global environmental governance james gustave speth and peter m. haas
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Global Environmental Governance James Gustave Speth and Peter M. Haas. Speth and Haas: Ten of the major global environmental challenges are: Acid rain and regional air pollution Ozone depletion Climate disruption [global climate change] Deforestation Land degradation and desertification - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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Global Environmental GovernanceJames Gustave Speth and Peter M. Haas
Speth and Haas: Ten of the major global environmental challenges are:
1. Acid rain and regional air pollution
2. Ozone depletion
3. Climate disruption [global climate change]
4. Deforestation
5. Land degradation and desertification
6. Freshwater degradation and shortages
7. Marine fisheries decline
8. Toxic pollutants
9. Loss of biological diversity
10. Excess nitrogen
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Acid Rain
EPA
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Acid Rain
• Effects• Terrestrial• Leaches minerals (nutrients, metals) from soil
• Facilitates desertification
• Damages leaves of plants• Aquatic• Irritates gills of aquatic organisms
• Interferes with gas exchange
• Erodes slime layer of fishes• Reduces resistance to pathogens
• Erodes shells of aquatic mollusks and arthropods• Impedes ability of crustaceans to recalcify after molting
• Facilitates release of toxins bound to particles in sediments
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Lu et al. 2010
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Lu et al. 2010
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Air Pollution – Components
• EPA – NAAQS for six criteria pollutants• Particulate matter
• PM2.5, PM10
• Carbon monoxide (CO)• Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
• Sulfur oxides (SOx)
• Ground-level ozone (O3)
• Lead (Pb)
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Piccadilly Circus, Dec. 1952
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Matus et al. 2012
PM10 Concentrations, 2005
Red Line: US NAAQS, pre-2006
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Air Quality (Tropospheric NO2)
Summer 2006
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http://www.nybg.org/bsci/res/bahia/Defor.html
1945 1960 1974 1990
Bahia
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Tropical Forest Loss
• Four major types1) Tropical rain forests
• More than half in Brazil (41%) and Indonesia (13%)2) Moist deciduous forests
• Usually less diverse than rain forests3) Dry zone forests
• More than 50% in Africa4) Tropical upland forests
• Includes cloud forests• Current Status
• Not all tropical rain forests are the same or under the same pressures
• Worldwide – ~66% cleared for agriculture• Africa – Population growth & subsistence farming• Asia – Logging; subsistence farming increasing• Latin America – Ranching; subsistence farming
increasing
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Tropical Forest Loss
Region Land Area
Forest 1980
Forest 1990
Area Change
Annual % Loss
(million ha)
Africa 2236 568 527 -41 0.7%
Asia 892 350 311 -39 1.2%
Latin America
1650 992 918 -74 0.8%
World 4778 1910 1756 -154 0.8%
http://www.fao.org/docrep/t4450e/T4450E0k.htm
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Fresh Water
• Historically limiting factor in arid regions• 1940-1990
• World population more than doubled • 2.3 billion 5.3 billion
• Per capita water use doubled• 400 m3 person-1 year-1 800 m3 person-1 year-1
• Global water use increased fourfold• 2000: USA ~2000 m3 person-1 year-1 (~1450 gal day-1)
A. Current Status• In 1996, world human population using estimated 54%
of all accessible fresh water in rivers, lakes, aquifers• Many people predict disastrous consequences for
world’s fresh water supply in coming years• This potential disaster may have several causes
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Fresh Water
• Current Status1. Distribution
• Uneven compared to population• 75% of annual rainfall in areas containing less than
one-third of global population• Amazon River carries 20% of global runoff through
area containing 10 million people• Congo River carries 30% of Africa’s runoff through
area containing 10% of population• Uneven in space
• North America contains 19,000 m3 per person per year vs. 4700 m3 per person per year in Asia
• <10% of Mexico supplies >50% of annual runoff• Uneven in time
• India gets 90% of annual rainfall during summer monsoon season (Jun-Sep); runs off too rapidly for efficient use
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Fresh Water
• Current Status2. Usage patterns
• Agriculture – 69%• Industry/Energy – 23%• Domestic – 8%• Varies among regions and with development
• Africa – 88% for agriculture (irrigation)• Europe – >50% for industry• Japan – Industrial but uses lots of water to grow rice
• Personal use tracks standard of living• Africa – 17 m3 year-1 (12.3 gal d-1)• Asia – 31 m3 year-1 (22.4 gal d-1)• UK – 122 m3 year-1 (88.3 gal d-1)• US – 211 m3 year-1 (153 gal d-1)
• By 2020, water shortages likely in Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria, China (parts of China already face problems)
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Fresh Water
• Possible Solutions• World may have enough fresh water but
inadequate distribution mechanism• Long pipelines and movement of icebergs
have been proposed• Excessively expensive• Technological limitations
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Fresh Water
• Possible Solutions1. Improved irrigation efficiency
• Drip irrigation reduces losses from evaporation• Cuts water use by 40-60% compared to conventional
systems• Used on <1% of irrigated land worldwide but used
extensively in some countries• Ex: Israel uses DI on 50% of irrigated land
2. Municipal conservation• Infrastructural losses can be substantial
• Ex: 40-70% of water lost in transit in 15 major Mexican cities (similar rates in India)
• Ex: Djakarta, Indonesia could cut water losses an estimated 20% by fixing leaky distribution pipes; would save ~12 billion gallons of water a year, enough to supply 800,000 people
• Higher price could encourage conservation• Ex: Bogor, Indonesia increased water prices 3-4x;
average household water use dropped by 30% in less than one year
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Fresh Water
• Possible Solutions3. Reuse of urban wastewater
• Use of treated wastewater for irrigation• Today, at least half a million hectares in 15 countries are
being irrigated with “gray water”
4. More water-efficient industry• Practiced in industrialized nations.• Amount of water needed to produce a ton of steel ranges
from 23 to 56 m3 in China, compared to an average of less than 6 m3 in US, Japan, and Germany
5. Desalination• 2010: Over 20 billion gallons of fresh water produced
daily in ~15,000 facilities worldwide• Minimum cost = 0.2¢ gal-1
• Current methods of desalination driven almost entirely by combustion of fossil fuels
• Solar powered desalination plants produced only 1.4 million gal d-1 in 2009
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USA Today
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Stratospheric Ozone Depletion
• Industrial processes release halocarbons and other gases into the atmosphere, reacting with ozone and destroying the ozone layer
• More pronounced in colder Antarctic than Arctic• Reduced protection from harmful ultraviolet
radiation• Ozone normally reacts with uv light but is
regenerated• O3 + uv light O2 + O
• In presence of HCs and other compounds that contain Cl
• O3 + Cl O2 + ClO
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Deforestation
• Less than 20% of original forest cover remains in many countries
• Philippines, Madagascar
• Loss of CO2 uptake capacity
• Biomass burning• Decomposition of organic material• Increased erosion/nutrient loss
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Water Pollution – Nutrients
• Nitrogen, phosphorus• Common sources
1) Crop and lawn fertilizers2) Manure3) Sewage4) Detergents containing phosphates and nitrates
• Excessive nutrient loading eutrophication• Effects
1) Plant growth can clog waterways (ecology, navigation)2) Plants can interfere with recreation (swimming, boating)3) Nighttime oxygen depletion4) Nitrate methemoglobinemia (blue baby syndrome)
• Nutrients can be difficult to control once in a system• Recycling and regeneration
• Eutrophied water bodies can recover if sources are removed
• Ex – Lake Washington
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Kiely 1997 Environmental Engineering