. 10) who argued that an effective teacher is someone
who can increase student knowledge. He also quotes Vogt (1984) who related effective
teaching to the ability to provide instruction to different students of different abilities
while incorporating instructional objectives and assessing the effective learning mode of
the students. Equally, he summarises five criteria for an effective teacher established by
Collins (1990): a teacher who is committed to students and learning; knows the subject
matter; is responsible for managing students; can think systematically about their own
practice; and is a member of the learning community.
It is apparent from the above definitions that the effectiveness of teachers is closely
linked to the concept of teaching competence. It is seen that competent teachers create
classroom conditions and climate, which are conducive for student learning. It is also
appreciated that teaching competence has various dimensions such as content
knowledge, instructional planning, student motivation, presentation and
communication skills, evaluation competencies and classroom management skills. While
the teacher would require all these dimensions to a reasonable extent, it is the
manifestation of these in an integrated manner that makes him/her effective in the
classroom context (Crick, 2008).
2.7 The Role of Teacher Training Programmes in Improving Teacher Competence
The value of teacher training is a hotly debated topic in education. The debate is fuelled
by comparisons of the effectiveness of teachers who hold teaching qualifications from
two different training institutions or two different training programmes. Boyd et al.
(2009) suggests that there are important variations in the effectiveness of teachers
graduating from different programmes and, moreover, that some programme
characteristics predict the programme’s effectiveness in training good quality teachers.
15
In studying the role of teacher preparation programmes in inculcating teachers with
relevant teaching competencies, Greenberg et al (2013) observed that past research
studies have not done much to dampen the debate. They found that the differences
found in research from the last 50 years regarding the effectiveness of teachers who had
traditional preparation and those who had little preparation were negligible (Greenberg
et al, 2013). Nevertheless, Greenberg et al (2013) found that more recent research
suggests that graduates of some programmes are more effective than graduates of other
programmes, suggesting that teacher training can make a difference. This is the reason
why teacher preparation programs should be held accountable for their efficacy in
producing competent teachers.
16
CHAPTER 3
THE CONTEXT AND THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In relation to the study’s stated aim, this chapter sets the scene for the research by
describing the context in which distance teacher education programmes, including the
SSTEP, were introduced and carried out. It also describes how the context effects
constructivism as a theoretical framework that could guide the study.
3.2 THE EDUCATION SYSTEM OF MALAWI
Malawi is a small developing country located in Sub-Saharan Africa which covers an
area of 119,140 km². The country lies between 9° and 17° south of the equator and
shares boundaries with Tanzania to the north and north-east, Zambia to the west and
Mozambique to the south, east and west. According to recent statistics, the population
of Malawi is estimated at 14 million people (National Statistical Office, 2013).
The Malawian public education system adopts an 8-4-4 structure, with the first eight
years spent in primary school, continuing with four years in secondary school and
finishing with the last four years of tertiary education (World Bank 2010). Primary
school is sub-divided into junior and senior classes which are standards 1-4 and 5-8,
respectively (Government of Malawi & World Bank 2006). Similarly, secondary schools
consist of junior classes (form 1-2) and senior secondary (form 3-4). Secondary school
system has two main secondary school types, conventional schools and CDSSs, with the
former being generally better endowed with resources than the latter. A graduated
system selects the best students to attend the conventional schools while the remaining
students are left to the CDSSs (UNESCO 2008).
17
3.3 THE DEVELOPMENT OF DISTANCE EDUCATION IN MALAWI
Distance learning in Malawi started in 1965 with the establishment of Malawi
Correspondence College (MCC) (Msiska, 2013). In the same year, a Schools
Broadcasting Unit (SBU) was set up to augment printed instructional modules by airing
instructional programmes for primary, secondary and teacher education. The MCC and
SBU merged to form the Malawi Correspondence College and Broadcasting Unit
(MCCBU) in 1973. However in 1987, the MCCBU changed its name to Malawi College
of Distance Education (MCDE) (Msiska, 2013) but maintained its aim as follows:
The idea of establishing MCC was first captured by the Nyasaland Development Plan
(NDP) of 1962-1965 which aimed at addressing the challenge of continuity of primary
school leavers to secondary education; the need to improve the quality of teachers in
primary schools through in-service training, thereby, improve the standard of primary
education; meeting the need for continuing education of the rural people, and fostering
agriculture development, health education; and extension studies as a means of ensuring
rural development (Msiska, 2013).
3.4 DISTANCE TEACHER EDUCATION IN MALAWI
Currently, there are three notable public teacher education institutions in Malawi that
use distance learning mode to train teachers: DCE, Department of Teacher Education
and Development (DTED) and Mzuzu University. DCE started offering distance
secondary teacher education in 2000 in response to the need for upgrading primary
school teachers who were teaching in CDSSs. Similarly, the MoEST’s DTED trains
primary school teachers by distance mode through Teacher Training Colleges (TTCs).
In the same vein, Mzuzu University established the Centre for Open and Distance
Learning (CODL) in 2006 to plan, design, and develop instructional materials and
delivery systems; and coordinate and facilitate all other activities leading to offering of
programmes through the open and distance learning delivery modes (Msiska, 2013).
Mzuzu University enrolled the first cohort of distance learners in the Bachelor of Arts
(Education) and Bachelor of Science (Education) programmes in November 2011 and
the second cohort in November 2012.
18
3.5 EXAMPLES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF DISTANCE TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAMMES
3.5.1 Malawi Special Teacher Education Programme (MASTEP)
Malawi Special Distance Teacher Education Programme (MASTEP) was launched in 1990
with an objective of training 4000 primary school teachers in three years (Kunje &
Lewin, 2000). MASTEP was supplementary to the normal two-year teacher training
programme offered in TTCs across Malawi whose rationale was to train teachers who
could attend to the school enrolment growth rates which had steadily increased with
projections indicating a shortfall of 7,000 trained teachers by 1993 (Kunje & Lewin,
2000).
Candidates for the programme were selected using entry requirements similar to the
two-year normal programme. After selection, trainees were registered as external
students in TTCs and sent to primary schools to start teaching while at the same time
reading self-study materials. The course lasted over a period of three years in which
students had supervised teaching three times per year; residential courses for two
months a year; seminars and workshops twice a year; and lastly project write-ups and
course work through the distance mode (Kunje & Lewin, 2000). The programme
yielded about 3,900 new teachers but was unable to meet the demand for primary
teachers in terms of quality and was discontinued in 1993.
3.5.2 Malawi Integrated In-service Teacher Education Programme (MIITEP)
The adoption of Free Primary Education (FPE) in 1994 resulted in a massive increase in
the demand for primary teachers and induced a crisis which compelled the MoEST to
depart radically from the conventional two-year residential pre-service training (Kunje,
2002). Untrained teachers were recruited on a temporary basis to counter teacher
shortages. Consequently, the Malawi Integrated In-service Teacher Education
Programme (MIITEP) was established in 1997 to train the teachers (Kunje, 2002).
19
MIITEP was a mixed-mode system where periods of college-based training alternated
with distance and local level support for training with a school base for twenty months.
MIITEP assumed that schools would become the major training ground for new teachers
and that they would be complemented by a distance mode of training and a short
residential course (Kunje, 2002). MIITEP’s organization pattern allowed TTCs to enrol
three cohorts a year thereby tripling teacher output.
It is apparent that the aim of the innovation of MIITEP was to mass-produce teachers
in line with the demand for new teachers. At the end of the four-year planned period
six cohorts had passed through the system and about 18,000 untrained teachers had
been trained and certified (Kunje, 2002). Under conventional programmes, this number
of teachers would have taken twelve years to produce. Thus, MIITEP demonstrated that
mass production of teachers can be achieved through distance education.
However, in the following excerpt, Kunje (2002) reports that the quality of training
under MIITEP left much to be desired:
Quality issues that remain unresolved include the tension between upgrading subject
knowledge and acquiring professional and pedagogic skills …. The curriculum in action
seemed to have had little impact on trainees’ academic competencies, though there is
evidence that professionally some demonstrated knowledge and skills in the use of new
teaching methods. But overall there is little to suggest that trainees are confident or
capable of transforming learning and teaching in schools (Kunje, 2002: 318).
20
3.6 THE ESTABLISHMENT OF THE SECONDARY SCHOOL TEACHER EDUCATION PROJECT
Umar & Danaher (2010) admit the solid progress Malawi had made towards the
achievement in expanding access to primary education under FPE program. However,
the significant rise in enrolment at primary school level has subsequently resulted in
swollen transition to secondary school education thereby giving rise to two significant
educational challenges: the necessity to expand opportunities for secondary schooling
in order to meet the rising demand, and the need to recruit and train more teachers
(UNESCO, 2008).
In countering the challenge of increasing enrolment figures, the MoEST has expanded
access to secondary education by establishing CDSSs. However, with the rapid rate at
which CDSSs are being established, conventional teacher preparation programmes have
become too far inadequate to prepare teachers for these schools culminating into the
challenge of teacher shortages (Chakwera & Saiti, 2005). As pointed out earlier, primary
school teachers were thus deployed to teach in the newly established CDSSs despite the
fact that they were underqualified to teach at that level of education.
Subsequently, the MoEST, with funding from the Canadian International Development
Agency (CIDA), launched a distance teacher preparation program dubbed the
Secondary School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) in 2000 at DCE (Chakwera & Saiti,
2005). The mandate of the SSTEP is to upgrade the under-qualified CDSS teachers to
fully qualified secondary school teacher status. Upon the successful completion of their
three-year training programmes, the upgraded teachers are offered Diplomas in
Education (Dip.Ed.).
21
3.7 CONSTRUCTIVISM: A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE STUDY
Marshall (2000:3) admits that theories are a product of existing circumstances and are,
thus, formulated and implemented in order to address prevailing situations. As distance
education is not carried out unsystematically but falls within structures of a given
operational mode, theories can guide its practice and research. This study was guided
by the theory of constructivism.
3.7.1 Description of Constructivism as an Educational Theory
Constructivism, according to Taber (2011), is a major referent in education which has
been understood as a learning theory, a philosophical stance on human knowledge and
an approach to social enquiry. As an educational theory, constructivism comprises of
ideas about how curriculum and instruction should be designed to best respond to
educational purposes. The theory assumes that the learner comes to knowledge by
recognising the meaning of what is found in the environment.
The consequence of constructivism is the focus on the learner with the assertion that
there is no knowledge independent of the meaning attributed to experience by the
learner or community of learners (Christie, 2005). Constructivist theory advocates that
learning is not understanding the true nature of things, nor is it remembering dimly
perceived perfect ideas, but rather a personal and social construction of meaning out of
the bewildering array of sensations which have no order or structure besides the
explanations which are fabricated for them (Bernstein, 2000).
3.7.2 Implications of Constructivism Theory for Teaching
A key issue that arises from constructivist perspective is that teaching is seldom about
helping learners build up knowledge from nothing as learning always builds upon, and
with cognitive and conceptual resources already available. As Taber (2011) suggests, this
leads to two key constructivist principles for teachers:
i. Teaching involves activating relevant ideas already available to learners to help
construct new knowledge.
22
ii. Students will build their new knowledge upon partial, incorrect, or apparently
irrelevant existing knowledge unless carefully guided.
Key constructivist principles implicate teaching practice in several ways. As what a
student will understand of teaching will be contingent upon their existing ideas and
ways of thinking about a topic, teachers, therefore, have to diagnose student thinking
effectively so they can channel that thinking towards the target knowledge presented in
the curriculum. As this suggests, effective constructivist teaching is very much hands-on
teaching where the teacher seeks to guide learning by supporting the knowledge
construction process.
In practice, constructivist teaching means that teachers should turn their attention back
on any idea of an all-encompassing machine which describes a phenomenon and instead
look towards the learners to create their own model for explaining phenomena
(Christie, 2005). Therefore, the constructivist position inevitably calls for teachers to
follow a pedagogy which must provide learners with the opportunity to interact with
sensory data and construct their own world. This idea implies that teachers need not to
construct meaning for learners.
Specifically, the role of teachers within constructivism learning theory is simple; instead
of giving a lecture, teachers need to function as facilitators whose role is to aid the
student when it comes to their own understanding (Murphy, 2004). Instead of telling,
the teacher needs to start asking. Instead of answering questions that only align with
their curriculum, the teacher should facilitate so that the student comes to the
conclusions on their own instead of being told. This involves teachers being continually
in conversation with the students, creating the learning experience that is open to new
directions depending upon the needs of the student as the learning progresses.
According to Westbrook et al (2013), this involves small-group, pair and whole-class
interactive work, extended dialogue with individuals, higher order questioning, teacher
modelling, showing, problem solving, and inquiry-based.
23
3.7.3 How Constructivism Fits as a Theoretical Framework for this Study
MASTEP, MIITEP and SSTEP programmes were all introduced to fast track the training
of teachers. Their effectiveness has, thus, been evaluated in terms of their ability to
produce the needed numbers of teachers over a given period of time. Such an
evaluation yardstick is deficient in the sense that it measures one dimension of teacher
supply, which is quantity, and neglects the most significant issue of the programmes’
quality to produce competent teachers. This study evaluates the effectiveness of SSTEP,
as a distance teacher training programme, by using the yardstick of quality. The quality
of the SSTEP in this study will be defined from the perspective of its graduates’ effective
teaching as enshrined in constructivist teaching.
Constructivist teaching implies learner-centred education which has generally been
described as a prescription for improvements to teaching and learning and panacea for
the declining quality of education (Schweisfurth, 2011). Likewise, in the context of
Malawi, learner-centred education has been understood and accepted as one vision of
best teaching practice. With that understanding, therefore, competent teachers are those
that employ constructivist ideas to their teaching practices hence the competence of
SSTEP graduates need to be evaluated from the constructivist teaching perspective. This
is to suggest that the extent to which the graduates employ constructivist ideas in their
teaching would determine how competent they are as teachers and that would also
relate to the effectiveness of their training.
3.8 CHPATER CONCLUSION
The chapter has discussed the context in which distance teacher education programmes,
including the SSTEP, were introduced and are being implemented in Malawi. It has also
discussed the theoretical framework which provides lenses for understanding the
research problem at hand. The chapter will be very helpful in the discussions of the
subsequent chapters as it will strengthen the argument of the role of the SSTEP in
improving teacher competences.
24
CHAPTER 4
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
4.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter describes the epistemological perspective and methodology employed in
this study. In principle, therefore, the chapter forms the foundation of the whole thesis.
Using a flow-diagram, the chapter firstly presents the study’s self-developed research
design before discussing the adopted qualitative case study approach. This is followed
by a justification of the sample selection criteria that were used. Further methodological
aspects presented in this chapter include: data collection methods; data analysis,
organisation and interpretation; and ethical considerations observed during the conduct
of the research.
Fig 4.1: A Flow-Diagram Describing a Self-Developed Research Model
Research Focus:
An investigation of the extent to which
the secondary school teacher education
programme (SSTEP) offered by Domasi
College of education in Malawi enables
teachers to acquire relevant
competences.
Research Design and Participants
Interpretive Qualitative Case Study
4 teachers from 4 research sites
Convenience Sampling was used
Instrumentation and Data Collection
Interviews and classroom observation
Teachers’ perceptions and training transfer
Analysis and interpretation of results
Research Findings
Thesis Development
Presentation
Submission
25
4.2 RATIONALE FOR QUALITATIVE CASE STUDY
Saunders et al. (2007) observe that a qualitative case study approach allows the
researcher to study selected issues in depth and contextualised detail. Thus, qualitative
case studies can produce a wealth of detailed information from a small number of
participants within selected research sites (Saunders et al., 2007). Furthermore, a
qualitative case study can provide insights on how people make sense of their
experiences, which cannot easily be provided by other research methods (Pope et al.,
2007). Additionally, as asserted by Pope et al. (2007), case study approach is a method
of discovery rather than confirmation, therefore, fitted well with the aim of this thesis
which was to discover the extent to which the SSTEP enables teachers to acquire relevant
competences.
Specifically, the case study approach was selected for the following reasons:
a) Firstly, the case study approach was a good choice to deal with the research
problem at hand within a limited period of time of fieldwork while collecting
data from a small sample.
b) Secondly, the case study approach provided much information about the
respective matters under investigation resulting in clear and comprehensive
understanding of experiences and conceptions of distance teacher education.
c) Moreover, the case study design allowed me to gain an in-depth understanding
from rich, detailed and in-depth data while retaining a holistic and meaningful
account of the impact of the SSTEP on teachers’ teaching competences.
26
4.3 EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITION
The study was placed within the constructivist paradigm. Constructivism assumes that
the meaning of experiences and events are constructed by individuals, and therefore,
people construct the realities in which they participate (Charmaz, 2006). Also, particular
to constructivism is a construction of meaning by researchers to the extent that their
interpretation of the studied phenomenon is itself a construction (Charmaz, 2006).
From the above described epistemological stance, the study aimed to understand
graduate teachers’ perceptions and experiences about the usefulness of the SSTEP in
improving their teaching competence. The acknowledged co-construction of the
researcher’s interpretation in constructivist research demanded that I conduct research
in a reflexive and transparent process. This involved thinking about the conditions of
teacher training through the SSTEP and investigating the way in which the context of
individual and intellectual involvement would affect interaction with whatever was
being researched.
4.4 SAMPLE SELECTION
I conveniently selected four teachers for inclusion into the study’s population sample.
Cohen et al. (2000) defines convenience sampling as a method of drawing
representative data by selecting people because of the ease of their volunteering,
availability or ease of access. However, within these parameters individual teachers
were carefully chosen by following Miles & Huberman’s (1994) sample selection criteria
as follows:
a) The need for theoretical framework to fit in the sample selection method so as
to collect findings that reflect the research topic, questions, as well as the study’s
theoretical orientation
b) The need to select a sample that is representative of the study population and
can provide rich and relevant information about the topic under study
c) The need to select a sample that allows transferability of information collected
across different but related settings
d) The need for sample selection that is free from biases and one which provides
justifiable description of what is experienced from the field
27
e) The sample selection method needs to consider and adhere to ethical issues that
might negatively influence the research process such as researcher-participant
relationship, participant readiness and freedom to take part in the study.
f) The need to consider possibility for sample management in terms of data
gathering process, associated research expenses as well as time management and
researcher’s familiarity and adaptation to the research sites and general research
context.
While the selection criteria of research sites and participants were supported by Cohen
et al., (2000) and Miles and Huberman (1994), the specific sample selection criteria
included the following:
a) School Location:
In order to avoid unnecessary expenses and wastage of limited time and
financial resources, I only selected CDSSs which were easily accessible.
Therefore, school location became significant criteria during the selection of
participants.
b) Participants’ Characteristics:
The population for the study were teachers who had been trained as
secondary school teachers at DCE through the SSTEP. However, the sample
comprised of SSTEP-trained teachers who were at the time of research
teaching in CDSSs in the NED, Euthini Cluster.
28
4.5 DATA COLLECTION METHODS AND PROCEDURES
Two methods of data collection were applied, these being classroom observation and
semi-structured interviews. These methods were chosen because they were likely to
yield a great deal of data about the usefulness of the SSTEP. The methods also enabled
the development of multiple understandings of the issue at hand and encouraged
teachers’ active participation in the research process.
4.5.1 Semi-structured Interviews
A few interview guiding questions were prepared (appendix 4) although they were not
always asked in a very direct pattern. The interviews were conducted after classroom
observations and were used to delve deeply into the SSTEP graduates’ perceptions about
the usefulness of the programme in improving their classroom competence. A non-
formal interview approach was used to question participants with respect to the main
questions guiding the research. Each interview session lasted for almost twenty minutes
and significantly involved three open-ended questions listed below:
a. Did SSTEP impact on your teaching skills? If yes, which skills in particular?
b. What are the strengths of SSTEP in aiding teachers to acquire relevant skills?
c. And if you were to propose change to the program, what would be your
suggestion?
Interview sessions were conducted in rooms located at the research participants’
respective schools. Multiple probes such as: “may you tell me more?”; “what do you
mean?”; “yes”; “go on”; “I see”; and “what next?” were used. Probes not only enhanced
participants’ understanding of the research questions but were also meant to guide them
to provide information needed to address the research topic. Moreover, probes gave
interviewees opportunity to elaborate, clarify more about their experience and
perceptions of distance teacher preparation programmes.
In the interview process, I took notes and audio-recorded interviewee’s responses. I
transcribed the notes and audio recordings which were shared with respective
respondents for further clarification and approval before being subjected to the major
29
analysis process. Audio-recorded information was important for two reasons: first, it
reminded me what exactly was said by the participants. Second, the audio-tapes helped
the researcher to correct some errors resulting from note taking and added necessary
information skipped during the interview sessions.
4.5.2 Classroom observation
Using a structured observation schedule (appendix 5), I observed and noted all the
teacher’s practices which I thought were important to be included in the thesis.
Observation of teachers’ classroom practice was employed as an alternative data
collection method with the aim of gaining a shared understanding of the teachers’
perceptions and their teaching. The questions about their training were grounded in the
actual practices observed. The aim was to experience teachers’ teaching practice from
their natural settings which would necessitate collecting a rich mass of data which would
otherwise not be collected by interviews.
During observation, I noted with reflection all of the teachers’ instructional practices
and students’ activities at every stage of instruction. These were audio-recorded and
later on helped to support the findings noted in my field notebook. I noted the time
the teacher used to facilitate the topic and also the time given to students for discussion,
individual assignments, and students’ reflections about questions and concepts. After
each transcription of the audio-recorded data, I replaced the case studies’ names with
pseudonyms to avoid identification of who provided the data.
30
4.6 DATA ANALYSIS, ORGANISATION AND INTERPRETATION
Data analysis was undertaken using a thematic inductive analysis approach which Patton
(2002) describes in the following way:
Inductive analysis means that the patterns, themes, and categories of analysis come from
the data; they emerge out of the data rather than being imposed on them prior to data
collection and analysis (p. 110).
Using this approach, I immersed myself in the data descriptions trying to understand
and interpret specific meaning segments that emerged from each participant description
across research instruments. Data were not viewed as meaningful in themselves but were
rather treated according to the research objectives and questions as well as my
interpretation of the data according to the guiding theoretical framework and distance
teacher education practices. This entailed a critical self-reflexive analysis based on how
teachers’ perceptions and experiences regarding the SSTEP reflected constructivist views
about teaching.
In order to accomplish this, I adopted a procedure of asking five questions about the
data as recommended by Berkowitz (1997):
a) What similar themes develop in relation to research sub-topics? How do the
emerging themes reflect the major research questions?
b) Are there differences or lack of relationship among themes? If there are, what
issues might account for the differences?
c) What significant experiences emerge from the informants’ responses? How do
participants’ experiences relate to the major research questions?
d) Do these themes suggest the need for additional findings? Is there need for
revision of one or all major research questions?
e) Are the themes that develop related to the findings of relevant past studies? If
they do not, how can these differences be accounted for?
31
Below is a summary of the processes of inductive data analysis and interpretation that I
assumed:
STAGE ACTIVITIES
1. Familiarization with Data Reading the transcripts
Seeing what is in the data
Realising patterns
2. Generation of initial Codes Writing marginal notes
Highlighting key ideas and words
Generating codes
3. Code Validation Re-reading the transcripts
Double checking codes for consistency and
validation
Expanding or rejecting initial categories
4. Theme Identification Indicating what chunks of text are about
Grouping the chunks
5. Writing the analysis Describing each theme
Adding interpretation
Illustrating the theme with quotations from
original text
Table 4.1: Stages in using Thematic Inductive Analysis
As can be seen from Table 4.1 above, data analysis involved reading through all the
data one by one, jotting ideas as they came to mind to obtain a general sense of the
information and reflecting on its underlying meaning. For each sample case and research
site, I outlined all key aspects that were eventually condensed and summarised
presenting major topics for a thorough discussion.
Data analysis started with a contextual description of the participant and then followed
by the presentation of general teaching aspects experienced across sample cases in the
respective research site. The analysis process proceeded with a description of what
transpired in the field with respect to guiding research questions. Practical experiences
from individual sample cases were presented in the form of quotes and phrases to
support the claims from the descriptions. Subsequently, data implications were
presented in the form of categories arising within the respective case studies and within
the parameters of the theoretical framework.
32
4.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Punch (1994) explains numerous ethical issues that need to be considered in the conduct
of research: the informants need to be protected from any possible harm and/or
infringement of their freedom resulting from their participation in the study; and that
researchers need to protect informants’ anonymity and privacy, as well as not deceiving
them, and protect their informed consent. Further, he provides examples of questions
that researchers need to ask to determine compliance to ethical issues around their
studies which include the following:
a. Is the research topic researchable?
b. What is public and what is private about the research?
c. When can research be said to be harming people?
d. Is there any law that support the researcher when he or she refuses to disclose
information?
Right from the inception of the thesis plan, I was aware of the need to consider some
pertinent ethical issues regarding the institutions involved and the research participants.
I, thus went into the field with following caution in mind:
Whenever we conduct research on people, the well-being of research participants must
be our top priority. The research question is always of secondary importance. This means
that if a choice must be made between doing harm to a participant and doing harm to
the research, it is the research that is sacrificed (Mack, et al., 2005, p. 11).
Accordingly, I adhered to the principle by ensuring that all ethical issues were considered
with respect to the University of Sussex’s Research and Ethics Policy and the general
ethical aspects guiding the conduct of research that involve human participation. I took
on board important ethical procedures such as seeking research permission, gaining
participants’ consent to participate in the study and maintaining participants’
confidentiality by identifying them through the use of pseudonyms.
33
CHAPTER 5
RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The chapter presents the study’s findings and also investigates the inherent meaning of
the research data obtained from the empirical study. Data were gathered through
observations of teachers’ classroom practices and post-observation interviews.
Classroom observations sought to generate data about the actual teachers’ classroom
practices and were guided by twelve observation categories (see appendix 5) which
were synthesized to six codes during data analysis and theme development processes.
On the other hand, the point of the post-observation interviews was to give a shared
understanding of the teachers’ training experiences so that the interview questions were
grounded in the actual practices observed.
The perspectives about the usefulness of the SSTEP in improving teaching competences,
as the focal point of this study, are discussed against six core elements about teachers’
possession of content knowledge; lesson planning skills; pedagogical knowledge
possession; classroom management and organization skills; communication skills and
motivation skills. The interpretation of the research findings against the above-
mentioned core elements is based on the belief that the extent to which the SSTEP-
trained graduates employ constructivist ideas in their teaching determines how
competent they are as teachers and that also relates to the effectiveness of their training.
34
5.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF THE STUDIED TEACHERS IN RELATION TO THE SSTEP
The results of this study may not be fully meaningful if the studied teachers are not
described in terms of their orientation to the SSTEP, the period when they took the
course, and their overall opinion of the SSTEP as regards its usefulness in developing
teachers as professionals. This section, therefore, gives brief descriptions of the studied
teachers as sample cases.
5.2.1 Sample Case One (Patrick)
By the time this study was being done, Patrick had 21 years of teaching experience; 6
years at primary school level (1994-1999) and 15 years at secondary school level (2000-
2015). During the interview session, Patrick reported to have enrolled for the SSTEP in
2001 and graduated with a Diploma in Education (Sciences) in 2003 with a
specialization in the teaching of Biology and Home Economics. His overall opinion
about the SSTEP, as illustrated in the quote below, was that the programme is helpful:
Minus SSTEP secondary school education in Malawi would have been in a state of crisis
by now. Teachers would be in short supply that a lot of our children would not have
access to secondary education. But mostly, the quality of teaching, especially in the
CDSSs, would have been completely below par. SSTEP is an innovation that offers
teacher quality and quantity supply solutions for Malawi.
On the day of observation, Patrick taught in Form 3, a senior secondary school class.
The class had 56 students and the teacher taught the broader biology topic regarding
animal structure and function but specifically centred on the human circulatory system.
He introduced the lesson by asking learners about the main topic which they were
considering at that moment. This was followed by questioning the students on some of
the specific issues that they had covered in the previous lesson. He then related what
was learnt in the previous lesson to the new lesson thereby creating a good bridge for
the continuity of learning.
After introducing the lesson, the teacher put learners into eight discussion groups with
each group comprising of seven learners and given a task to discuss for 10 minutes. The
teacher moved around the groups to observe the progress that was being made; to assist
35
those that were facing problems; and to remind them of the remaining time. After the
expiration of the discussion minutes, the groups, through their representatives presented
their findings to the whole class. The teacher summarised the presentations and wrote
notes on the board. As he taught the class, I noted that while he was able to summarise
the presentations, the teacher had problems to further explain learners’ ideas especially
in cases where clarification was needed.
5.2.2 Sample Case Two (Dhumisani)
Having enrolled as a SSTEP student-teacher in 2004, Dhumisani qualified as a Biology
and Mathematics secondary school teacher in 2006. However, he had been teaching at
secondary school level as an under-qualified teacher since 2001. Dhumisani was of the
opinion that in as much as the SSTEP is beneficial in enhancing teaching competences, it
would be much valuable if the programme offered a degree qualification:
There is no doubt that SSTEP has improved the teachers’ ways for teaching and their
possession of subject knowledge. However, the programme could be much better if it
offered a degree qualification because diplomas as a teaching qualification do not reflect
the skills that are needed by secondary school teachers.
On the day of observation, Dhumisani taught about food nutrients with a focus on
proteins. After introducing the day’s topic, the teacher distributed one biology textbook
per each of the ten study groups. He then asked a learner to read a selected passage
from the textbook. After the passage was read, the teacher wrote four questions on the
chalkboard and asked another learner to read the questions aloud:
1. What are the elements that make up proteins?
2. What name is given to a simplest protein molecule?
3. Mention the functions of proteins in our bodies
4. Give any three sources of proteins
He then asked another learner to re-read the passage. After the reading, the teacher
asked the learners to answer the questions orally thereby initiating a class discussion
which was characterized with valuable questioning and commenting. The teacher wrote
some notes on the chalkboard from the discussed points. While he was able to further
36
explain the answers from students, his explanations were so much restricted to what
was written in the textbook.
5.2.3 Sample Case Three (George)
The third sample case study was George who was by the time of the study a headmaster
and a Physical Science teacher at school C. He initially qualified as a primary school
teacher in 1994 but started teaching at secondary school level in 1998 as an under-
qualified teacher. He enrolled for DCE’s distance teacher training programme, SSTEP, in
2000 and graduated with a Diploma in Education (Sciences) in 2002. As he compared
his teaching competences before and after attending the SSTEP, the teacher left me with
an impression that the programme was beneficial in terms of enhancing teaching
competences.
On the day of observation, he taught about organic compounds to a class of 28
students. His way of introducing the lesson was traditional i.e. asking learners about
some of the specific issues that they had covered in the previous lesson. His lesson
progressed with a lecture on how to construct a flow diagram for testing organic
compounds. He then sent the learners into groups to construct flow diagrams for the
testing of alkane, alken, alkanol and carboxylic acid. Each group presented what they
had discussed in their respective groups and invited questions from the rest of the class.
In so doing a class discussion was initiated.
As the teacher commented and explained concepts relating to what the groups had
presented, he struggled to communicate his ideas effectively. Similarly, the instructions
he gave for group work were not very clear such that the students struggled to do the
task they were asked to do. On commenting on the learners’ group reports, the teacher’s
explanations were to an extent limited. The teacher merely summarised the points raised
by students without adequately explaining them. However, notwithstanding the
weaknesses, the teacher’s classroom management and friendliness to learners were
good.
37
5.2.4 Sample Case Four (Martin)
Martin graduated from Domasi College of Education with a Diploma in Education
(Humanities) in 2008. He qualified in the teaching of Geography and History. Prior to
his qualification as a secondary school teacher, Martin had been teaching at secondary
school level without the necessary qualification for eight years. His comment about the
benefits of attending the SSTEP indicated that the programme was seen as beneficial
though it needed some improvements in terms of imparting subject knowledge:
Frankly speaking, the SSTEP is quite helpful. I am a qualified secondary school teacher
today because of the SSTEP. Many other unqualified teachers out there are also waiting
for their turn to enrol with the programme. However, having been trained through the
programme, I recommend that it should be improved especially on its ability to impart
subject knowledge.
On the day of observation, Martin taught Geography (Map Reading) about calculation
of area of irregular shapes. He introduced the topic by reminding students that shapes
can be regular or irregular. He gave a number of examples depicting both regular and
irregular shapes. He further reminded the learners that there are different formulae for
calculating area of different shapes. He then proceeded to explain the formula for
calculating area of irregular shapes in Map Reading as:
Area = Number of Full Grid Boxes + [Number of Half Grid Boxes/2]
The teacher then distributed topographical map sheets to learners. Using an example
from the map sheet, the teacher, together with the learners, worked on one problem
on the chalkboard. He then asked learners to calculate area of a given forest reserve on
the map sheet. As learners were working on the problem, he went around the class to
assist learners who faced challenges and marked learners’ work.
The methodological approach displayed by the teacher was excellent. He ably engaged
in discussion with students. However, the teacher had problems to explain learners’
question for a justification of generalizing any partially full grid box into a half box. He
struggled to answer the question thereby demonstrating that he lacked depth of the
subject knowledge.
38
5.3 SUMMARY OF THE CORE FINDINGS
5.3.1 Teachers’ Possession of Content Knowledge
The observations revealed that the studied teachers lacked depth of the subject
knowledge. This was evidenced by their inability to concisely explain some curriculum
content to students. Instead of explaining curriculum concepts the teachers were glued
to reading from textbooks. Similarly, the teachers demonstrated lack of adequate
content knowledge when they struggled and sometimes almost failed to effectively
answer questions asked by students. For a case in point, in teaching the formula for
calculating area in map reading, Martin had problems to explain learners’ question for
a justification of generalizing any partially full grid box into a half box. He struggled to
answer the question and encouraged them to memorise the formula. He later on, during
interviews, pointed out that the SSTEP was a bit deficient in imparting subject content
knowledge
However, having been trained through the programme, I recommend that it should be
improved especially on its ability to impart subject knowledge (Martin).
However, when asked during interviews to clarify if SSTEP made any contribution
towards advancing their content knowledge, some teachers, including George,
explained that the programme offered them modules with content relevant to what
they were to teach in class. Refer to the excerpt below:
Through the course we have been provided with a lot of academic modules. As books
are scarce in CDSSs, we use the subject modules as references in our teaching.
Additionally, a lot of skills have been acquired through the course which assist us to
improve our teaching. The course has really improved the quality of education in CDSSs
(George).
39
5.2.2 Lesson Planning Skills
In terms of lesson planning, the study found that the observed teachers had very good
lesson planning skills. While their written lesson plans were not checked, I was able to
note their lesson planning skills by observing their logical teaching progression from
introduction to conclusion. Their lesson activities were well sequenced and coherent
with teaching techniques effectively varied according to the nature of the subject
content.
During interview sessions, the studied teachers reported that SSTEP was so rich in
inculcating skills for lesson planning:
SSTEP emphasises learner-centred teaching. The programme encourages teachers to
make preparations before the actual teaching process. It teaches teachers the importance
of varying teaching methods and materials (Martin).
Initially I did not know that SSTEP is so rich in inculcating skills for lesson planning.
However, I realised that SSTEP was exceptional in inculcating such skills after witnessing
how fellow teachers who had attended other teacher training programmes were
struggling to plan their lessons (Dhumisani).
The programme (SSTEP) is by far better than other teacher training colleges in enhancing
teachers’ lesson planning skills. Its emphasis for teachers to adopt TALULAR means that
teachers have to plan and prepare for their lessons (George)
Almost all of the studied teachers mentioned that the programme emphasises on writing
schemes of work, lesson plans and lesson notes. However, while the teachers had
referred to the preparation of lesson notes, none of them was seen having or referring
to such notes in class. Instead of lesson notes, the teachers heavily referred to textbooks.
40
5.2.3 Pedagogical Knowledge Possession
The studied teachers were observed to possess rich pedagogical knowledge. Their
pedagogical practices were excellent in the sense that they were varied with regard to
the nature of the content to be learnt by students. For example, lecturing as a method
for teaching was used to define new concepts while group discussions and pair work
were used in times when students were required to explore.
Similarly, the dominant teachers’ pedagogical practices were seemingly derived from
the notion of constructivist teaching. The practices were activity-based, interactive and
dominated by inquiry-based higher order questioning. As can be seen from the quotes
below, the teachers attributed their pedagogical excellence to SSTEP training transfer:
Before going to college, my teaching lacked direction. I was not confident when teaching
as my subject knowledge and pedagogical skills were so limited. But after the course I
seem to be focused and that I am able to remain on course when teaching (Patrick).
Really, SSTEP made positive impacts on my teaching skills. Before attending the course,
I was afraid to teach the subject (Biology). But after the course, I teach confidently as I
acquired skills in class management and methodology (Dhumisani).
Yes, I’m able to make lessons student-centred. Before going to Domasi, I used a lot of
lecturing. However, after the course am able to teach using resources that are available
in the local environment. Such strategies are really assisting me to make my lessons
student-centred (George).
5.2.4 Classroom Management and Organization Skills
The studied teachers demonstrated good classroom management and organization
skills. They were able to issue instructions that positively influenced the learners to
control their psychological behaviour for learning. While I witnessed a few attempts by
students to misbehave, I never witnessed an extreme case of misbehaviour as the
teachers were able to diagnose and prevent occurrence of the same. For example,
41
Patrick and George could attract the attention of students who had shown signs of
wanting to misbehave by directing questions to them. On the other hand, Martin and
Dhumisani controlled their students’ behaviour by constantly reminding those wanting
to misbehave about the classroom rules and regulations. By being able to perfectly
manage and organize their students, the teachers were able to create an optimal learning
environment. During interviews, all the teachers attributed their excellence in managing
student behaviour to the role of SSTEP in improving their classroom management and
organization skills.
5.2.5 Communication Skills
Most of the observed teachers were not good communicators. They struggled to
communicate effectively with their students. In most cases, their explanations,
instructions and summarization of student ideas left a lot to be desired. For example,
George struggled to communicate his ideas effectively; the instructions he gave for group
work were not very clear that students struggled to do the Physical Science task they
were asked to do. When they were asked if SSTEP had modules related to
communication, the teachers alluded to Special English (SEN) module. However, the
teachers were quick to mention that SEN is largely dominated by lessons on academic
referencing than on improving English grammar.
5.2.6 Motivation Skills
All the four studied teachers were good at motivating learners to learn. They were
friendly and willing to assist students who faced challenges to quickly understand i.e.
slow learners. The teachers positively appraised right answers and tried to reinforce
incomplete ones from students. In spite of having communication challenges, the
teachers demonstrated that they liked their teaching subjects; varied their teaching and
learning strategies depending on the needs of the students and the nature of the subject
content. During interviews, the teachers reported that the SSTEP helped them to
understand ways for motivating students to learn. They pointed out to have learnt some
motivation theories such as Fredrick Herzberg Motivation Theory, Maslow’s Hierarchy
of Needs, and McClelland Human Motivation Theory that helped them to understand
how to motivate students in the teaching and learning process.
42
5.4 DISSATISFACTION WITH THE DIPLOMA QUALIFICATION
The findings above insinuate that the teachers were generally satisfied with the quality
of training under the SSTEP. However, it was observed through the answers to the
question which aimed to find out the possible weaknesses of the SSTEP (refer to
appendix 4) that the teachers were dissatisfied with the diploma (Dip.Ed.) qualification.
As can be seen from the quote below, the teachers wished the SSTEP could be used to
train them to degree (B.Ed.) level.
The SSTEP should, if possible, consider training teachers up to degree level while
involving more teachers to attend the programme because there are many teachers in
schools who are not qualified (Martin)
However, what was not clear about such a suggestion was whether the teachers want
the degree programme for the further enhancement of their teaching competences or
for the sake of the degree certificate. But it seemed to me that the teachers are trapped
in a ‘diploma disease’ whereby the thirst for qualifications, as opposed to learning of
skills, is the driving force for enrolling in academic courses.
5.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The findings indicate that the studied teachers are of the opinion that the SSTEP is
generally a useful programme that improves teachers’ teaching practices. Moreover,
their classroom teaching practices are generally good. However, observation results
found that the programme is weak in training the teachers in subject content knowledge
and communication skills. At the same time, teachers indicated to be dissatisfied with
the diploma qualification which they are offered at the end of the programme and
proposed that SSTEP should start offering a degree course/qualification.
43
CHAPTER 6
ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Employing the inductive data analysis approach (Stake, 1995) and the Berkowitz (1997)
questioning procedure, this chapter interprets the data and develops themes for
discussion. Key aspects of the findings are developed from sample cases by comparing
and grouping the meaning patterns based on similarities and differences. Six themes
emerge concerning teachers’ competence: possession of subject content knowledge;
pedagogical knowledge; lesson planning processes; classroom management and
organization skills; communication skills; and teachers’ motivation for learners.
6.2 ANALYSIS BY EMERGING RESEARCH THEMES
6.2.1 Possession of Content Knowledge
Shulman (1986) argues that the most obvious requirement to be an effective teacher is
possession of content knowledge. He defines such knowledge as the body of
information that teachers teach and which students are expected to learn in a given
subject or content area. Learners expect a teacher to have good content knowledge
which can inspire their confidence in the teacher. Teachers who do not have these
understandings can misrepresent those subjects to their learners.
Clearly, teachers must know and understand the subjects they teach including knowledge
of central facts, concepts, theories and procedures within a given field; knowledge of
explanatory frameworks that organize and connect ideas; and knowledge of the rules
of evidence and proof (Shulman, 1986).
44
This study found that three out of the four sample cases studied had limited content
knowledge of the subjects that they taught. As they taught, the teachers struggled to
communicate their ideas effectively. For example, when commenting on the learners’
group reports, the teacher’s explanations were to an extent limited and glued to what
was written in the textbooks. The teachers made very minimal expansion of key points
but merely summarized the points raised by students without adequately explaining
them. In cases where further explanations were made, the teachers were not very clear
and sometimes could reject answers from students as being false but could not explain
the mistakes made by learners.
6.2.2 Ability to Plan Lessons
Having good content knowledge is not enough without a well-planned lesson (Craig
and Dickenson, 2003). All the studied teachers demonstrated good lesson planning,
which according to Gurney (2007), facilitates clear explanations, and provides a wide
range of resources suitable to learner’s needs. With their good planning, the teachers
were able to effectively use oral questioning, give clear instructions, being flexible, and
thereby having an impact on the learners´ stimulation to encourage their interest and
participation. This augurs well with what Gurney (2007) recommends in the following
quote:
Effective teachers should give meaning to the subject by facilitating relevant material to
the students wherever possible, and by finding means to stimulate interest on it. Besides,
they must be prepared to reconsider whether the material and methodology is suitable
to be presented in the classroom (Gurney, 2007, pp. 12)
It is further argued that good planning ensures that lessons include periods where
learners are allowed to have discussion in groups or pairs (Craig and Dickenson, 2003)
which, according to Gurney (2007), allows the leaners to give the teacher their feedback
in order to improve own knowledge, methodology and learning environment if
needed. During interviews, the teachers referred to such importance as regards lesson
planning and employed participatory learning through group works, which was a clear
indication that their teaching was planned in advance.
45
6.2.3 Possession of Pedagogical Knowledge
Many teachers in Malawi still teach their students in the same way they were taught i.e.
using teacher-centred methods (Mtika, 2010). This trend is largely because some teachers
erroneously think that traditional teaching is more effective hence learners have to adapt
to the teachers’ own methods (Mtika, 2010). Wickham (2003) warns that teaching
styles used by individual teachers can be strongly influenced by their own learning styles.
The teachers mentioned that this used to be the case before they attended the SSTEP.
However, as Wickham (2007) additionally points out, effective teachers should be able
to personalize the leaning for their students. They should be able to understand that
learners develop at different rates and that every classroom will have a variety of ranges
of learner abilities and aptitudes. Thus, there arises need for teachers to feel the pulse of
a class and modify the teaching methods to maintain a high level of interest. This was
done by the observed teachers.
The sample cases demonstrated good possession of pedagogical knowledge. For
example, the teachers demonstrated that they were able to use their knowledge of
learning theories to determine which would be the most effective method to help
particular students learn successfully in class. The sample cases, through their supervision
of group work, seemed to be effective in their teaching as they could strike the right
chord with the learners and have a sixth sense about those who needed more help. This
was done either by modifying their teaching methods or by offering personalized help
to struggling individual students.
The teachers used techniques that best served the learning needs of their learners. For
instance, the teachers used group work to have each student working on tasks that
engaged them to learn. In the quote below, Lowman (1995) points out that there are
many things that students can learn by themselves through discovery, and/or in a more
direct way through group work:
46
Some students learn by being exposed to learning opportunities, while others will need
concerted direct teaching and correction by the teacher before they master the learning
requirements. Effective teachers help students learn on their own, as well as from others,
from outside the school, and from various sources (Lowman, 1995, pp. 10).
The studied teachers, through their planning, showed that they considered, prior to the
class, whether the material and methodology used was suitable to be presented in the
classroom. In addition, and in line with Zeichner (1993), the teachers seemingly
understood that students learn best if their particular abilities are acknowledged and
that the methodology and procedure are adapted to the students. That is why the
teachers were able to vary teaching methods within a single lesson.
6.2.4 Classroom Management and Organization
Competent teachers manage and organize the classroom according to the learners’
needs and preferences to create an optimistic and warm learning environment for all
the learners so as to enhance learning (Emmer et al., 2003). Good classroom
management and organization also minimizes the likelihood of misbehaviour.
However, as Emmer et al. (2003) suggests,
Management is not parallel to strict rules. In fact, management is to anticipate learners´
needs, and then prepare a suitable plan, procedures, activities, assessment, evaluation
criteria, and above all, clear instructions to the students to promote learners’ motivation,
enthusiasm and learning (Emmer et al., 2003, pp. 9).
While classroom management focuses on instructions which influence the learners in
terms of psychological behaviour to learn, classroom organization influences the
students’ motivation to learn (Craig and Dickenson, 2003). Accordingly, the observed
teachers used classroom routines to maintain a relaxed and warm environment which
enhanced learning. Moreover, the teachers organized the classroom to promote
learning and interaction, and created an optimal learning environment where learners
felt comfortable and relaxed. This was evidenced by the free participation of the learners
in the lessons through comments and free questioning on issues that they did not
properly understand.
47
Furthermore, it was noted, through classroom observations, that the learners were well
behaved. The learners’ good behaviour cannot only be explained as being a result of
the learners’ inherent good manners. It is obvious that the teachers had a role. Even if
the teachers might have put up a show for me as a researcher, they had demonstrated
their ability to effectively control learner behaviour in class. The teachers’ participatory
teaching and learning methods, preparedness for the lessons, and enthusiasm to teach
were in themselves silent rules that necessitated good classroom management and
organization. Therefore, it cannot be assumed that the learner’s behaviour or teachers’
ability to effectively manage and organize the classes was mere coincidence or
influenced with my presence.
6.2.5 Communication Skills
Communication skills are vital for anyone who has a teaching job. However, three out
of the four sample cases demonstrated some difficulties to communicate effectively. For
instance, their communication of lesson objectives and content was not as clear as it
were supposed to be. Furthermore, most of the studied teachers did not effectively
provide a rationale for learning particular material. They could not effectively adapt
their communication to the student's level of knowledge and skills. George, for example,
who was observed while teaching Physical Science, really struggled to put his ideas
across to the students. Even his instructions for group work were not clear that learners
had difficulties to do the assigned work. Yet Prozesky (2000) argues that
The teacher’s ineffective communication means that the learners will not understand key
concepts at all, or they will do incorrectly. Competent teachers can take something that
is complex and present it in a way that can be easily absorbed by the students, and
through different verbal and non-verbal communications (Prozesky, 2000, pp 130).
The preceding observation prompts a suggestion of the existence of a strong correlation
between the teachers’ inadequate subject content knowledge (refer to section 6.2.1) and
their poor communication skills. It is very doubtful that a teacher who lacks subject
content knowledge can be an effective communicator. Therefore, it is my suggestion
that if the teachers could have a good grounding of the real issues that they teach in
class they could be good communicators as well.
48
6.2.6 Motivation for Learning
Motivated learners are more receptive and excited about the subject, are aware of the
value and importance of learning, and have a better attitude to learn. Motivational
teachers make the learners increase their academic self-concept, their interest in the
subject and the desire to learn more, and therefore to have a high level of achievement
(Fisher, 2003). It was observed that learners saw their teachers as a motivation especially
when the teachers encouraged them to be responsible for their own learning. As Fisher
(2003) recommends, learners were apparently motivated with high standards of
teaching, challenging academic tasks, use of a variety of teaching and learning strategies,
and provision of relevant reinforcement and feedback during the teaching and learning
process.
The teachers were not clowns in their classrooms, but had a good sense of humour, and
shared jokes with the learners so as to break negative-cold barriers. Respect, fairness and
equity are identified as the prerequisite of effective teaching in the eyes of learners. It is
for this reason that Kyriacou (1998) states that mutual respect is an essential feature of
the classroom which establishes the right climate for effective teaching and learning. He
also adds that respect requires the students to know that the teacher is competent,
interested in their progress and committed. It is interesting to note that the sample cases
avoided situations of lack of respect for and among learners but promoted fairness in
the whole teaching and learning process. The teachers were able to treat the learners
equitably, either in case of formative assessment process, ethnic background, and age.
6.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY
The chapter’s focus was to discuss the main research findings of the study. The study’s
findings have been classified under six major themes related to teaching competence.
The evidence unleashed by the study indicates that the SSTEP has positive impacts on
the graduates’ teaching practices. The general impression that I get through this study is
that the SSTEP is generally beneficial in enhancing teaching competences. Specifically,
SSTEP enriches teachers’ pedagogical knowledge, lesson planning skills, classroom
management and organization skills, and teachers’ motivation for learning. However,
the chapter has also highlighted that the studied SSTEP graduates demonstrated
inadequacy in possession of subject content knowledge and communication skills.
49
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter concludes the study and presents its contribution to the existing body of
knowledge about distance secondary school teacher education in Malawi. The chapter
constitutes four main sections: the study conclusions, implications, recommendations
and limitations.
7.2 THE STUDY’S CONCLUSIONS
The research project set out to investigate the extent to which the Secondary School
Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) offered by Domasi College of Education in Malawi
enables teachers to acquire relevant teaching competences. It was guided by two specific
research questions:
i. To what extent does the classroom practice of SSTEP graduates demonstrate that
the programme enabled them to acquire competencies necessary for effective
teaching?
ii. Do SSTEP graduates perceive that their distance training experience contributed
to their teaching performance?
In terms of the studied teachers’ classroom practices, the study established both positive
and negative gains about the SSTEP. Despite possessing limited subject-content
knowledge and low communication skills, the studied SSTEP graduates demonstrated
strong competences in pedagogical knowledge, classroom management and
organization, learner motivation, and ability to plan lessons. Regarding the perceptions
of the benefits of SSTEP in improving teaching competences, the teachers were all of the
opinion that the programme is beneficial.
50
7.3 IMPLICATIONS OF THE STUDY’S CONCLUSIONS
The aim for the establishment of the SSTEP at Domasi College of Education was to
improve the quality of education at secondary school level, especially in CDSSs, through
the provision of effective (quality) teachers. As it appears, the programme’s objective
of training and supplying teachers in large numbers is being fully achieved. However,
the pursuance of such an objective seems to have slowly started over-shadowing the
need to train effective teachers as demonstrated by low competences in subject
knowledge and communication skills. Such a situation, if left unchecked, might reduce
the SSTEP to a simple matter of volume and economics which would eventually lead to
the question of the programme graduates’ effectiveness.
7.4 THE STUDY’S RECOMMENDATIONS
7.4.1 Practice Recommendations
i. There is need for DCE to enhance their distance teacher training curriculum so
that SSTEP-trained teachers’ deficiency in mastery of substantive subject-content
knowledge can be addressed.
ii. Also, it would be important if DCE can put in place special courses that can assist
SSTEP-trained teachers’ to improve communication skills so that their classroom
explanations would be clear to learners.
7.4.2 Further Research Recommendations
The focus of this study was on understanding the usefulness of SSTEP in improving
teachers’ teaching competences. The understanding was developed from the
perceptions and experiences, and classroom practices of secondary school teachers who
were trained through the programme. This might have been a narrow aspect for
rigorous assessment of SSTEP. Thus, in order to widen the scope of understanding about
the quality of SSTEP, I recommend the following:
a. The need for advanced research on aspects around similar topic, preferably, in
areas such as SSTEP’s training syllabus, management of SSTEP, and the
professional capacity of lecturers at DCE to implement SSTEP.
b. This study was qualitative which means its findings could be transferable but not
generalizable. Thus, I recommend carrying out a quantitative study which could
present numerical data about the extent to which SSTEP graduates are satisfied
51
with their training. The results from such a study can easily be generalised across
the study population and research sites.
7.4.3 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY
Marshall and Rossman (1999) suggest that there is no research activity which is without
limitations. They emphasise that there is no such thing as a perfectly designed study (p.
42). Patton (1990, pp. 162) also argues that there are no perfect research designs as
there are always trade-offs. According to Marshall and Rossman (1999) and Patton
(1990), study limitations may derive from the conceptual frameworks and the study’s
designs used.
This qualitative case study design was confined in four teachers (case samples) from four
research sites and has limitations arising from such a design. It is, therefore, important
that the study’s weaknesses arising from the research design be critically considered in
order to determine the study’s applicability for other settings. In undertaking the study,
the researcher encountered three major limitations which included research design,
theoretical limitation, and research sample limitation.
To begin with, as a qualitative case study, the study involved four teachers from four
schools only. Its findings may thus not be generalised to other teachers from other
schools and regions. However, according to Marshall and Rossman (1999), while
qualitative studies, such as the study in question, are not generalizable in the statistical
sense, their findings may be transferable.
Similarly, this study used theory of constructivism as a theoretical framework to examine
teachers’ perceptions and experiences in the usefulness of distance teacher education in
Malawi, particularly the SSTEP. The thesis has thus been developed based on the view
points of the theory’s lenses. It is possible that using other theoretical traditions, the
same study would be developed differently resulting to presentation of different
understanding of the usefulness of distance secondary teacher education in Malawi.
52
Lastly, besides involving limited number of case samples, the study only involved
teachers from one education zone, Euthini Cluster of the Northern Education Division.
The perceptions and experiences of these teachers regarding distance teacher education
may differ from other teachers in different education zones. Thus the findings of this
study may not apply to other similar studies involving teachers from other education
zones. This also poses limitation for making plausible conclusions of the findings given
the guiding research questions.
7.5 CONCLUSION
The chapter has presented thesis’ conclusions, implications, recommendations and
limitations. Largely, the study offers a significant knowledge contribution to the existing
body of knowledge regarding distance secondary school teacher training in Malawi in
the following aspects:
i. Literature on distance teacher training from Malawi’s perspective
ii. Theoretical and practical understanding of the extent to which the Secondary
School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) offered by Domasi College of
Education in Malawi enables teachers to acquire relevant teaching competences.
53
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APPENDIX 1
School of Education
To whom it may concern:
INFORMATION SHEET FOR SAMPLED TEACHERS
I humbly invite you to participate in the following research study. Participation to the study is
voluntary. Before deciding whether to participate or not, you might wish to understand why
the research is being done and what your participation will mean. I encourage you to take time
to carefully read the subsequent information. Feel free to ask me if anything is imprecise or if
you would like more information. Take time to decide whether or not you wish to take part.
Research Topic: Graduate Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences about the Usefulness of
the Secondary School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) of Domasi
College of Education in Improving Their Teaching Competence.
Are you obliged to participate?
Participation is voluntary hence it is up to you to decide whether to take part or not.
Even if you initially decide to take part, you are still free to withdraw without giving a
reason during the interview or any time after the interview until June 10.
If you withdraw from the study all data will be withdrawn and destroyed.
If you do decide to take part you will be given this information sheet to keep and be
asked to sign a consent form.
Why are you being asked to participate?
You are being invited to take part in this study because you were trained as a secondary school
teacher through a distance teacher preparation program under Domasi College of Education’s
Secondary School Teacher Education Program (SSTEP).
59
Your role in the study
If you decide to participate, the researcher will observe one of your classes
You will also be interviewed by the researcher for approximately 30 minutes.
Both of the classroom observation and interview will be audio recorded.
Confidentiality
All information collected in this study will be kept strictly confidential and your personal
responses will not be identified to you.
Your name and working place will be removed from the information and anonymised.
Contact Details:
If you wish to communicate anything regarding this study, use the following contact
information:
Supervisor’s name: Professor John Pryor
University of Sussex,
Sussex House, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RH, UK
Email: [email protected]
Researcher’s name: John Foster Jill Moyo
MA International Education and Development,
University of Sussex,
Sussex House, Falmer, Brighton BN1 9RH, UK
Email: [email protected]
Phone: (+44) 075-196-88867
THANK YOU IN ADVANCE
60
APPENDIX 2
School of Education
CONSENT FORM FOR PARTICIPATING TEACHERS
Research Title: Graduate Teachers’ Perceptions and Experiences about the Usefulness of the
Secondary School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) of Domasi College of
Education in Improving Their Teaching Competence.
Researcher’s Name: John Foster Jill Moyo
Master of Arts International Education and Development, University of Sussex
Consent Statement: I agree to take part in the above University of Sussex research project. I have had the
project explained to me and I have read and understood the Information Sheet, which I
may keep for my records.
By signing your name below, you agree that you have:
1. Read and understood the information sheet for the research study.
2. Had the opportunity to consider the information, ask questions and have had these answered
satisfactorily.
3. Understood that your participation is voluntary and that you are free to withdraw at any time,
without giving any reasons until July 10, 2015.
4. Understood that the observation and interview will be audio recorded.
5. Understood that any information given by you may be used in future reports, articles or
presentations by the researcher.
6. Understood that your name will not appear in any reports, articles or presentations.
Participant Details:
Name: _____________________________________________________
Signature: _____________________________________________________
Date: _____________________________________________________
61
APPENDIX 3
School of Education
The Head Teacher,
______________________________ (Name of School)
Dear Sir/Madam,
RE: PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH FOR MA INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION AND
DEVELOPMENT
I am a student for the Master of Arts Degree Course in International Education and
Development at the University of Sussex in the United Kingdom. In accordance with the
requirements for this degree, I am conducting a study on “Graduate Teachers’ Perceptions and
Experiences about the Usefulness of the Secondary School Teacher Education Project (SSTEP) of
Domasi College of Education in Improving Their Teaching Competence”.
I am, therefore, interviewing and observing teachers who were trained under SSTEP in order
to gather data. Your school has such teacher(s), hence I am requesting for their time and views
about the research topic. Their time will be much appreciated and their views will make a
significant contribution to my research.
Therefore, you are kindly requested to allow me conduct this research in your institution.
Yours faithfully
John Foster Jill Moyo.
62
APPENDIX 4
SUGGESTED INTERVIEW QUESTIONS FOR PARTICIPATING TEACHERS
1. For how long have you been teaching?
2. What subjects do you teach?
3. When did you graduate from DCE?
4. How do you compare yourself, in terms of teaching effectiveness, before and after
graduating from DCE? (with reference to what was observed in class)
5. After your graduation from DCE, how well-prepared do you feel to handle your job
demands as a secondary school teacher?
6. How well did distance education prepare you for teaching? (with reference to what was
observed in class)
a. Strengths
b. Weaknesses
7. Any other opinion you want to give about the SSTEP?
THANK YOU FOR YOUR PARTICIPATION
63
APPENDIX 5
OBSERVATION CATEGORIES
OBSERVABLE CHARACTERISTICS OBSERVATION MADE (COMMENTS)
1. Lesson Introduction
2. Treatment of students
3. Quality of explanations
4. Classroom management
5. Use of active, hands-on
student learning
6. Use of instructional techniques
7. Formative feedback to students
8. Handling of student answers
and questions
9. Reflection on own teaching
10. Classroom environment
11. Teaching Pace
12. Level of Communication
13. Uses of non-verbal behaviour,
such as gestures, walking
around and eye contact
14. Professionalism
15. Lesson Focus