gmat reading comprehension concepts

8/10/2019 GMAT Reading Comprehension concepts

1/39

Ivy-GMAT Exclusive GMAT-Prep for 99thpercentile (760-800 range) aspirants not for everyone!Dont join us if you are

not willing to put in the requisite amount of work.

READING COMPREHENSION Concepts

Reading comprehension includes the ability to identify main ideas, locate specific details, understand passagestructure, and make inferences regarding a written work. A deep understanding of a passage requires the reader tounderstand not only the meanings of the individual words that comprise that text, but also the way that eachsentence functions within the context of the whole piece. Aside from basic literacy, there are a number of logicalreasoning competencies that aid in deeper comprehension, particularly with regard to making inferences andunderstanding passage structure.

Typically, the Verbal Section on the GMAT includes 4 Reading Comprehension passages, with 3 to 4 questions perpassage, for a total of 13 to 14 Reading Comprehension questions out of the 41 verbal questions. Passages willcontain 3 or 4 questions and are about 200 to 400 words long. Each passage engages with a specialized topic oropinion in the Humanities, Social Sciences, Science, or Business, but no specific outside knowledge of the material isrequired; all questions refer to what is stated or implied in the text. The writing in these passages is serious andsophisticated.

The Challenge:

Think of the reading comprehension section as if it were a reality TV show where you are dropped in the middle of ajungle with no clues about where you are or how to proceed.On the GMAT, a reading passage will be dropped infront of you and you will have no background on it whatsoever. Imagine encountering an essay where:

1.

You don't know what the title is.2. You don't know who the author is.3. You don't know when or where it was published.4. You can't see the paragraphs before or after the essay.5. You don't have enough time to fully read it.

6.

The content is dense, boring, and academic, smeared with jargon, and covers a topic you have littleknowledge about.

7. And your mastery of those 400 words will determine your future business school and career.

Moral:You're going to need a compass. That is, a planned strategy and a lot of preparation coupled with tons ofpractice.

Distinguishing between Fact and Opinion

Often, your ability to answer a reading comprehension question correctly will depend upon your ability to distinguishbetween fact and opinion. You may need to determine whether an author thinks something is true or whether theauthor knows something to be true to determine the main idea or draw logical conclusions about the text. First, here

is a quick review of definitions. A fact is something known for certain to have happened, to be true, or to exist. Anopinion, on the other hand, is something believed to have happened, to be true, or to exist. The key differencebetween fact and opinion lies in the difference between believing and knowing. Opinions may be based on facts, butthey are still what people think and believe, not what they know. Opinions are debatable; facts are not. Two differentpeople would have a hard time debating a fact, but they could debate forever about which opinion is more valid. Notethat people can also debate about how to interpret facts, but they would have to agree on the facts themselves. Agood test for whether something is fact or opinion is to ask two questions:


2/39



1. Can this statement be debated?2. Is this something known to be true?

If you can answer yes to the first question, it is probably an opinion. If you can answer yes to the second question, itis probably a fact.

In addition, consider the nature of the claim. If the statement isprescriptiveif it is describing what someone shouldor ought to dothen the statement is an opinion, as in the following examples:

1. You should try advertising on the radio.2. We ought to offer a better severance package.3. I had better confirm this appointment before I book a flight.

Words that showjudgment or evaluation, like good, bad, interesting, and important, usually also signal an opinion.

Consider this example:

Employee benefits should include coverage for alternative medicines such as acupuncture and massage therapy.

This statement is clearly debatable and could be argued either way. In an effective argument, this opinion would besupported by and based upon facts. For example, if you had chronic back pain that was not alleviated by traditionalmedical approaches but that disappeared after three weeks of acupuncture, you could use this fact to support youropinion. In addition, you could cite the fact that the alleviation of pain saved your insurance company hundreds tothousands of dollars in additional visits to back pain specialists and other medical practitioners. You might also citestatistics, such as a recent survey that showed more than 60% of patients with chronic back pain reported relief afterone month of acupuncture. These facts, which are non-debatable, would support your opinion, making it morereasonable and therefore more valid. It is easy to see how this information is relevant to the critical-reasoningquestions (which ask you to evaluate arguments) and the AWA questions (which ask you to write your ownargument). It is also relevant to reading comprehension questions because knowing the authors opinion and how theauthor supports that opinion can help you draw appropriate conclusions from the text.

The finer aspects of the reading process: Comprehending a passage is an ebb and flow process. Analyzing apassage to understand how it is constructed can be compared to dismantling an engine to understand how it wasbuiltyou may stop occasionally and reassemble parts of it to review what you just did; then proceed again todismantle more. Likewise, when reading a passage, you may first read and mentally annotate a paragraph(disassembling it) and then go back and skim to reassemble it. During this process, comprehension proceeds from theglobal to the specific.

Conjecture (Main Idea)

General Understanding (authors attitude, logical structure)

Specific Understanding (Logical Details)

Incorporation (What if?)

In the conjecture stage, we form a tentative main ideaone which we may have to modify or even reject as we readmore deeply into the passage. In the general understanding stage, we develop a feel for the authors tone anddiscover the schema that s/he uses to present her ideas. In the specific understanding stage, we fill in the minor gapsin our understanding. Finally, in the incorporation stage, we integrate the ideas presented in the passage into our ownthought process. We now understand the ideas sufficiently to defend them, apply them to other situations, orevaluate their validity in a hypothetical situation. Only with complete understanding of the passage can this be done.


3/39



Normally all RC passage will do one of the following:

Describe Evaluate Persuade / Suggest

Describe Evaluate Persuade

HumanitiesNewspaper article onHarlem Renaissance

Book review of MargaretAtwood novel

Essay arguing that theromance is a distinctly

American literary genre

Social ScienceTextbook Section on CivilWar

Newspaper opinion columnabout a politicianseconomic plan

Environmentalists op-ed piecearguing for tighter controls onthe use of a new chemical

ScienceMuseum pamphlet onvolcanoes

Commentary in a physicsournal on a new plan forsolar power

A scientists explanation of whyhe believes the Big BangTheory is wrong

BusinessNewspaper account of thecollapse of the real estatemarket

Harvard Business Reviewassessment of a newtheory of corporateleadership

A corporate managers letter toa newspaper defending hiscompany against accusationsof mismanagement

If youre like most GMAT test-takers, youll experience at least one of the following problems as you tackle Reading

Comprehension:

Your concentration is poorperhaps because of your lack of familiarity with or interest in the topic, orperhaps due to general test anxiety.

Your reading pace is slowso you have trouble finishing the Verbal section in time.

To answer each question, you find yourself searching the passage again and again to find the information youneed.

You have trouble narrowing down the answer choices to one thats clearly the best, especially between thelast two.

Believe it or not, all of these problems are due to the same bad habit: passive reading, by which you simply read thepassage from start to finish, giving equal time and attention to every sentence without thought as to what particularinformation might be key in answering the questions. You might call this approach the osmosis strategy, sinceyoure hoping to absorb what you need to know by simply allowing your eyes to glaze over the words.

Whats the likely result of this osmosis strategy? You might remember some scattered facts and ideas, which will helpyou respond correctly to some easier questions. But the passive mind set wont take you very far when it comes tomost of the questions, which measure your ability to understand the ideas in the passage rather than to simply recallinformation. Understanding a passage well enough to answer all the questions requires a highly active frame ofmindone in which you constantly interact with the text as you read.


4/39



The Test-Makers Top 10 Wrong-Answer Ploys

1. The response distorts the information in the passage. It might understate, overstate, or twist the passagesinformation or the authors point in presenting that information.

2. The response uses information from the passage, but does not answer the question. The information citedfrom the passage isnt useful to respond to the question at hand.

3.

The response relies on speculation or an unsupported inference. It calls for some measure of speculation inthat the statement is not readily inferable from the information given.

4.

The response is contrary to what the passage says. It contradicts the passages information or runs contrary

to what the passage infers.5. The response gets something in the passage backwards. It reverses the logic of an idea in the passage,

confuses cause with effect, or otherwise turns information in the passage around.6. The response confuses one opinion or position with another. It incorrectly represents the viewpoint of one

person (or group) as that of another.7. The response is too narrow or specific. It focuses on particular information in the passage that is too specific

or narrowly focused in terms of the question posed.8. The response is too broad (general). It embraces information or ideas that are too general or widely focused

in terms of the question posed.9.

The response relies on information that the passage does not mention. It brings in information not foundanywhere in the passage.

10.The response is utter nonsense. It makes almost no logical sense in the context of the question; its

essentially gibberish.

Heartstrings:

Beware of answer-choices that contain extreme emotions. Remember the passages are taken from academic journals.In the rarefied air of academic circles, strong emotions are considered inappropriate and sophomoric. The writerswant to display opinions that are considered and reasonable, not spontaneous and off-the-wall. So if an authors toneis negative, it may be disapprovingnot snide. Or if her tone is positive, it may be approvingnot ecstatic.

Furthermore, the answers must be indisputable. If the answers were subjective, then the writers of the GMAT wouldbe deluged with mails from angry test takers, complaining that their test-scores are unfair. To avoid such a difficultposition, the writers of the GMAT never allow the correct answer to be either controversial or questionable.

Keywords: Keywords tell readers what is about to happen next. Some signal words tell readers about the sequence;others tell about a similarity or difference. Students often overlook these clues. Make sure you think aloud forstudents to model how these words can be used.

Sequence Words: after, afterward, ahead of, all through, as before, beforehand, during, earlier than, first, second,third finally, later, now, prior to, sooner than, subsequently, then, throughout, while

Restatement or Synonym WordsAlso, as well as, by the same token, correspondingly, equally, equally so, especially, for example, in that, in the sameway, just as, likewise, similarly, such as these, too

Contrast or Antonym Words

Alternatively, although, apart from, but, by contrast, contrary to that, conversely, despite, even though, however, incontrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand, regardless, some butothers, still, then again, yet


5/39



Four basic tasks:

The passage below demonstrates four basic capacities that factor into the reading of a new text. After a completereading, try employing the following four skills:

Identify the main idea

Locate a specific detail

Consider the organization of the paragraphs

Make at least one inference

Many people argue that the rise of cable news has degraded national political discourse. They blame thestarkness of the left-right political divide on the sensationalist presentation style employed by 24-hour newsnetworks in their effort to make journalism more entertaining and palatable. As evidence of the trend,opponents point to the dramatic increase in the number of news commentatorspartisan newscasters whoargue vociferously for one party or another. Such programs, critics say, contribute to the hostile, uninformedpolitical climate that can be held responsible for the lack of bipartisanship in government.

Ultimately, however, cable news has been vindicated by its opponents. Demographics show that its loudestdetractors come from demographics that have been historically apolitical, namely, young people, marriedwomen, and lower-middle class workers. Since the launch of CNN in 1980, cable news viewership rates haverisen proportionally with greater political participation and activism by groups that were previously apolitical.

Studies of TV ratings trends and polling data show that college students and housewives are the largestconsumers of cable news. In other words, detractors of cable news blame the very source of their politicalawakening for the frustrating political climate of which it has made them aware.

Main Idea: Though people blame cable news for the toxic political climate, the growth of its viewership has led togreater political participation by the very classes that denounce it.

A Detail: CNN launched in 1980.

Passage Structure: The first paragraph explains that many people attribute a particular cause to a supposed problem;this attribution is undermined in the second paragraph.

An Inference: Before 1980, housewives and college students were less politically active than they are today.


6/39



Our RC blasphemies that WORK on the test day:

RC is the most crucial among all test areas: Our experience tells us that, on average, each RC questionweighs almost twice as much as each CR question and almost thrice as much as each SC question.

You cannot cross the 700 mark if your RC is bad: Our experience tells us that students really good at

Quant, SC, and CR, but average at RC tend to stop short of 700. We have seen countless 670-690 scorers,who, only for want of a superlative performance on RC, could just not breast the coveted 700+ Club tape.

RC undernormal concentration and relaxed pacecan be very differentfrom RC under trying examconditions: fourth hour on the test, race against the clock, the mind refusing to understanding any word atall, and the imperative to finish the test ensure that, more often than not, the victim (and the biggest culprit)is RC.

When you dont do well on RC, you lose 3-4 questions in a row: Consecutive errors are penalized soseverely on the test that, at any given point on the test, 3-4 consecutive errors can bring your current scoreby almost 100 points. Bad RC ensures that you have at least 3-4 such chunks of score-drops. OUCH!!

Normal pace:Every conceivable resource possible on GMAT RC will ask you to speed-read, skip, skim, etc.Trust us: nothing could be more gimmicky. Dont speed-read GMAT RCs. It may be curtains! Your naturalspeed must improve after practicing 300+ passages.

Focus on understanding:Every conceivable resource possible on GMAT RC will ask you to understand onlythe main idea and skip the details. We have even seen such advice: read only the first line of each para etc.Trust us: nothing works on the test day. There is no substitute for a reasonable understanding. Theseresources / books / instructors / test-prep companies take passages (that lend themselves to such gimmicks)and show the application of the gimmicks that work on a particular passage.

Read the full passage first: Some books / test-prep companies will be asked to read the questions first.

Nothing could be a bigger disservice to oneself.

Dont skip: You cant afford to skip information. Your understanding of the passage will be distortedotherwise.

Dont skim: Skimming is a self-contradictory term. Without reading everything, how can one decide thegrain from the chaff? Again, understand that there is no substitute for understanding.

Dont reread:Develop a habit of reading the passage only once and understanding it well. Most of us tend

to reread the first few lines. The signal to our subconscious brain is: let me not understand it fully. Anyway Ihave to come back and reread. It may be tough to get rid of this habit but this is extremely crucial to trainyour brain not to reread.

Dont write anything at all: The mother of all wrong pieces of advice on the GMAT is: write / make askeletal / make a structure / annotate etc. UGH!! This is the WORST advice one can give a student.

o Why should you not write?

You are so pressed for time on the test day that you never use your notes. Why learn and

rely upon something that will not work on the test day?

Invariably our experience says that students never use what they write. Why waste precious

time?

Once your brain gets a subconscious signal that you can write, the understanding vanishes.You are just taking notes passively. RC is about active application, not passive note-taking.

Must go back while solving the questions:A lot of times, students rely upon their memory and miss outon the intentional distortion used so effectively by the test-makers (psychometricians). These people are

masters of making the wrong answers that seem more attractive than the right answers. The best way to


7/39



avoid this is to go back to the passage to justify each word in the answer choices. Extreme WORDJUSTIFICATION is the name of the game.

Dont do more general reading; solve more RC exercises:The ubiquitous advice that people get whenthey do badly on RC is: READ, READ, and READ.

WRONG! If this were to be the case, you would be answering the questions right in the first place.You have been reading every day for at least the last 10 years, at least.

Solve more and more RC passages RIGHT!

Dont bother about vocabulary:A lot of people bother about understanding each word in the passage toan obsessional level. Indeed, a good vocabulary can help you but there is no point in developing superiorvocabulary NOW. The efforts can be completely disproportionate compared to the returns. So the best bet isto guess the meaning of a new word by the context.

Plan four-hour nonstop sittings only with RC to make sure you concentrate well on the test. Ifyou genuinely want the 740+ score, you cant skip this piece of advice.

Dont solve anything elseexcept what has officially appeared on Standardized American Tests such as the

GMAT, the GRE, or the LSAT. There are at least 500 genuine such passages available for you to practice with.

Beware of the central opinion / theme / main idea / tone etc. while reading the passage.

Ideally for a passage with 3 questions, you must not take more than 5 minutes and for a passage with 4questions, you must not take more than 6.5 minutes.


8/39



OCTAVEA guaranteed formula for 100% success on GMAT RC

OCTAVE stands for:

Opinion: Always look for the personal opinion of the author or the main point made by the author. Otherpeoples opinions are not so important.

ContrastWords: Watch out for contrast words: these are important because usually there is surely a general /inference question from these locations. The common contrast words are:

Alternatively, although, apart from, but, by contrast, contrary to that, conversely, despite, even though,

however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, nonetheless, notwithstanding, on the other hand,regardless, some but others, still, then again, yet

Tone: Always try to predict the tone of the passage as positive / negative / neutral. This is a big help.Avoidsuperlatives / extreme words / strong words / emotional words in the option choices. These are almost alwayswrong.

Verify each word: This is the heart of RC. You must make sure that each word written in the choices must bejustifiable from the passage.

Eliminate: Dont be fixated on an answer choice if it seems attractive. Follow elimination of wrong ones rather thanselection of the right one.

OCTAVE will be discussed over 100 passages in our classes.


9/39



Further reading more on RC

Identifying main idea of the passage

All passages center around one main idea; the remainder of the text presents evidence that supports this primarypoint. All paragraphs and statements within the passage take on specific roles with regard to advancing the mainidea.

Remember, the main idea of a passage must encompass the entire passage. If any major part of the passage doesnot seem to relate to a given answer choice, that choice is most likely not the main idea. Consider the example below:

All available research points to the fact that music education can significantly bolster students' academic skills,particularly when this education is imposed during early childhood. The most notable academic improvementassociated with music education, surprisingly, occurs in affected student's performance in mathematics. Arecent study, which compared students in school districts all around the world, found that students whobegan receiving music education in kindergarten scored significantly higher on standardized math tests thandid those who began after third grade. Those students who began in third grade, in turn, scored significantlyhigher than did those who received no music education at all. In fact, correlation studies attempting to linkseveral different factors to higher math test scores have found music education to be the most significant ofthese factors.

What is the author's main point?A. An important research study determined that students whose music education commenced in kindergarten fared

the best on standardized tests.B. Music education has the potential to strengthen students' academic skills.C. The study regarding the effect of music education on academic success was conducted in an objective and

scientific manner.D. The overall effectiveness of music education in improving a child's academic performance in mathematics is

correlated with the age at which that child begins to receive instruction in music.E. Schools are willing to employ strategies that have the potential of bolstering the academic performance of their

students.

Choice B is correct. The author believes that music education can improve students' academic skills; all otherstatements in this passage serve as evidence to support this belief. Choices A and D are examples of this evidence,while choices C and E represent unspoken assumptions that underlie the argument.

Inference questions

An inference is an idea that is not itself explicitly stated, but that can be logically concluded from what isexplicitlystated. An inference for test purposes refers to something that must be true based on the evidence provided.Remember, inferences are not leaps in logic. In fact, they are quite the opposite: they are statements that arelogically implicated in the argument and should follow directly from the stated textual evidence. Eliminate answersthat require assumptions, generalizations, and extrapolations to connect a detail to an inference. Before we draw aninference from a detail, we should ensure that we understand that detail (and its various ramifications) thoroughly. An

inference will sometimes make logical extensions using new language, so it is vital to understand the detail beforeparsing out any potential inferences. Example below:

Given Statement:China has a GDP of about $4.9 trillion USD. Their GDP is higher than South Korea's but not ashigh as Japan's.

Possible Inferences:

Valid inference: Japan's GDP is higher than South Korea's.

If China's GDP is higher than South Korea's, and Japan's is higher than China's, it follows logically that Japan's mustbe higher than South Korea's.


10/39



Valid inference:Japan's GDP is over $4.9 trillion USD.

If China's GDP is $4.9 trillion USD and Japan's is higher, it follows logically that Japan's GDP must be higher than $4.9trillion USD.

NOT a valid inference: Japan exports more products than China.

Whether or not this is true, exports are not mentioned anywhere in the statement, and Japan's higher GDP couldcome from any number of other sources of income.

NOT a valid inference: Japan has the highest GDP in Asia.

Even though this is true, it does not logically follow from the information in the given statement. The statement onlycompares three countries and does not negate the possibility that another Asian country's GDP might be higher.

Check the example below:

To this day, geologists are divided on the issue of how barrier islands, such as those found off the coasts ofNew York, Texas, Mississippi, and Alabama, first formed. The major competing theories can be divided intothree basic groups, each with its origin in the 19th century: the offshore bar theory, the spit accretion theory,and the submergence theory. Many modern geologists point out that there are examples, even within the

United States alone, that both support and refute each of these three theories. Nevertheless, the scientificcommunity has not dismissed any of these theories as completely useless. Which of the following can bemost properly inferred from the passage above?

Possible correct answer:

All of these theories explain the formation of at least some barrier islands, but none of them explain them all.

This follows logically from the fact that scientists recognize evidence that both supports and refutes each of thesetheories and the fact that scientists have not outright rejected these theories.

Possible incorrectanswer:

All geologists believe at least one of these three theories.

The text says that these are the three basic categories into which all major competing theoriescan be grouped. It isentirely possible, according to the passage, that a small group of geologists believes in a fourth theory or none at all.

Consider the following passage:

Vincent Van Gogh died penniless and unknown in 1890. Following his death, Van Gogh became gradually morefamous among influential art critics in Europe. His work was exhibited in galleries in New York City, Amsterdam, Paris,and Cologne, between the years 1900 and 1915. His work influenced a generation of artists, and by the middle of the20th century, he was known as one of the greatest painters in history. His original paintings are worth millions ofdollars today.

There are a number of inferences we can make from this passage. The passage tells us that Van Gogh died inobscure poverty but became famous after his death.

We can infer is this: It is possible to die penniless and unknown as an artist and, yet, become famous after death.


11/39



Lets see the example below:

While effective exploitation of recent technological breakthroughs has been a winning strategy for theentertainment industry throughout the last century, a number of major entertainment industries are in dangerof near-extinction at the hands of the same technological forces. As evidenced by the evolution from recordalbum to cassette to compact disc, the music recording industry has beenuntil nowconsistently able tofind a new, even more profitable products to replace those that had been rendered obsolete. However, thereexists no such solution to the complications arising from the recent rise in easily shareable digital musicformats.

Although some experts point out that the increased availability of music will lead to higher profits for recordcompanies in the long run, many within the industry are skeptical. It may be true that this increasedavailability will garner more consumers for artists that are represented by record companies; still, it is unlikelythat such consumers will purchase compact discs while inexpensive digital alternatives are available. Somecompanies have had limited success selling digital music one song at a time, but this strategy does notgenerate nearly as much profit as have other methods in the past. A decade ago, a music consumer couldhave purchased a full-length compact disc for $15, and now he or she is far more likely to purchase onlythree or four of its songs for around $1 each, thereby incurring a massive loss in income for the record label.

Which of the following can be properly inferred about music consumers from the secondparagraph of the passage?

A.

Technologies that are profitable for record companies do not increase the number of music consumers thatbuy the music of a single artist.

B. Music consumers once purchased full-length compact discs when they may have been satisfied with only afew songs.

C. Technological breakthroughs in the music recording industry in the past have not decreased record companyprofits.

D.

Compact discs were once at least as popular among music consumers as were cassette tapes.E.

If record companies raised their prices for individual, digital songs, consumers would continue to buy them atthe current rate.

The question stem refers both to a paragraph and a topicmusic consumers. Re-read the sections of the paragraphthat refer to consumers before examining the answer choices.

Choice B is correct.Because the second paragraph mentions that fans who previously purchased full-length CDs for$15 now often purchase only 3 or 4 songs from those CDs for $1 each, we can logically conclude that, in the past,consumers must have been buying full-length CDs just to listen to 3 or 4 songs. We can infer that those customers inthe past would likely have been satisfied with the option of purchasing only those songs that they wanted.

Be sure to read question stems carefully: some of these choices (such as choice C) may be inferred from otherpartsof the passage but not from the second paragraph.


12/39




While effective exploitation of recent technological breakthroughs has been a winning strategy for the entertainmentindustry throughout the last century, a number of major entertainment industries are in danger of near-extinction atthe hands of the same technological forces. As evidenced by the evolution from record album to cassette to compactdisc, the music recording industry has beenuntil nowconsistently able to find a new, even more profitableproducts to replace those that had been rendered obsolete. However, there exists no such solution to thecomplications arising from the recent rise in easily shareable digital music formats.

Although some experts point out that the increased availability of music will lead to higher profits for recordcompanies in the long run, many within the industry are skeptical. It may be true that this increased availability willgarner more consumers for artists that are represented by record companies; still, it is unlikely that such consumerswill purchase compact discs while inexpensive digital alternatives are available. Some companies have had limitedsuccess selling digital music one song at at time, but this strategy does not generate nearly as much profit as haveother methods in the past. A decade ago, a music consumer could have purchased a full-length compact disc for $15,and now he or she is far more likely to purchase only three or four of its songs for around $1 each, thereby incurringa massive loss in income for the record label.

Which of the following can be properly inferred about music consumers from the second paragraph ofthe passage?(A) Technologies that are profitable for record companies do not increase the number of music consumers that buy

the music of a single artist.(B) Music consumers once purchased full-length compact discs when they may have been satisfied with only a fewsongs.(C) Technological breakthroughs in the music recording industry in the past have not decreased record companyprofits.(D) Compact discs were once at least as popular among music consumers as were cassette tapes.(E) If record companies raised their prices for individual, digital songs, consumers would continue to buy them at thecurrent rate.

The question stem refers both to a paragraph and a topicmusic consumers. Re-read the sections of the paragraphthat refer to consumers before examining the answer choices.

Choice B is correct.Because the second paragraph mentions that fans who previously purchased full-length CDs for$15 now often purchase only 3 or 4 songs from those CDs for $1 each, we can logically conclude that, in the past,consumers must have been buying full-length CDs just to listen to 3 or 4 songs. We can infer that those customers inthe past would likely have been satisfied with the option of purchasing only those songs that they wanted.

Be sure to read question stems carefully: some of these choices (such as choice C) may be inferred from otherpartsof the passage but not from the third paragraph.


13/39




In recent years, historians have struggled to differentiate between historical revisionism, which seeks to reinterpretorthodox views by considering new evidence and tones, and historical negationism, an illegitimate movement that, inan attempt to support a particular ideology, seeks to deny the existence of historical facts. On behalf of the AmericanHistorical Association, historians such as Pulitzer Prize-winner James McPherson argued that widely accepted views ofhistory are fraught with their own biases and must not be considered immutable truths. Rather, McPherson argued,they should be understood as part of a "continuing dialogue between the present and the past."

Contemporary historians Deborah Libstadt and Alex Grobman are correct to distinguish between this sort of legitimaterevisionism and outright negationism by pointing out the fact that legitimate revisionism acknowledges and respects a"certain body of irrefutable evidence" with regards to the occurrence of historical events, whereas negationists "rejectthe entire foundation of historical evidence." Therefore, a scholar who argues against the racial biases of the DunningSchool's view of post-civil war reconstruction in light of newly unearthed primary source evidence should beconsidered a legitimate revisionist, while a scholar who denies that plantation slavery was ever widespread in theUnited States should be considered a negationistand, thus, an illegitimate historian.

Based on the passage above, the author would most likely agree with which of the followingstatements?(A) Historical orthodoxies should always be considered true until new evidence arises to call them into question.(B) Historical revisionists are primarily motivated by ideology rather than academic curiosity.

(C) The Dunning School is an example of a group of scholars engaging in legitimate historical revisionism.(D) While he or she can question orthodoxies, a revisionist historian must accept certain facts in order to beconsidered legitimate.(E) Contemporary historians have become increasingly tolerant of negationist theories in light of recent historicaldiscoveries.

The question stem does not direct us to a particular part of the passage, so we should move directly to the answerchoices, eliminating those with which the author would notlikely agree.

Choice A: The word "always" signals that this is an extreme answer choice, and in fact, the author would certainly notnecessarily agree that historical orthodoxies should be taken at face value. The phrase "new evidence" refers to theend of the passage, so we can take this cue to revisit that section of the text.

Choice B introduces an irrelevant comparison; "academic curiosity" is never discussed in the passage.

Choice C refers to a specific claim in the passage, which we should revisit: a scholar who argues against the racialbiases of the Dunning School's view of post-civil war reconstruction in light of newly unearthed primary sourceevidence should be considered a legitimate revisionist. Choice C mistakes one group for another; the author suggeststhat the scholar who studies the Dunning School in this hypothetical example is a "legitimate historical revisionist,"not that the scholars inthe Dunning School are.

Choice D refers to "legitimacy," and in fact, the author states in the first paragraph that negationismis an illegitimatemovement which seeks to deny the existence of historical facts and again, at the end of the passage, that those whodeny facts are illegitimate revisionists. Choice D is correct.

Choice E is an opposite choicethis author is staunchly against negationism.


14/39




Fitness center managers who hope to maximize profits have long known that one of the best ways to attract newmembers is to use personal trainers as salespeople. Between workout sessions, trainers spend a significant amount oftime giving free advice to prospective clients and offering tours of the facilities. Managers and trainers are happy withthis arrangement, as it attracts new customers to the fitness center and provides low-stress, fully-paid rest time forthe trainers.Which of the following is best supported by the information above?(A) The hourly cost of paying personal trainers to act as sales staff is less than the revenue generated by the increase

in membership fees paid by the newer gym users.(B) Because the work of personal training offers such low pay for high-stress physical labor, trainers are only willing toexercise with clients for a specified number of hours per day.(C) Fitness center managers have to put the interests of prospective clients above those of trainers, who would rathernot work as salespeople.(D) Most prospective gym members prefer not to talk to dedicated salespeople and would rather get free advice froma professional trainer than spend money on a gym membership.(E) Each new membership that a gym earns generates enough revenue to cover the cost of paying a single trainer togive free tours and advice for that day.

This question asks us to derive a general principle from a specific case. In this instance, we are not looking for a veryfar-ranging abstraction; the answer will refer to some basic idea about gym memberships and free trainer tours.

Choice A is correct. The other choices are too extreme (B, the word "only" kills it), potentially true on their own butnot implied by the passage (E, D), or inaccurate inferences (C, the passage states that trainers are happy with thearrangement).


15/39




In the business world, many tend to consider technological innovation the main method by which a company comesto dominate a given market. Though this may seem intuitive, and though many examples can be unearthed insupport of this maxim, it is not entirely true. In fact, it has often been the case that a company that has come todominate a given market has reached that position by improving upon and rendering obsolete some existingtechnology. To the extent that patent law allows, a company can build upon the inventions of othersa practiceresulting in a dramatic reduction of that company's development costs. In this same vein, a company can makeimprovements to a product that are sufficiently significant to shift the market decisively in that company's own favor.

The Alphamax video cassette recorder, a device developed by Company X in the mid 1970s, is a classic example ofthis phenomenon. At the time of its inception, the new recorder could boast a VHS format that was considered arevolutionary improvement over the previously ubiquitous 8mm recording devices that had been used for homemovies and other amateur recordings. This new recorder enjoyed only two short years of widespread use, however,before Company Y introduced the VBD recordera recorder which quickly proved more profitable. Company Y's desireto introduce a product that was extremely similar to Company X's new recorderbut different enough to avoidviolating any patent lawsinduced Company Y to create a recorder that offered longer playback and more convenientrecording than the one put forth by Company X. Company Y's recorder featured tapes with large capacities that, giventhe advent of full-length rental films, no longer seemed superfluous. Because Company Y was able to create a productthat was both similar to and that improved upon Company X's existing product, Company X's existing product soonbecame nearly obsolete.

It can be inferred from the passage that consumers came to prefer VBD tapes for which of the followingreasons?(A) They were sufficiently different from Alphamax tapes to be offered to consumers without any possible risk ofpatent law violation.(B) They were introduced at a time when consumers were very fickle and eager to consume new products.(C) More movies were available for rent in VBD format than in the Alphamax format.(D) VBD tapes utilized a video home-recording and playback technology that offered distinct advantages whencompared with Alphamax.(E) Companies with experience in the field of video recording began to move from the Alphamax market to VBD,bringing with them technological and marketing expertise.

Choice D is correct.The evidence that VHS overtook the market previously dominated by Alphamax, combined withthe statement that VHS offered longer playback and more convenient recording,is sufficient to allow us to infer thatconsumers preferred VBD technology because it was a new product that was both similar to one they had alreadyembraced and distinct enough to offer new advantages. Note that although choice A is true according to the passage,it does not explain why consumerspreferred VBD tapes to VHS (it is likely that consumers are not terribly concernedabout patent law violations).


16/39




The practice of deploying civilian journalists into combat zones within a troop of soldiers is known as "embedding."Though the practice dates back to the 19th century, official military and journalistic standards have only been appliedto the practice since the Cold War. The Vietnam War was the conflict in which a large number of television, radio, andprint news reporters traveled into the combat zone alongside soldiers. Today, most cable news stations rely heavily onembedded journalists for on-the-ground reporting and seek to expand the practice into more conflict areas around theworld. Whether or not this comes to pass will depend upon how military officials view the practice.

Non-commissioned officers and lower ranked soldiers tend to see the practice of embedding in a favorable light.Informal surveys suggest that these soldiers respect reporters willing to put themselves in harm's way and feel thatsuch reporters are in the best position to accurately represent a conflict and tell their stories. Higher ranking officers,such as colonels and lieutenants, tend to be more suspicious of such journalists. They are not as quick to grantinterviews or supply information to embedded journalists, ostensibly out of fear of divulging information that may beused by enemies. Many media professionals feel that these upper level officers have more to lose from negative pressand are more concerned with their future political ambitions than with accurate war reporting.

It can be inferred from the passage that the media professionals mentioned in the second paragraphwould most likely agree with which of the following statements?

A. Military officials need to be convinced of the value of embedded journalists so that the practice can be expandedinto more conflict zones around the world.

B.

It is likely that army generals sometimes use the fear of disclosing potentially sensitive information to the enemyas a pretense for censoring embarrassing information.

C. Since there were no officially embedded journalists prior to the Vietnam War, the news reports regarding priorwars are likely inaccurate and heavily biased.

D. Because so many of them intend to run for political office upon completing their service, high ranking officers areeasy to interview, as they appreciate the opportunity to tell their own stories.

E. Enlistees and low rank officers tend to be less reliable sources for news articles, as they tend to be overlyconcerned with future political ambitions.

Choice B is correct.We know that the "ostensible" reason for blocking embedded journalists from access to information is fear ofunintentionally aiding the enemy. We also know that Many media professionals feel that high level officers only care

about blocking negative press for the sake of their political ambitions. With the qualification would most likely agreewithsoftening the blow, choice Bconnects these two ideas and is the most logical answer.The other answer choices are either opposite (D), potentially true but not implied (A & C), or pertain to the wronggroup (E).


17/39




Young children are advised to consume Vitamin D, a necessary ingredient for the regulation of calcium and phosphatein the bloodstream, in order to strengthen their immune systems and avoid bone disorders like osteomalacia. VitaminD is found both in fatty fish (including salmon, tuna, and mackerel) and in beef liver.Which of the following statements can be inferred from the passage above?(A) Children who do not consume large amounts of fatty fish rich in Vitamin D run a high risk of developing bonedisorders.(B) Seniors should consume fatty fish and beef liver to strengthen their immune systems.

(C) Vitamin D is naturally produced by the skin when the body is exposed to sunlight.(D) Young children can reduce the risk of acquiring osteomalaciaby consuming tuna or salmon.(E) It is safer to obtain Vitamin D from natural sources such as fish and beef than it is to take Vitamin D supplements.

We need to be careful of answer choices that fall into the "could be true but not implied by passage" category.Inference questions frequently devise plausible-sounding answer choices as distractors. Remember, a statement thathas no roots in the text cannot be considered an appropriate inference. Calling upon outside knowledge often leadstest-takers astray.

Such is the case with answer choice C. Though choice C states a true fact, that detail is not suggested by any of theinformation in the passage. Choices E and B both might be true, but nothing in the passage refers to seniors orvitamin D supplements; therefore, even though both are probable, neither can be inferred from the text.

This leaves us with answer choices A and D. If we think about them carefully, it should be clear that D is the morelogical inference. Osteomalaciais a bone disorder. Children can avoid bone disorders by consuming Vitamin D.

Vitamin D is found in fatty fish. Tuna and salmon are both fatty fish. By syllogism we can deduce: Young childrenconsuming tuna and salmon reduced risk ofosteomalacia. Choice D is correct.

Choice A is a tricky distractor, because it seems to be vaguely implied by the excerpt; ultimately, however, choice A istoo extreme. The phrases "large amount" and "high risk" make this too strong to be a natural consequence. Also, justbecause Vitamin D helps prevent bone disorders, it does not follow that not consuming Vitamin D generates a "highrisk" of getting bone disorders; other foods may be equally helpful in the reduction of bone disease, and it is plausiblethat a person might stop taking Vitamin D in order to increase intake of some other bone-beneficial substance.


18/39



Identifying author's tone


The ability of the FDA to adequately monitor the information transmitted by drug companies to consumers throughadvertisements is, at best, questionable. According to a 2006 report by the United States Government AccountabilityOffice, the FDA reviewed only a small portion of the advertising materials it received, and the organization could notconfirm that the materials that underwent this review were those that had been identified as higher priorityadvertisements. Though the study's specific claims might be disputed, the broader implications of such a finding

should be clear: advertising materials from drug companies cannot be trusted.

In this passage, the author begins by asserting the view that the FDA's ability to monitor drug company ads isquestionable.

The second sentence begins with according to..., which indicates that the statement that follows reflects anotherparty'stoneone which is distinct from the author's (in this case, the other party is the United States Government

Accountability Office).The final sentence, which points to the possible unreliability of the government office's study'sclaims, returns to the author's point of view.

Certain details which can be inferred from the passage may be more reflective of one tone than another; it isimportant to attribute these inferences to the correct party. Consider the following inference:

The FDA accounts for the fact that it monitors only a small portion of drug company ads by attempting to identify highpriority advertisements, though it is not always successful in this endeavor.

This loose inference aligns with the tone of the United States Government Accountability Office; the second sentencesuggests that at least some material had been identified by the FDA as higher priority advertisements, though theFDA could not confirm that it was these high priority materials that had been reviewed. The author, however, mighttake issue with the information contained in this inference, as she mentions that the study's specific claims mightbedisputed.People should not view drug company ads as reliable sources of information about a drug.

Since it is specifically the authorwho claims that the FDA's monitoring abilities are questionableand that advertising

materials from drug companies cannot be trusted, this inference describes a sentiment that the author likely believes.The author cites a study conducted by the the United States Government Accountability Office in order to lendcredence to this point, but we cannot assume that the United States Government Accountability Office would havedrawn the same conclusion from its own study. In other words, this inference does not necessarily reflect somethingthat theAccountability Officemight think.


Urban planning in this county has increased in complexity of late, as an increasing number of environmental andpolitical concerns have arisen. Though many citizens indicate that urban development should accelerate to meet thedemands of a growing population, this short-term mentality is ultimately destructive. Urban development should besubmitted to a slower, more bureaucratic process.

In this example, the author's tone and the tone of "many citizens" are in conflict.


19/39




The new regulations proposed for the interstate trucking industry are convoluted and nonsensical, as they areburdened with rules that are difficult to follow and do little to increase safety. These rules constitute a prime exampleof frivolous government regulation gone completely overboard. All sensible citizens should write to theirrepresentatives and state their grievances.

The author's main idea, here, is that the interstate trucking regulations are a bad idea; likely, theauthor's purposein this piece is to express this opinion. A tone question about this excerpt will read slightly

differently than a main idea or purpose question. The following, for example, asks about the author's tone:Government regulations in general seem to be regarded by the author with: A possible answer to such a questionmight read: Overt disdain.


Montgomery's analysis of seventeenth century trade practices provides the best available analysis of intercontinentaltrade policy throughout Asia and the Middle East; her thesis about the creation of preservatives to transportperishable goods is particularly compelling. However, she refuses to contend with the inherent difficulties in studyingtrade histories written by partial, nationalist observers.

In this sample, there are two tones: that of "Montgomery" and that of the author. They agree on some aspects of the

argument (the creation of preservatives) and disagree on others (partial observers may be less trustworthy). SomeGMAT passages compare the tones of two different passage sources; in these cases, threetones must be noted.

GMAT passages tend to take on a characteristically neutral, journalistic tone.

Example:

Current scholarship on Romantic literature neglects the vital contributions of female writers. For this reason, importanttexts that contain first-hand knowledge of early 19th century life written by females of the period are oxidizing inmoldy libraries and are slowly disappearing. This is a tragedy which should be addressed immediately by theestablishment of annual conferences and professional organizations that focus on the achievements of women writersof the Romantic period. With which of the following statements about women writers of the Romantic

period would the author most likely agree?A. They are growing in importance and should be addressed by the establishment of more professionalorganizations.

B. More professional organizations devoted to protecting their work from oxidization are necessary.C. Their achievements have not been fully appreciated by modern scholars.D.

Current scholarship on Romantic literature focuses on only their most vital contributions to literature.E.

Annual conferences and professional organizations should be established to advocate greater interest in writingamong women.

The author's tone on Romantic-period women writers is that current scholarship...neglects [their] vital contributions.All four wrong answer choices for this question attempt to use terms from the passage to confuse the test-taker. Choice C is correct.


20/39




Despite the emergence of a trend favoring flatter organization of human capital, companies should seriously considerthe possibility that more rigid hierarchies might be better-suited to their purposes. The current management strategyat Globatron, for instance, involves a dependency on the superior talents of its younger employees. These neweremployees, Globatron noticed, often have the capacity to solve complex management issues that would ordinarily fallunder the aegis of upper management. It remains to be seen whether the company will continue to perform wellwhen its relatively inexperienced leaders encounter issues that require significant depth and breadth of industryknowledge. What is the author's tone on the current trend toward flatter organization of human capital?

A.

Other companies should emulate the hierarchy of human capital that has been instituted at Globatron.B. Upper management should always resolve issues that require significant depth and breadth of industry

knowledge.C. Globatron's current strategy is vulnerable to failure on the grounds that young leaders are likely to encounter

problems that require more experience than they can claim.D. A company should take careful consideration when deciding which organization of human capital is most

appropriate for its purposes.E. Flat organizations of human capital are generally superior to more rigidly hierarchical ones.

Choice D is correct.The author's tone on the cited general trend is mentioned in the first line: companies shouldseriously consider the possibilitythat more rigid hierarchies might be better-suited to their purposes. This is thestatement of opinion put forth by the author; the example involving Globatron and the reference to weaknesses in its

strategy both support the author's general stance that rigid hierarchies should not be dismissed out of handdespite the general trend (conventional wisdom) favoring the opposite. Note that choices A and C are too specific, asthey refer to tones on Globatron in particular and not to the trend that can be observed in companies as a whole.


The recommendations of our political counsel have been faulty. We should not implement their ideas despiteunanimous approval of their proposal by the board of trustees, which believes the proposal will be effective and,moreover, that it will unite the team by reflecting a variety of interests. I insist that the proposal is rudimentary, failsto address the most important issues at stake, and opts instead to present an optimistic picture that is dangerous inits naivet. What is the board of trustees' tone concerning the recommendations of the political counsel?(A) It is more important that a proposal unite the entire team than that it be highly effective.

(B) The proposal is rudimentary and naive.(C) The recommendations of the political counsel will be effective and unite the whole team.(D) The board of trustees will be more effective than the political counsel.(E) The ideas of the political counsel are flawed and should not be implemented.

Choice C is correct.It clearly states in the passage that the board of trustees believes the proposal will be effectiveand will unite the team by reflecting a variety of interests. Here, it is crucial to distinguish the tone of the author fromthat of the board of the trustees (since the question concerns the trustees'opinion, not the author's).

Words such as "naive" and "dangerous" reflect a staunchly negative tone, and, thus, are incorrect. If we recallpositive passage words such as effective and uniteand associate them with the source "board of trustees," we will beable to eliminate wrong answer choices rather immediately.


21/39



Consider this example:

Recently, an increasing number of K-12 schools, both public and private, have instituted a policy stating that allstudents must wear uniforms to school. Administrators' reasons for this decision are two-fold: they believe theuniforms will aid in the reduction of violent bullying on school property and will diminish the effect of economic classas a divisive factor in social situations. Some parents' views align with the school boards' on this matter. Not only arethese parents thankful to be relieved of the burden of back-to-school clothes shopping, but they are also hopeful thata mandatory formal attire will instill a sense of discipline and school pride in the students. The much-touted academicsuccesses of Japanese students, all of whom are required to wear uniforms, seems to bolster optimism regarding this

practice.

Alas, reality has a way of rudely disabusing us of such lofty hopes. In truth, uniforms do not account for Asianstudents' achievementstheir communal meritocratic culture, more likely, is the root of their diligence. Our dog-eat-dog competitive individualist society, in which one student's success is seen as everyone else's failure, differsastronomically from the Japanese model. In point of fact, uniforms have been standard in inner-city "last chance"schools for decades, and no measurable improvement has been the result. It is no surprise, then, that surveys ofstudents at schools that require uniforms consistently show more pronounced clique-forming behaviors and morepersistent discipline problems. The question is: when will the adults in charge start to listen?

Three distinct tones are associated with this passage; the tone of the first paragraph, the tone of the secondparagraph, and the tone of the overall passage.

First paragraph: The tone of this paragraph is calculatedand objective. The author does not take a stance onthe controversial issue that has been presented; rather, she presents the various viewpoints in support of the trend,careful to attribute each opinion to a specific source ("administrators" and "parents"). The word "seems," however, isa chief (and subtle) clue that the author's contrasting view is on the horizon.

Second paragraph: The second paragraph immediately converts to a polemical, almost contemptuous voice, usingmelodramatic words like "alas"not to mention the sarcastic phrase "lofty hopes." Notice the greater freedom withfigures of speech, like "last chance" and "dog-eat-dog." Notice also the assertive language of debate, phrases like "inpoint of fact" and "it is no surprise." The rhetorical question at the end accentuates this paragraph's overall toneof passionate disdain, or even outrage.

Both: Together, the tones of these paragraphs make sense. The passage introduces a topic and describes theopposing viewpoint; then, the author dismantles this opposing tone with both logic, hard evidence, and a bit ofsardonic rhetorical flourish. The overall passage tone is therefore best characterized as confident certitude.

Tone of Single Words and Phrases:

1. Baseball lacks the dynamism and physicality of football, which makes baseball an inferior sport.

2. Football is the king of sports because it is fast-paced, tactical, and violent, while baseball is about as exciting aswatching grass grow.

3. One has no choice but to admit that, when it comes to sheer athleticism and action, football has something of anedge over the more measured, slowly simmering pace of baseball.

Notice that each sentence makes the same point: Football is more exciting than baseball. It is thetoneof eachsentence that differs.

The first sentencedisplays a dispassionate certainty, with its sophisticated vocabulary ("dynamism" and"physicality") and direct conclusion.The second sentence takes on an irreverent attitude, as evidenced by its use of a humorous comparison andfigurative language.The third sentence shows a begrudging acceptance, evident in its qualifying language ("something of an edge")and euphemistic characterization of baseball.


22/39




By way of new promotional efforts, increased attention to its social media program, and the inauguration of a newlyelected board of directors, the company is attempting to achieve its laudable goal of capturing an even greaterportion of the market; still, a more direct focus on the customer would perhaps be a more likelyand far lessexpensivemeans of achieving similar effects.The author's use of the word "perhaps" in this statement might be characterized as conveying a tone of(A) indignation(B) admiration

(C) confusion(D) indifference(E) skepticism

Choice E is correct. Positive words and phrases in the first section of the passage, such as cutting-edge, laudable,and undoubtedly, are offset by the claim in the last section of the passage, in which the company'smethods are questioned. Since the tone is fairly neutral, choices like "indignation" and "admiration" are too strong."Skepticism" effectively conveys the author's mixed attitude of consideration and doubt.

Don't expect especially passionate or emotional language on the GMAT; on the contrary, sometimes the tone of aGMAT passage is very subtle. Rather than looking for extreme, overtly emotional language, we should take our tonesignals from words like the following:

Fortunately Unfortunately Preferable Advantage Defend Foster Victim Triumph Unrealistic Protest Appreciate Instigate

Optimistic Satisfy Shortcoming


23/39




Manager: The extent to which this company lacks transparency is disturbing. Senior management determines ouroverarching strategy, and those at the lower levels execute itoften with little or no sense of the larger context. Thispractice, which purposely prevents certain employees from developing their own opinions about company strategy,severely limits our growth as a company.

The efforts of our middle management, on the other hand, are phenomenal. Their establishment of both a mentoringprogram and a two-month training program for new employees reflects a serious investment in human capital. The

culture of our workplace is significantly improved by their vision.

The manager's tone in the passagemight be characterized as(A) Bitter and resentful(B) Proud and admiring(C) Critical and balanced(D) Engaged and sympathetic(E) Moderate and cautious

Choice C is correct.In the first paragraph, words such as disturbing, severely, and limits indicate that the tone isextremely critical. In the second paragraph, however, words and phrases such aspraise,serious investment,and significantly improvedsuggest an admiring tone. Because the manager exhibits differing tones towards two

different levels of management, her tone can be said to be "balanced."

Identifying purpose

Several answer choices can be quickly eliminated on such questionsmany purpose answer choices contain at leastone of the following errors:

Too Narrow In Scope:Some answer choices refer to one section or paragraph in the passage, but not to the

passage as a whole. Too Broad in Scope:Some answer choices incorrectly refer to a broad, vague topic. If a passage is about a

specific historical time period, for example, an incorrect answer might refer to "history" or "the past." Extreme:Some answer choices overreach, claiming that an author intends to "prove" or "disprove" a topic

that is merely being introduced and gently explored. Most GMAT passages do not express strong opinions.

CommonNeutralGMAT purpose verbs include:

Explain no opinion

discuss no opinion describe no opinion illustrate no opinion compare no opinion examine no opinion imply no opinion suggest opinion

consider no opinion

Common Positive GMAT purpose verbs include:

defend opinion validate opinion support opinion advocate opinion

recommend opinion

argue for opinion

Common NegativeGMAT purpose verbs include:

undermine opinion


24/39



warn opinion dispute opinion dispel opinion critique opinion criticize opinion

deny opinion

argue against opinion


Among manufacturers who sell similar products, it has become a progressively more common practice to undercutcompetitors' prices by offering discountsin an effort, of course, to attract consumers. Many economic studies showthat this practice actually ends up reducing revenue for the companies involved. Unfortunately, many executives stillignore these studies and continue discount practices that damage their profit potential.

What is the primary purpose of this passage? Possible correct answer:

To warn against the use of discounts to increase earnings.

Words like unfortunately make it clear that the author has a decisively negative view of discount practices, so the verbused to describe the primary purpose should also be negative.


Many science historians have independently noted that the concept of "heat" is commonly misused outside of thescience world. While many people may know that heat is a measure of energy, most fail to realize that an object orsubstance cannot technically contain its own measure of heat, because heat is a measure of the energy transferredfrom one object to another. A piece of metal that feels cool to an observer (who has been sitting in a room of equaltemperature) does not lack heat; the "cool" feeling is simply a result of the fact that the object is pulling heat awayfrom a significantly warmer bodythe observer himself. This is a particularly egregious mistake, since understanding"heat" is critical to maintain a grasp of the laws of thermodynamics that regulate an enormous percentage of themachines and systems we encounter on a daily basis. Thermodynamicsthe study of energy conversion from heat tomechanical workis such a valuable field, partially because its underlying premises have been so badly misconstrued.

Possible answers:

To explain a commonly misunderstood conceptTo relate a misunderstanding to the value of a field of studyTo discuss the confusion surrounding a scientific ideaTo explain the concept of heat and its implications for the understanding of the laws of thermodynamics


Industries are facing increasing global competition, in addition to political and consumer pressure, to move towardstreamlined, sustainable, and innovative technologies. Traditional reliance on processes requiring high temperatures,pressures, or harsh chemical additives as reaction catalysts has resulted in high energy consumption and in the

release of harmful byproducts that require significant financial investments to address. As environmental concernsgain in popularity, industrialization in emerging regions continues, and energy costs continue to soar. Biological toolsare increasingly replacing harsh chemical and physical means of synthesizing chemicals and processing materials, andindustries are striving to uncover cost-effective, renewable energy and chemical product alternatives to those derivedfrom petrochemical sources.


25/39



Possible answer:

To describe several reasons for the increased adoption of biological synthesis tools To explain the increasing preference for one scientific innovationover others

Purpose / Role of specific paragraphs:


The need to derive more of our energy from renewable sources is now almost universally acknowledged. Due to thegrowing costs of traditional energy sources like oil and coal, the environmental impact of CO 2emissions, and thegeopolitical implications of dependence on foreign energy, the benefits of moving towards energy that is clean,renewable, and domestically produced are obvious. The main obstacle impeding adoption of more renewable energysources involves the short-term costs of installation of these new energy sources which, despite widespreadknowledge of the possible long-term savings, can be high enough to be considered prohibitive. The question, then, iswhatbeyond the simple promise of long-term savingswill encourage energy companies and consumers to weatherthese short-term high costs.

Many disagree, in particular, about the potential implementation of investment subsidiessubsidies paid by thegovernment to energy producers to defray the cost of installation of solar panels, wind turbines, and other sources ofrenewable energy. Proponents say that such subsidies are a unique way to encourage private companies, which are

generally focused on their short-term revenue, to make economic decisions that benefit both themselves and thepublic in the long run. Critics counter that it is unfair to distribute the burden of a subsidy equally among taxpayers,without regard to each taxpayer's individual energy consumption.

A more equitable policy may be the enactment of feed-in tariffs. Feed-in tariffs are a unique type of agreement bywhich electric grid and other public utility companies agree to buy excess energy produced by a clean and/orrenewable source on a multi-year contract at a guaranteed rate. This enables potential investors in renewable energyto see a faster and more reliable profit than they would otherwise, while proportionally distributing the financialburden among the utility consumers according to consumption. Many such programs have been successful in recentyears, particularly in areas with high levels of sunshine and high electricity costs, including California and Japan.

The main purpose of the third paragraph of this passage is to

(A) introduce a controversy(B) argue against an opponent's proposal(C) propose and evaluate a solution(D) describe a problem and offer a solution(E) reconcile two alternative proposals

We should approach this question with an eye towards the purpose of the passage as a whole; specifically, however,we will focus on what the author is attempting to accomplish in the third paragraph.

This passage begins by describing a problem and proceeds to evaluate potential solutions to that problem. Theauthor's opinion is not breached until the beginning of the third paragraph; here, the phrase a more equitable

policy indicates that the author agrees with the critics mentioned in the second paragraph. Evidently, the authoragrees that the energy cost to each individual should be proportional to that individual's energy usage. The third

paragraph expands upon this idea,introducingand describinga solution that conforms to such a model. Choice Cis correct.

Let's take a look at the answer choices, in order: The controversy is introduced in the first paragraph, notthe third, so choice A is incorrect; the third paragraph is spent describing the merits of a potential solution, notdenouncing an opponent's solution, so we cannot pick choice B; choice D is incorrect because it moves beyond thethird paragraph, instead describing the purpose of the passage as a whole; choice E makes a false statement, as thethird paragraph fails to reconcile the two opposing views mentioned in the previous paragraph.



26/39



Eutrophication, the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, has become knownto the environmentally aware community as a key human stressor on the world's ecosystems. High concentrations ofnutrients, specifically phosphates and nitrates, promote excess growth of primary producers. Excessive growth ofalgae and other simple photosynthetic organisms can deplete water of available oxygen, causing the death of otherorganisms inhabiting the water. Eutrophication can sometimes be a natural, slowly developing process, but humanactivity, specifically the overuse of fertilizers causing runoff from farm land that distributes nutrients to nearby waters,is greatly speeding up the problem. This water runoff causes in the local rivers, lakes, and coastal oceanwaters unnaturally high rates of plant production and, eventually, an accumulation of organic matter that degradeswater and habitat quality.

Riparian buffer zones, the interfaces between land and rivers or streams, are significant in many types ofenvironmental management because of their role in soil conservation, their biodiversity, and their potential influenceon aquatic ecosystems. Riparian zones occur in many forms, including grasslands, woodlands and wetlands; thesesurround freshwater, as well as marine ecosystems. Restoring these buffer zones between farm land and damagedaquatic systems is one step towards the reduction of eutrophic water. A comprehensive solution would also involvereducing livestock densities, improving the efficiency of fertilizer applications, treating urban runoff from streets andstorm drains, and reducing nitrogen emissions from vehicles and power plants.

Which of the following best describes the role of the second paragraph above?(A) to highlight the relative advantages of alternative methods to combat a problem(B) to introduce a specific example of a previously introduced problem

(C) to provide evidence that refutes the main idea of the passage(D) to explain a theory that is introduced in the first paragraph(E) to describe methods for solving a problem introduced in the first paragraph

Choice E is correct. The second paragraph describes a number of methods that could provide a solution to theEutrophication problem outlined in the first paragraph.

Choice A is probably the most tempting wrong answer choice, as it suggests that the second paragraph highlights therelative advantages of the methods the author introduces. While several different solutions are presented, however,they are not compared to each other or to any other methods.


The Consumer Product Safety Commission was created in 1972 to protect the American public against unreasonablerisks of injuries associated with consumer products. The main functions of the CPSC include issuing recalls forproducts that have been reported to be unsafe, providing consumer education that assists consumers in evaluatingthe comparative safety of consumer products, developing uniform safety standards for consumer products, andpromoting research and investigation into the causes and prevention of product-related deaths, illnesses and injuries.

Product defects must be reported to the CPSC by a manufacturer, distributor or retailer who obtains information thatreasonably supports the conclusion that the product fails to comply with a consumer product safety rule. Themanufacturers, distributors and retailers are responsible for identifying any product that contains a defect that createsa substantial product hazard or creates an unreasonable risk of serious injury or death. The Commission mayimpose civil penalties if there is a failure to report a substantial product hazard to the commission in a timely manneror if a company willfully fails to comply with a safety standard.

The agency stays informed of unsafe products, partly by way of a consumer hotline and a website through whichconsumers may report concerns about unsafe products or injuries associated with products. Unfortunately, the CPSCoften relies on manufacturers of defective products to handle safety issues, and incidents have occurred whereinseveral children suffered injury before the CPSC acted on reports about the potential dangers of a product. Manybelieve, additionally, that the CPSC is underfunded and understaffed. These critics suggest that the CPSC should begiven more authority to order recalls and fine companies that put dangerous products on the market; these criticsalso maintain that the CPSC should be provided with improved product testing facilities.Which of the following best describes the role of the second paragraph above?(A) to provide evidence to emphasize the importance of the CPSC(B) to introduce specific examples of reports that have been made to the CPSC about dangerous products(C) to describe the process of identification and reporting of hazardous products

(D) to inform the reader of the flaws in the enforcement policies of the CPSC


27/39



(E) to describe the primary function of the CPSC

ChoiceC is correct. A quick outline of the passage can be used to easily eliminate a number of wrong choices.Choice C is the only one that conforms to the logic of the outline.


In the 1980s, new, alternative theories of leadership were developed, many of which heavily focused on statisticalmeta-analyses of previous studies and on the gathering of data on successful corporate cultures. This trend resulted

in the emergence of trait theories, which claimed that effective leaders tend to exhibit particular personality traits.Intelligence, extraversion and conscientiousness, among others, were named by such theories as the defining"qualities of a leader".Trait theories, although a major step forward in empirical leadership studies, overemphasized the universality of theseleadership traits. In many leadership roles or situations, humanitarian qualities such as humor, empathy, or generosityplay a far larger role than do the classically defined qualities of leadership observed in statistical analyses. However,these qualities, which are more personal and difficult to define or report, are far less likely to be analyzed with thesame vigor.Which of the following best describes the role of the second paragraph in relation to the passage as awhole?(A) to introduce an alternative to the theory presented in the first paragraph(B) to provide a concrete example to support a more general argument made in the first paragraph

(C) to point out a flaw in a theory presented in the first paragraph(D) to reconcile two conflicting theories discussed earlier in the passage(E) to apply a previously discussed theory to a different situation

Choice C is correct.The second paragraph, after acknowledging that trait theories (summarized in the firstparagraph) represented a major step forwardin empirical leadership studies, points out that these theoriesoveremphasized certain traits at the expense of other, equally important ones. This constitutes a flaw in the theorypresented in the first paragraph.

Providing definition for word or phrase in context

The reclusive man rarely emerged from his apartment or greeted anyone in the hallway.

The word "shy," for example, would make sense in this context and is fairly close to the definition ofreclusive.

Contrast clues such as "but," "however," and "unlike"tell us that the word we are attempting to define is the oppositeof what the rest of the sentence describes.

Unlike his introverted and unsociable brother, Carl is gregarious

In this example, the context clues tell us that gregariousmeans the opposite of introverted and unsociable.

A clause in the sentence, set off with commas, may also provide the definition of an unfamiliar word.

Josh hated that his sister, always hyperbolic, exaggerated every story she told.

I

gmat reading comprehension concepts

Documents