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Goal-Setting Strategies for CoachesB. Ann Boyce a & Valerie King aa Curry School of Education , University of Virginia , Charlottesville , VA , 22903 , USAPublished online: 25 Feb 2013.

To cite this article: B. Ann Boyce & Valerie King (1993) Goal-Setting Strategies for Coaches, Journal of Physical Education,Recreation & Dance, 64:1, 65-68, DOI: 10.1080/07303084.1993.10606678

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Goal-Setting Strategiesfor Coaches

Athletes can enhance their performance through goal setting;however, several factors and potential problems must be

considered when establishing a goal-setting program.

B. ANN BOYCE VALERIE KING

R arely does the scoreboard tellthe whole story. In fact, theoutcome of many evenly

matched teams/individuals is oftendecided by simply competingjust alittle bit better than an opponent, aphenomenon commonly referred toas a "competitive advantage." Withimprovements in technology, coach­ing techniques, and strategies, the em­phasis on having a competitive advan­tage is increasing. How can coachesgive athletes an edge over opponents?

Part of the answer lies in a strat­egy known as goal setting. Goal set­ting creates a focus of attention andaction by simply identifying what it isone is attempting to accomplish(Harris & Harris, 1984). Accordingto Locke (1968), specific and diffi­cult (yet attainable) goals tend toenhance performance. While anabundance of literature supports thevalidity of goal setting as a mecha­nism for enhancing performance(e.g., Gould, 1986; Harris, 1982;Martens, 1987; Orlick, 1980; 1986),more emphasis needs to be placedon the development of effective andsystematic goal-setting strategies.

This article presents three aspectsof goal setting: (l) the benefits of

JOPERD/January 1993

goal setting; (2) a process for imple­menting a goal-setting training pro­gram or strategy; and (3) factors andpotential problems of goal setting.

The Benefits of Goal SettingCoaches and athletes must knowhow to apply goal-setting strategiescorrectly. Often coaches and ath­letes identify goals that are too gen­eral, too easy, or too difficult and asa result, these goals are regarded asineffective and are quickly forgot­ten. If goal-setting strategies areproperly applied, several physicaland psychological benefits (table 1)can result (Locke & Latham, 1984;Martens, 1987).

Process for Implementing aGoal-Setting StrategyFor goal setting to affect an athlete'sperformance, the coach must imple­ment a goal-setting strategy. A three­phase (planning, implementation,evaluation) process broken downinto seven steps for employing agoal-setting strategy was adaptedfrom the work of Martens (1987)and Botterill (1983) (figure 1).

Planning (phase 1) is an impor­tant part of a goal-setting strategy. A

goal-setting program will be ineffec­tive if the process is not adequatelythought out. Five steps which mustbe completed prior to the actualgoals implementation are: (1) identi­fying the actions, skills, and responsi­bilities of each player; (2) decidinghow the goal (actions, skills, and re­sponsibilities) can be measured; (3)setting the goals; (4) clarifying thegoals; and (5) developing a plan or astrategy for achieving the goals.

In phase, 2 implementation, boththe coach and athlete must create amonitoring system which collectsinformation regarding the athlete'sprogress towards goal attainment(step 6). The last phase, evaluation,consists of providing feedback re­lated to the goal (step 7).

While the process sounds rela­tively simple, there are guidelineswhich will enhance the effectivenessof the goal-setting strategy (table 2).Each of these guidelines will be dis­cussed as it relates to the three­phase, seven-step process.

Planning PhaseCoaches must be able to identify theactions, skills, or responsibilities(step 1) that each athlete will per-

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form. There are three guidelineswhich fall under this step. First, thegoals must be meaningful to boththe athlete and the coach. In addi­tion, the goals must be mutually ac­ceptable to both the coach and ath­lete (Boyce, 1989). Goals should bedirectly related to some aspect (e.g.,mental, physical) of competitive playand should be perceived as enhanc­ing the skill performance.

Second, goals should focus on whatathletes can control (e.g., their ownperformance-referred to as perfor­mance goals) not on what they cannotcontrol (e.g., the outcome of the con­test-referred to as outcome goals)(Gould, 1986; Orlick, 1986). There isone inherent problem with this guide­line because success in sport is oftendefined by who won and who lost. Butifcoaches would think about themyriad ofvariables over which theyhave no control (e.g., game dayweather, starting skill ability of theirplayers, skill level of their opponents),the element ofluck would be ac-

Planning Phase(steps 1-5)

Goals must beobjective in termsof distance, score,

accuracy, andbehaviors performed.

knowledged as playing a major role ina team's win/loss record. And inmany instances, improvements in anathlete's performance yield winninggames or, at the very least, make theathletic competition more competi­tive. Coaches should focus on perfor­mance goals over which athletes havesome control-such as their indi­vidual performance and how they re­act in the heat of competition. Perfor­mance goals can motivate an athletethrough the vehicle of success (Gould,1986; Hopper &Jeffries, 1990). Inother words, as athletes achieve easier

Implentation Phase(step 6)

goals, more difficult goals are set, andsuccess in terms ofgoal achievementand attainment of personal best canassist athletes in realizing their poten­tial. Further, through the use of indi­vidualized performance goals, theleast skilled athletes can improve rightalong with the most skilled athletes.

Third, goals should focus prima­rily on individuals as opposed toteams. Team goals often defuse re­sponsibility (Martens, 1987) andplace greater stress on the higherskilled players, while the lower skilledplayers may perceive themselves asnoncontributing members. However,when a sport depends largely on co­operation (e.g., volleyball, softball,soccer), then team goals might bemore appropriate. For example, ahigh school volleyball team might seta goal of executing a certain numberof successful series of pass, set, andspike in a game. A defensive unit of asoccer team might set a goal focusedon the number of minutes the ball ison their side of the field.

Evaulation Phase(step 7)

II

~----------------------I

or IL _

Step 1 Identify Actions, Skills, Responsibilities·meaningful·controllable·focus on individual-not team

Step 2 Measurement·objective·specific-crlterion for success

Step 3 Set the Goal-dlfflcult but attainable-stated in a positive manner·progressive short-term goals leadingto a long-term goal

Step 4 Goal Clarification-set target dates·prioritize multiple goals

Step 5 Strategy/Plan-achievement strategies

Step 6 Monitoring System-rnonltor goal progress-accountabllltv·reinforcement/support

Step 7 Feedback-reset-new-rnodlfv

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Figure 1. Implementing a Goal-Setting StrategyNote: Model adapted from the work of Botterill (1983) and Martens (1984)

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Table 2. Guidelines for Goal Setting

Table 1. Benefits of Goal Setting

Table 3. Common Mistakes when Setting Goals

• general goals• too many goals• failure to set performance goals in preference over outcome goals• failure to modify unrealistic goals• failure to support goals• failure to monitor and evaluate goals• failure to realize that not all athletes will be enthusiastic when goal

setting

Note: List adapted from Gould (7986)

ated in a systematic fashion. For ex­ample, at the second team meeting,goals were cooperatively set by thecoach and athletes, and these goalswere evaluated at a team meetingfollowing each competition.

Clarifying goals is the fourth stepin the planning phase. A target datefor attaining the goals should be setto assist the athlete in makingprogress. It is not enough to statethat a golfer will attempt to average2.5 putts on 18 holes; it should alsobe stipulated when the golfer will ac­complish this goal (e.g., by thefourth tournament of the season).

The number of individual goalsshould be kept to two or three and

The number ofindividual goals

should be kept to twoor three and should

be prioritized.

Improved athletic performance (productivity and quality)Clarification of expectationsMore effective and efficient practice sessionsAlleviation of boredomEnhancement of intrinsic motivationGreater feelings of pride in achievementIncreased satisfaction with performanceEnhanced self-confidenceIncreased willingness to accept future challengesIncreased liking of the task

Note: List adapted from Locke & Latham (7984) and Martens (7987)

1. Goals should be meaningful to both the coach and athletes.2. Goals need to be performance- not outcome-oriented.3. Goals should be individualized and not oriented toward the team.4. Goals must be objective and measurable.5. Goals must be specific.6. Goals must include a criterion for success.7. Goals must be realistic but challenging.8. Goals should be stated in a positive manner.9. Progressive short-term goals should lead to a long-term goal.

10. Goals should have a target date for completion.11. Goals should be few and should be prioritized.12. Goals should be accompanied by strategies for achievement.13. Goals must be recorded and monitored.14. Goals must hold athletes accountable.15. Goals must be reinforced or supported.

Short-term goals also tend to bemore flexible and allow athletesand/or coaches to adjust the nextgoal to compensate for unexpectedfactors such as injury or illness.These goals should be set and evalu-

Following the identification ofactions, skills, and/or responsibili­ties the coach must make sure thatthe desired behavior can be mea­sured in an objective and specificway (step 2). Goals must be objectivein terms of distance, score, accuracy,and behaviors performed. For ex­ample, in archery, accuracy is mea­sured by how close the arrow is tothe center of the target; in tennis,psychological behaviors can be mea­sured by the number of times aplayer has a negative thought abouthim/herself during a game situation(this behavior is self-monitored andself-recorded) .

Goals must also be specific. A fre­quent mistake in goal setting is set­ting goals that are too vague. In ad­dition, goals must specify a criterionfor success (e.g., a punter who sets agoal of an average yards punted at35 yards or better by mid-season).

After identifying a measurablegoal, coaches need to set the goal(step 3). Goals should be set at levelsthat are difficult yet attainable. Un­realistic goals will lead athletes toconclude that there are failures andpossibly threaten their self-image(Gould, 1986). Coaches and athletesshould set the level of goal difficultybased on individual levels of perfor­mance, potential for improvement,and current rate of improvement.

For the athletes to reach optimaldevelopment physically, intellectu­ally, and emotionally, goals shouldbe stated positively. This can reduceanxiety by helping athletes focus onsuccess and not on failure (Danish& Hale, 1983; Gould, 1986). For ex­ample, set a goal on the number offree throws made as opposed to thenumber of free throws missed. Posi­tive goals also focus attention on thedesired behaviors and provide a di­rection for improvement.

For athletes to reach a long-termgoal, such as to make the Olympictrials in the 50-meter freestyle, a se­ries of progressive short-term goalsshould be used (Cox, 1985). Pro­gressive short-term goals allow ath­letes to see immediate improvementwhich can, in turn, increase motiva­tion (Gould, 1986; Martens, 1987).

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should be prioritized. Too manygoals may confuse and become a bur­den to athletes. Also, records must bekept on each of these goals; there­fore, logistics must be a considered.

Step 5 in this phase is the devel­opment of a plan or strategy forachieving the goals. Achievementstrategies for accomplishing goalsshould be jointly developed by thecoach and athletes. For example, ifthe goal is to improve starting timeout of the starting blocks by .05 sec­onds, then the athlete might engagein 10 extra timed starts at the begin­ning and ending of each practice.

Implementation PhaseDuring the implementation phase,the coach and athletes should collectinformation and monitor theprogress towards goal attainment(step 6). Athletes can keep a note­book to chart their individualprogress while coaches should alsokeep records of their athletes' goalattainment (Harris, 1982). Contractsbetween coaches and athletes mayalso facilitate the goal-setting process.

Athletes must also be held ac­countable for goal attainmentthrough monitoring and feedbackpractices. Athletes should be en­couraged to write goals on paperand sign it. Without these account­ability measures, goal setting is lesseffective. Athletes must take thegoals they set seriously and continu­ally strive to meet them.

The last guideline for this step isone of reinforcement or support.Athletes should receive supportfrom the coach, parents and team­mates to reinforce their goals.

Evaluation PhaseThe last phase consists of providingfeedback and evaluating the goals(step 7). If a goal has been accom­plished, there are two options: resetthe criterion for the goal to a higherlevel (return to planning phase, step3), or work on another goal (returnto planning phase, step 1). If the goalhas not been reached, then thecoach and athlete should adjust thegoal (return to either planning orimplementation phase) to accommo-

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date the athlete's present level of per­formance and provide motivation.

Factors and Potential ProblemsAthletes can enhance their perfor­mance through goal setting; how­ever, several factors and potentialproblems must be considered whenestablishing a goal-setting program.Coaches, must recognize individualdifferences. When establishing agoal for an individual, coachesshould consider such individual dif­ferences as: the current level of per­formance, the athlete's level of com­mitment, the opportunities available,the athlete's potential, and obstaclessuch as fear offailure (Danish &Hale, 1983; Harris, 1982).

A potential problem related togoal setting involves society's defini­tion of success: "winning." This prob­lem may also extend to parents andtheir child/athlete. The child's rea­sons for participating in sport may beto play, to have fun, and to be withfriends, whereas the parents may viewsport as a way of preparing a child fora professional career in sport andwinning may be very important toparents (Hopper &Jeffries, 1990).

The most common mistakes thatcoaches and athletes make when set­ting goals is that they do not adhereto the guidelines (table 3). For ex­ample, the goals set are either toogeneral or outcome-related insteadof controllable by the athlete. Ath­letes who are not interested in goalsetting may set a goal that is too un­realistic and use that as excuse fornot improving. One way to attackthis problem of goal apathy is towork with athletes who are inter­ested in goal setting and accentuatetheir progress and success to gainthe interest of apathetic athletes.

Goal setting is relatively easy forcoaches to employ in their athleticprograms. A systematic three-phase,seven-step model can help coachesand athletes in the goal-setting pro­cess. While this strategy will requiresome initial time and thought, it hasgreat potential for enhancing athletes'performance, which can benefit boththe athletes and their teams by pro­viding them with a competitive edge.

171£ authorswould liketo thank Dr. Linda Bunker

for herassistance with theeditingof this article.

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Boyce, BA (1989). Goal setting: Theground rules. Strategies, 3(2), 22, 28.

Cox, R.H. (1985). Sport psychology: Conceptsand applications (2nd ed.). Dubuque,IA: William C. Brown.

Danish, SJ., & Hale, B.D. (1983). Teach­ing psychological skills to athletes andcoaches. journal ofPhysical Education,Recreation & Dance, 54(8), 11-12, 80-81.

Gould, D. (1986). Goal setting for peakperformance.lnJ.M. Williams (Ed.),Appliedsportpsychology: Personal growthtopeakperformance. Mount Vernon, CA:Mayfield.

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B. Ann Boyce and Valerie King are assistantprofessors in the CurrySchool of Educationat the University of Virginia, Charlottesville,VA 22903.

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