5 Marks

1. Learning vs Acqusition

Two modes of L2 learning according to Stephen Krashen subconscious language acquisition and conscious language learning acquisition process very similar to what children undergo to acquire their first language requires natural communication learning refers to conscious knowledge of a second language, knowing the rules, being aware of them, and being able to talk about them it is knowledge about a language, about language rules according to Krashen learning is less important than acquisition

2. The status of English in India/ English as a link language/ English as a national language in India

Indian Constitution recognizes 22 regional languages for official purposes but India has two national languages for administrative purposes, Hindi and English English is an associate official language one of the three languages in the Three Language Formula - English established with the East India Company in 1660 serves two purposes: a linguistic tool for administrative cohesiveness, and as language of wider communication serves as both national and international link language has special national status due to special place in parliament, judiciary, journalism, education and in business and commerce has become a language with increasing importance.

3. The three language formula

Came into existence due to reaction against Hindi becoming the official language from non-Hindi states a conference of Chief Ministers and Education ministers suggested the TLF as a compromise in 1949 for teaching minority language/ mother tongue spelt out in the National Policy Resolution (1968) and reiterated in the National Policy on Education (1986) Hindi, English and a modern Indian language (preferably from the Southern states) in Hindi speaking states and Hindi, English and a regional language in a non-Hindi state created difficulties for Urdu speakers as their children denied right of mother tongue instruction Gujral committee offered a modified form - in Hindi-speaking states: Hindi (with Sanskrit), Urdu or any modern Indian language and English in non-Hindi speaking states: regional language, Hindi, Urdu or any other modern Indian language, and English or any other European language in Andhra the policy in vogue for Urdu speakers: Hindi and Urdu (composite course), regional language and English/ any modern European language student must be able to study mother tongue and official language of the state.

4. L1 interference while learning English as L2

Mother tongue, especially an Indian/ Dravidian language interferes with L2 learning different phonological, morphological, and semantic structures spelling and pronunciation a problem because English not a phonetic language like Malayalam mutually exclusive sounds in Malayalam and English grammatical features like tense, articles and prepositions different lack of semantic match between words in the two languages (additional marks to be given for examples)

5. Proficiency in the mother tongue can often help in learning a second language. How?

L1 is often and aid in learning L2 - Understanding how L1 is acquired can help us acquire a second language speaking well in L1 can lead to speaking well in L2 as the student already has the ability to gather and arrange ideas and to articulate them in the best possible way in an uninhibited, confident manner a strong reading habit in L1 can lead to a strong reading habit in L2 thereby improving vocabulary and structure naturally which can lead to better writing skills the main problem with writing in L2 is lack of ideas and organization skills- if ideas and organizational skills in L1 are good this can help in L2 writing a student with the ability to construct grammatically well-constructed sentences in L1 can compare and contrast the structures of L1 and L2 and move to L2 proficiency through translation.

6. Bilingualism/ Multilingualism

Multilingualism act of using multiple languages by an individual speaker or community of speakers if only two languages used it is bilingualism becoming a common social phenomenon due to globalization and cultural openness difficulty in qualifying a person as multilingual is native proficiency needed in all languages or foreign language proficiency sufficient? learning/ acquiring of second/ foreign language affected by relative status of the different languages (attitude to English different in India and France), the cultural attitude to different languages (English as a language of the colonizer and so to be resisted), the extent to which second or more languages can be used in a culture/ society, etc.

7. Co-ordinate and compound bilingualism

Bilingualism the ability to use two languages by an individual speaker or community of speakers language policy favours bilingualism in co-ordinate bilingualism two languages operate independently of each other speaker not necessarily able to translate between languages user has learned two languages in separate functional contexts (eg L1 at home and L2 with friends for a second generation diasporic Indian) - compound bilingualism involves highly efficient, often unconscious, translation between two languages when using both (eg L2 at school) two extreme modes and difficult to classify a bilingual as one of the two, but a useful distinction.

8. Learner factors

Certain crucial factors influencing learning which are beyond the control of learner both intrinsic and extrinsic intrinsic are age (children with sound first language literacy learn a second language easier than adult learners), personality (extroverts are quicker learners than introverts), motivation (intrinsic motivation, of academic achievement and extrinsic, of wanting to get a job), experience (greater experience of different cultures and languages helps language learning), cognitive (possible higher language learning ability in some individuals), and native language (learning a language in the same language family easier) extrinsic are the nature of the curriculum, the quality of instruction, relative cultural status of L1 and L2, motivation of parents and teachers, and access to native speakers.

9. Sociolinguistics

Sociolinguistics attempts to relate language systematically to society and culture evolved of knowledge in anthropology, sociology, social psychology, and linguistics had three main directions according to Sterne 1: movement from general linguistics to study of language in society 2: Movement from linguistic competence to communicative competence 3: a study of speech communities enabled language teachers to relate language teaching to social aspects of language use

10. Ethnography of communication

Defined as the study of the individuals communicative activity in its social setting (Sterne) an attempt to explain speech events in their social settings in terms of the constitutive elements of the speech act and the functions of the speech act constitutive elements of the speech act are participants, message, medium, situation, topic, speech variety functions: expressive, phatic, instrumental, performative, poetic metalingual.

11. The Whorf-Sapir hypothesis

Also called the Whorfian hypothesis or theory of linguistic relativity or the linguistic Weltanschaung (world-view) problem a concept in anthropology argues that a language determines ones thought and world view according to Whorf language organizes experiences eg. We perceive the rainbow as having seven colours because of language and ignore the real infinite shades of colour however general consensus on theory of linguistic relativity is that languages reflect than create socio-cultural values and orientations

12. Communicative competence

Terms in sociolinguistics for a speakers underlying knowledge of the rules of grammar and for their use in socially appropriate circumstances term coined by Dell Hymes underlies communicative approach to second language teaching elaborated by Canale and Swain to include grammatical competence (rules of grammar), sociolinguistic competence (appropriateness), strategic competence (communicative strategies) and discourse competence (providing cohesion and coherence) now generally accepted that communicative competence more important than linguistic competence.

13. Society, Culture and Language and their inter-relationship in language learning

One cannot teach a language long without coming face to face with social context factors which have bearing on language and language learning (Sterne) - one needs to understand the relationship between society, culture and language - what interests the language teacher are sociology, ethnology, ethnography, social and cultural anthropology and sociolinguistics - both sociologists and anthropologists, have always been aware of language as an essential factor in social life - Malinowski and Firth, Sapir and Whorf, understood the relationship between language and culture - thus society, culture and language are closely interrelated - the insights into language use provided by sociology and anthropology are extremely important for language pedagogy - The language learner should not only study the cultural context (language AND culture), but that s/he should be aware of the interactions between language and culture (language IN culture and culture IN language).

14. Selection and grading

Key phrases in Mackeys method analysis and Hallidays methodics selection of linguistic items according to purpose, length and level of language course determined by frequency, range, usefulness, availability, coverage, applicability, learnabilty etc end result an inventory of phonological, grammatical, lexical, and semantic items for a syllabus/ textbook gradation deals with how the selected items are to be taught Mackey distinguishes grouping ( fitting together of items that go together) and sequencing (the order to be followed) usually graded from known to unknown, easy to difficult, simple to complex, concrete to abstract, etc.

15. The Situational approach in ELT

Functional approach to language of Firth and Halliday led to situational approach in ELT the accepted British approach in the 1950s based on the behaviourist theory of habit formation aim was the formation of correct speaking habits through imitative drills adopted inductive method for teaching grammar grammatical explanation discouraged and meaning deduced from situations

16. Methods of teaching prose

Main aims: intensive reading and development of intellect main steps in teaching prose preparation by the teacher, selection of AV aids, testing of previous knowledge of students, introduction, statement of aim, presentation which includes model reading, explanation of vocabulary, silent reading, testing of comprehension and grammatical structures, recapitulation and assignment.

17. The deductive and inductive methods of teaching grammar

Deductive method states rules and gives examples students asked to apply rules to exercise eg the rules for changing active to passive given interchange of subject of object, passivization of verb, addition of by phrase students apply rules to sentence in inductive method students are giver samples of language use with a particular structure and are asked to deduce the structure and function of a particular construction sentences in passive and active are given, student asked to identify the structural changes, think about the different situation in which these structures occur and then asked to create sentence with appropriate structure and function deductive method more behaviourist, inductive more cognitive

18. Problems of teaching proposition to Malayalam users

Mastery of prepositions need significant proficiency in English difficult to be taught errors in the usage of propositions due to the L1 interference, the tendency to think in Malayalam and communicate in English, lack of listening and reading habits, lack of exposure to variety of texts in English also due to the difference is structure between English and Malayalam methods to improve usage prepositions: develop intense listening and reading habits, work through grammar exercises on prepositions.

19. Skimming and scanning

Skimming method of quick information gathering eye skims through text to gather essential content - advantages: helps in identifying relevant topics, to gain an overview of the information, time saving reading eg reading to indentify interesting articles in the newspaper scanning is reading text to identify specific information eg looking up a word in the dictionary are two modes of reading to be taught along with intensive and extensive reading

20. Intensive and extensive reading

Intensive reading is reading for through comprehension can only be silent reading as the purpose is not to improve pronunciation it is in-depth reading and involve comprehension, learning of vocabulary and structure sincere effort and hard work needed needed for text book reading an integral part of the reading for education/ reading in higher education/ library reading extensive reading is mainly for pleasure improves speed reading develops interest in the language helps to gather knowledge from a wide variety of sources develops general language competence and general knowledge

21. Differentiate between guided and free composition

Two methods of teaching writing the first for beginners and the second for more advance learners in guided composition student given help by way of structures and vocabulary items students have to stay within the given language items egs using substitution tables to form sentences, filling in words in a paragraph, arranging jumbled sentences, expanding an outline, etc depending on the level of the learner free composition offers learners freedom to choose vocabulary and structures paragraph writing, letter writing, story writing, essay writing, prcis, reports, book reviews, creative writing etc needs higher order skills like organizing ideas into a sequence of sentences and paragraphing appropriate for learners after guided composition

22. Audio-visual aids in teaching

A-V aids involve sense of sound and vision provide vital pedagogic support advantages: 1) motivates students, 2) provides clarifications to concepts taught, 3) encourages understanding and discourages cramming, 4) time saving, 5) Makes classroom live and active, avoids monotony, 6) provides direct learning experience, etc disadvantages: 1) expensive, 2) needs teacher expertise in handling equipment, 3) can disturb nearby classes etc advantages far outweigh disadvantages

23. Remedial teaching

Mode of teaching aimed at correcting errors or addressing gaps in knowledge remedial teaching comes after teaching and evaluation in ELT proper diagnostic tests can identify the major errors/ problems faced by learners in each language skill stages of diagnostic tests: identifying students who need help, locating the error/ learning difficulties and discovering the causal factors - the test results and errors have to be analysed and classified carefully to create a syllabus for remedial teaching error analysis also identifies slow learners, helps them identify their problems and overcome it basic drawbacks of remedial teaching: student gets disheartened to be tagged as slow learner focus is usually on writing skills and other language skills are rarely evaluated

24. Error analysis

Studies the types and causes of language errors established in SLA by Pit Corder in the 1960s EA distinguishes between errors, which are systematic, and mistakes, which are not errors a result of ignorance, mistakes of stress errors have patterns, mistakes do not errors cannot be rectified by learner, mistakes can errors come of ignorance of rules errors are classified according to modality (level of proficiency in the language skills), linguistic level (pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, style), form (omission, insertion, substitution), type ( systematic errors/ errors in competence vs occasional errors/ errors in performance), cause (interference, interlanguage) steps in EA: collecting samples of learner language, identifying, describing, explaining, and evaluating/ correcting the errors methodological problems: difficult to determine kind of error from language sample, can deal only with learner production (speaking and writing) and not reception (listening and reading) currently more wide-ranging approach to learner error called interlanguage error analysis an integral part of evaluation and provides the framework for remedial teaching by identifying the relevant teaching points,

25. Enumerate and briefly explain the qualities of a good test

The main qualities of a good test are: Objectivity, Comprehensiveness, Validity, Reliability, Discriminating power, Practicability, and Simplicity a test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabusa test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure Reliabilityof a test refers to the degree of consistency with which it measures what it is intended to measure Discriminating Power is power to discriminate between the upper and lower groups who took the test Practicability depends on administrative ease, scoring ease, interpretative ease and economy Simplicity means that the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple

26. Norm referenced and Criterion referenced tests

Norm Referenced Test is a test which compares the individuals performance with those other persons taking the same test - Criterion Referenced Test evaluates an individuals performance with reference to specific instructional objectives.

NORM REFERENCED TEST

CRITERION REFERENCED TEST

The main objective to measure individual differences.

The Main objective to measure the effectiveness of a programme or instruction.

Aims to classify and grade learners in various categories

Provides specific information in individual level of performance with respect to objectives

The meaning of any particular score can be determined only by comparing it to scores of other students

The score of an individual can be interpreted individually

It is often used for selection purposes

The purpose is not comparison, but specific learning

Test results are used for making comparative decision regarding individuals

The results are used to evaluate student performance relative to specific objectives

It is specially constructed to maximize the variability of test scores, as the purpose is discriminating of individuals by comparison

The test constructor is not concerned with developing a test to maximize the variability of test scores

Essay

1. STEPHEN KRASHENS THEORY OF SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

Stephen Krashen expert in linguistics focusing on theories of acquisition and development author of Principles and Practices in Second Language Acquisition (1987) and Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning (1988) has had wide impact in all areas of second language teaching and research since 1980

Krashens theory has five main hypotheses: The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis and the Affective Filter hypothesis the Acquisition-Learning distinction most significant Acquisition subconscious, requiring meaningful interaction in target language with importance on the communicative act than on form learning a conscious act resulting in knowledge about language Monitor hypothesis defines influence of learning on acquisition the acquisition system is the initiator and the learning system the monitor, with planning, editing and correcting functions Natural Order hypothesis suggests that acquisition of grammatical structures follows a predictable natural order for any given language Input hypothesis tries to explain how L2 acquisition takes place acquisition takes place when learner receives comprehensible input in step beyond their current linguistic competence Affective filters which positively affect acquisition are variables like motivation, self-confidence and anxiety of the learner According to Krashen grammar teaching helps language acquisition only when students are interested in grammar and it is taught in the target language.

2. PRINCIPLES OF LANGUAGE TEACHING

Teaching requires connecting theory to practice three types of principles: cognitive, socioaffective (emotional), linguistic A. Cognitive Principles: 1. Automaticity language absorbed automatically balance rules and practice 2. Meaningful learning rote-learning does not lead to long-term retention appeal to students language need and goals 3.Anticipation of reward reward leads to better performance compliments, reminder of long term goals helpful 4. Intrinsic motivation and strategic investment the method the learner adopts to learn are more significant than the teachers methods 5.Autonomy successful learners take responsibility for their learning B. Socioaffective Principles: 1. Language ego learning a language can be awkward needs teacher support 2. 2. Willingness to communicate help students to become self-confident by ensuring their success - 3. Language-culture connection educate about cross-cultural differences and mutual respect C. Linguistic Principles: 1.Native language effect mother tongue can interfere with and facilitate learning 2. Interlanguage help students move toward target language accuracy 3. Communicative competence includes linguistic competence, pragmatic competence, strategic competence

3. BRIEF HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING

Need of understanding of history: helps us understand the present situation and why it is so provides understanding of forces that shaped the profession Classical period, 17th, 18th and 19th centuries education was an arm of theocracy, foreign language learning associated with the learning of Greek and Latin purpose intellectuality in the 1850s the classical method became known as the Grammar Translation method 1850s to 1950s GT method Early mid-20th century saw demand for ability to speak foreign language reformers reconsidered the nature of language and learning 3 reformers C. Marcel, F. Gouin and T. Pendergast Marcel emphasized importance of meaning in language learning, Perdergast proposed first structural syllabus Gouin emphasized the role of language as a means of thinking Series method taught learners directly (without translation) and conceptually (without grammar rules) a series of simple connected sentences - later came Direct method posited by Berlitz followed by the Audiolingual method in the 1950s an oral-based structural approach then came Structural Situation approach ALM with situational practice various Designer methods of the 1970s and 80s Suggestopedia, Silent way, etc- followed by humanistic methods like Community Language Teaching and Total Physical response in the 1980s came interactive views of language teaching Communicative Language teaching and its spin-offs: Natural Approach, Co-operative language teaching, Functional-notional approach, task-based language teaching etc.

4. THE STATUS OF ENGLISH IN INDIA

Indian Constitution recognizes 22 regional languages for official purposes but India has two national languages for administrative purposes, Hindi and English English is an associate official language one of the three languages in the Three Language Formula - Came into existence due to reaction against Hindi becoming the official language from non-Hindi states a conference of Chief Ministers and Education ministers suggested the TLF as a compromise in 1949 for teaching minority language/ mother tongue spelled out in the National Policy Resolution (1968) and reiterated in the National Policy on Education (1986) Hindi, English and a modern Indian language (preferably from the Southern states) in Hindi speaking states and Hindi, English and a regional language in a non-Hindi state created difficulties for Urdu speakers as their children denied right of mother tongue instruction Gujral committee offered a modified form - in Hindi-speaking states: Hindi (with Sanskrit), Urdu or any modern Indian language and English in non-Hindi speaking states: regional language, Hindi, Urdu or any other modern Indian language, and English or any other European language in Andhra the policy in vogue for Urdu speakers: Hindi and Urdu (composite course), regional language and English/ any modern European language student must be able to study mother tongue and official language of the state - English established with the East India Company in 1660 India has longer exposure to English than any other country - serves two purposes: a linguistic tool for administrative cohesiveness, and as language of wider communication serves as both national and international link language has special national status due to special place in parliament, judiciary, journalism, education and in business and commerce has become a language with increasing importance.

5. ENGLISH HAS BECOME ONE OF THE MAJOR LANGUAGES OF THE WORLD, AND INDIANS CAN NEGLECT ITS STUDY AT THEIR OWN RISK. DISCUSS

English undoubtedly a major language importance of English can be considered under four heads: 1. English as an international language; 2. English as a window on the world; 3. English as a library language; 4. English as a link language 1. English is an international language a second language or official language in different countries like India, Pakistan, Africa, France, Russia etc one of the six official languages of the U.N link language of Commonwealth countries language of international politics, trade, industry, commerce, business has become more important with globalization and the possibility of living and working in an international environment 2. Nehru: English is our major window on the world give us awareness of what is happening in the rest of the world in all spheres, cultural, intellectual, spiritual, etc- 3. English is the language of knowledge as a library language has a key role in higher education implications: teachers should be bilingual (regional language and English; students (especially PG students) should be able to follow lectures and use reading materials in English 4. English an international link language also a national link language - language of trade and industry in India - Indians neglect English at their own risk.

6. THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH IN SCHOOLS IS FAR FROM SATISFACTORY. INDENTIFY THE PROBLEMS AND SUGGEST REMEDIES

V.K Gokak: Teaching of English in a chaotic state students are taught English for about 6 hours per week for 6 years but they hardly know 150 words when they come to college and do not know how to use the commonest structures of English situation might be different in different states and between rural and urban schools but the main problems are common: 1. Lack of clear-cut policy of how much to teach, when and how 2. Little understanding that the aims of English is to teach the language skills 3. Dearth of competent, trained teachers 4. Wrong methods of teaching with emphasis on rote learning, ad ignorance of contemporary methods and principles of ELT 5. Defective textbooks, without grading or selection, proper objectives or with language situations familiar to the learners 6. Fault system of examination with no testing of language skills only memory skills tested 7. Insufficient use of AV aids 8. Over-crowded classes 9. Shortage of time 10. Unsatisfactory or non-existent monitoring of teacher activities, etc Solution remedy these problems.

7. POINT OUT THE DIFFERENCES OF LEARNING THE MOTHER TONGUE AND THE FOREIGN LANGUAGE IN SCHOOL AND IDENTIFY THE IMPLICATIONS OF L1 ACQUISITION FOR L2 LEARNING

Differs in a number of ways 1. L1 acquisition is a natural process with strong motivation for learning to express his/her needs and wants L2 learning an artificial process with poor student motivation 2. L1 acquired in a natural environment while foreign language taught in an artificial environment only contact with L2 in the classroom 3. Child acquires L1 in situations and with a purpose while inadequate real-life situations for L2 learning 4. L1 acquired with a clean slate while L2 learning is affected by L1 interference Implications for L2 learning: 1. Importance of motivation and sense of achievement 2. Importance of providing maximum exposure to L2 in different forms 3. Importance of situational approach needed 4. Importance of imitation more than rules students should be encouraged to acquire language naturally than learn rules about language.

8. FACTORS THAT PLAY A ROLE IN SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING

Some essential factors are to be taken into account while considering second language learning some variables or factors that are essential in second language learning 1. Influence of the social context or the cultural and economic factors on the motivation and attitude of the learner 2. Learner characteristics like age and sex, learning aptitude, general learning abilities, learning styles 3. Learning conditions pertaining to the learning of second language like learning a second language through exposure to the target language 4. Learning process and the strategies and techniques employed by the learner 5. Learning outcome the final result of competence and proficiency achieved while learning a new language.

9. SUBSTANTIATE THE TWO WAYS IN WHICH LEARNING CAN BE APPROACHED.

Study of learning is relevant to education analysis of learning is a central theme of educational psychology learning can be approached in two ways 1. through theoretical and experimental studies it was mainly carried out on animals by a group of theorists like Watson, Hull, Thorndike, Skinner who expounded theories like Behaviourism, Associationism, Operant conditioning 2. through empirical studies tries to investigate learning problems of children with learning and emotional difficulties based more on observation or experience than on theory identified learning problems formulated theories on meaningful learning

10. DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY AND ITS GROWTH ON THE BASIS OF THE CONTRIBUTIONS BY RENOWNED EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGISTS

Different educational psychologists covered different aspects Huse experimental approach to studying foreign language advocated research techniques for studies and learning Findlay considered language learning as an imitative task the learner has to copy the behaviour of the native through conscious attention Simmins discussed the transfer and application of what we learn to a new setting also studied the mental process involved in the learning a new language Brachfeld - affective psychology how the life style and personality of the individual are affected during second language learning Stengel - emotional resistance and language difficulties in adults while learning a foreign language in a foreign country Carroll - theory of habitual responses where language is a system of well learned habitual responses and memory and mimicry are involved in learning a foreign language Penfield discussed the optimal age and the biological age for second language learning - Carroll and Sapon devised some new language aptitude tests for testing language learning.

11. COMPARE AND CONTRAST BEHAVIOURIST AND COGNITIVE THEORIES IN LANGUAGE LEARNING

Psychological investigations turned to questions of learning, memory, thinking, intelligence and emotion in the beginning of the 20th century language came to be viewed as an index of mental growth two main schools of the psychology of learning are the behaviourist and cognitive/ mentalist schools behaviourists considered language a part of human behaviour language is verbal behaviour and thinking is sub-vocal verbalization main proponents were Thorndike, Pavlov, Skinner and Watson explained language training in terms of stimulus and response and habit formation main tenets: habits are strengthened by reinforcement language is behaviour language skills learned more effectively through spoken form analogy better foundation than analysis language learning is skill-getting and habit formation Cognitivists -gained strength after Chomskys attack of Skinner early representatives were the Gestalt group of psychologists in Germany ( Kohler, Koffka etc) Cognitivists believed that one learns a language not by conditioning but because of an inborn capacity to acquire language in the maturation process developed by Chomsky.

12. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD

Grammar Translation Method is also called Classical method one among the methods of learning a language a method to read and appreciate a foreign language through the study of the native language involved the study of the grammar of the target language developed familiarity with the grammar of the native language GT method considers literary language superior to spoken language importance is given to the translation of matter from the native language to a foreign language importance to native language priority is given to the development of reading and writing little importance given to speaking, listening and pronunciation gave supreme authority to the teacher.

13. ATTEMPT A CRITIQUE OF THE DIRECT METHOD

Direct method a method of teaching a foreign language through conversation, discussion and reading in the language itself without use of L1, translation or the study of grammar Aim: to move from L2 to concept directly rather than though L1 (Grammar Translation method) Principles: - emphasis on speech - English taught through conversation practice in listening and speaking inhibition of mother tongue to promote thinking in L2 sentence considered the unit of speech inductive teaching of grammar, grammar not an end but only a means to an end (communication) progressive teaching of new vocabulary features: translation, use of L1, bilingual dictionary completely banned grammar taught inductively oral teaching preceded teaching of reading and writing use of connected sentences systematic teaching of pronunciation meanings of words and forms taught by means of objects/ natural context vocabulary and structure inculcated by question-answer session between teacher and student Advantages: Natural method similar to acquiring of L1 (LSRW learnt in that order) promotes fluency in speech leads to better pronunciation aids written work as proficient speaking leads to proficient writing disadvantages: incomplete method with too much emphasis on speaking requires very efficient teachers requires highly motivated and linguistic minded students AV aids unavailable in schools ineffective in over-crowded classrooms sometimes not an effective or efficient method for conveying meaning.

14. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH

Approach to the teaching of second/ foreign language where interacting in the language is the means and ultimate goal of language learning CLT defined as the systematic approach of applying both the structural and functional aspects of language according to Littlewood, in Aspects of Second Language Learning developing communicative competence and procedures for the teaching of LSRW are the objectives of CLT developed in opposition to the Situational approach of language teaching and late 1960s grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competences according to Canale and Swain according to David Nunan the characteristics of CLT are the introduction of authentic texts and attempt to link CLT with language activities outside the classroom emphaises the primacy of speech the teacher is the analyst, counselor, and group process manager instructional materials are text based and task based classroom activities includes role play, games, surveys, etc.

15. EXPLAIN THE PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING

CLT is one among the methods of communication attaining communicative competence is the goal of this method of language teaching interdependence of language and communication the aim of studying a language is to communicate importance is given to students students are given chances to express their ideas and opinions teachers tolerate the errors of the students encouragement of co operation among students role of the teacher is that of a facilitator importance is given to communicative activities such as games, role play, problem solving tasks which improve their communicative skills -importance to the development of all the four skills listening, speaking , reading and writing.

16. SITUATIONAL APPROACH TO LANGUAGE TEACHING

Harold Palmer and A S Hornby applied scientific methodology in applied linguistics to develop an oral approach different from the Direct method developed controlled vocabulary and grammar teaching and a structure based situational approach an oral method with emphasis on phonetic accuracy - Firth and Hallidays functional approach to language gave the situational direction to the teaching of structures syllabus created through the processes of selection, gradation, presentation and practice based on behaviourist theory of habit formation - aim was the formation of correct speaking habits through imitative drills followed the inductive method grammatical explanation was discouraged and meaning deduced from situations accuracy in pronunciation and grammar considered crucial believed that automatic control of basic structures and sentence patterns through practice was the key to developing reading and writing skills - Situational Oral approach became accepted British approach by the 1950s

17. TEACHING WITHOUT LECTURING

Lecturing one of the most common methods of teaching often unavoidable but also least effective way to promote learning problems with lecturing: limited attention span for students, does not keep them actively interested in learning, difficult to gauge the level of learning especially in large classes, is teacher-centred in a language class it gives student knowledge about a language but not the ability to use language in real-life situations - simplest way to engage the attention of students is through constant questioning during and after the lecture teaching without lecturing involves more learner-centred approaches can include quizzes on assigned reading topics, debates, brainstorming, project based work, learning though teaching (peer teaching), pair work, role play, paper presentations and discussions, etc

18. WHAT ARE THE MAIN STEPS FOR PLANNING A LESSON FOR A LANGUAGE CLASS

Assuming that you already have a term plan and a unit plan, the first step would be to set lesson goals to set lesson goals one must identify: the topic for the lesson, specific linguistic content, communicative tasks, learning strategies and create goal statements about what you will do and students will do during a class the next step would be to structure the lesson this involves five parts: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation and expansion the last major step would be to identify the materials and activities for the lesson classroom strategy evolves out of the interrelationship between lesson plan, term plan and the unit plan.

19. RELATIVE MERITS AND DEMERITS OF THE DIFFERENT METHODS OF TEACHING READING

Main methods: Alphabetic method, Phonic method, Word or Look and Say method, Phrase method and Sentence method Alphabetic method oldest method letter of the alphabet taught and then combination into word demerits: English not a phonetic language, dull and monotonous method, single letter has more than one sound, students fail to develop reading speed Phonic method students told sounds of various letters sounds combined to form words demerits: no reliable match between sound and letter, all words cannot be taught, letter is the unit of reading Word or Look and Say method word is the unit of reading flash cards with pictures used for words called Look and Say and students look at pictures and say the word Merits: greater reading speed as word is the unit, reading becomes interesting as words are related to their meaning, movement from concrete to abstract demerits: all words cannot be represented by pictures, encourages the bad habit of reading word by word Phrase method phrase is the unit of approach demerits: phrase does not express a complete idea, time consuming as it has to be developed into sentences Sentence method merits: provides all attitudes and skills needed for good reading, helps prevent word by word reading, encourages correct habit of eye-span, makes reading interesting disadvantage: not possible without knowledge of words, time consuming story method creates interest gives complete unit of thought an eclectic method depending on the level of the learner, situation etc, might be appropriate

20. COMPARE AND CONTRAST THE METHODS OF LOUD AND SILENT READING

Loud reading only the first stage of reading whereas real reading is silent without lip or head movements reading teaching usually starts with loud reading student reading follows model reading by teacher focuses on pronunciation, acquiring correct stress, rhythm and intonation rather than comprehension tests students knowledge of words and phrases and their correct pronunciation can help the students read with feeling forms the basis of both silent reading and speaking (helps the learner become familiar with the sounds of L2) not important when the aim of reading is to get information correctly and quickly excessive loud reading can become mechanical and divorced from meaning Silent reading more valuable in certain ways few people will read loudly after leaving school silent reading keeps the whole class busy, whereas in loud reading the class is a silent listener quicker process than loud reading students able to work at their own pace students able to focus on comprehension than pronunciation prepares the student for independent reading inculcates a love for reading only method of reading in both intensive and extensive modes of reading both have the place in ELT with different purposes reading aloud is a first step to speaking and pronunciation, while silent reading is a major skill focusing on comprehension and speed loud reading comes in the early stages of ELT and loud reading later.

21. DESCRIBE THE STRATEGIES YOU WOULD ADOPT TO TEACH INTENSIVE READING OF PROSE IN A LARGE CLASS.

Intensive reading an advanced level of reading where the learning is intensive, the comprehension is thorough, the learner comprehends the meaning and significance of each word and sentence and grasps the interconnectedness of the sentences, the learner learns and assimilates new vocabulary and structure all of this cannot happen in a one-hour session major strategy is silent reading the problems when teaching intensive reading of prose to a large class are: difficulty in ensuring uniform learning for all students, ensuring feedback about the level of learning, distractions due to the largeness of the class, lack of motivation, students with different ability levels, etc loud reading to be avoided as the purpose is thoroughness of comprehension not improving pronunciation first step: creating rapport and specifying the objectives of the lesson explain reading strategy: silent reading of entire passage for global meaning, then intensive paragraph by paragraph silent reading followed by questions silent reading of whole passage questions on global meaning teaching of difficult words through appropriate vocabulary exercise paragraph by paragraph silent reading questions to check comprehension could be oral questions, pre-reading questions to be answered through pair work, etc then comprehension test on whole passage with MCQs, True-false questions, one-word or one sentence answers, etc consolidation by writing summary of passage or giving summary of passage in jumbled order to put into correct sequence (pair work or group work).

22. TYPES OF TESTS

Three basic types of written tests in English essays, short answers and objective type essays a traditional type most commonly used form of question in external examinations used to test ability to think originally and organize ideas, to test proficiency in sentence structure, spelling, punctuation, sequencing, paragraphing, to test the personality and metal ability of the student disadvantages: only a few questions can be framed and so cannot cover the whole syllabus, subjectivity in evaluation unless carefully constructed can lead to unwieldy answers and a tendency to bluff short answers advantages: can cover the syllabus more comprehensively, far less subjective than the essay as they demand definite answers disadvantage: does not test the power of expression as the essay does objective test so called because of objectivity in evaluation advantages: can include questions from the whole syllabus, useful for measuring specific skills and items of knowledge disadvantages: difficult to construct (especially MCQs), unless properly framed can aid guesswork, do not test expression only recognition and comprehension, offers greater scope for malpractice all have advantages and disadvantages and test different skills and have different purposes judicious combination of all three needed

23. QUALITIES OF A GOOD TEST

A good test should possess the qualities of Objectivity, Objective Basedness, Comprehensiveness, Validity, Reliability, Discriminating power, Practicability, and Simplicity Objectivity a test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting its scope as well as in scoring the responses can be increased by using more objective type test items Objective-basedness means the test should be based on pre-determined objectives the test setter should have definite ideas about the objective behind each item Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabus and cover all objectives Validity a test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure different types of validity: Operational validity (when tasks in the test are sufficient to evaluate the activities), Predictive validity (when scores can predict future performance), Content validity (when items in the test are representative of the course content), Construct validity (when test scores offers psychological interpretations) Reliabilityof a test refers to the degree of consistency with which it measures what it is intended to measure a test may be reliable but need not be valid a test with high validity has to be reliable also valid test is also a reliable test, but a reliable test may not be a valid one Discriminating Power is power to discriminate between the upper and lower groups who took the test the test should contain questions of different difficulty levels Practicabilityof the test depends on administrative ease, scoring ease, interpretative ease and economy Simplicity means that the test should be written in a clear, correct and simple language.

24. EVALUATE THE ESSAY QUESTION, THE SHORT ANSWER QUESTION AND THE MCQ TYPES ON THE BASIS OF THE CRITERIA OF OBJECTIVITY, VALIDITY, RELIABILITY AND COMPREHENSIVENESS.

Objectivity, Validity, Reliability and Comprehensiveness four main qualities of a good test a test is said to be objective if it is free from personal biases in interpreting its scope as well as in scoring the responses a test is said to be valid if it measures what it intends to measure Reliabilityrefers to the degree of consistency with which a test measures what it is intended to measure Comprehensiveness means the test should cover the whole syllabus and cover all objectives Essay questions have the least objectivity, a high validity only if it specifically intends to evaluate higher level writing skills, not a great degree of reliability as scores may vary between evaluators and only limited comprehensiveness as it cannot cover the whole syllabus the short answer has greater objectivity than the essay question but not as much as the MCQ, has greater validity, reliability and comprehensiveness than the essay question the MCQ has the highest objectivity, its validity depends on the quality of the MCQs and the expertise of the MCQ creator, and it has high reliability and comprehensiveness.