global citizenship education in social studies...

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Eğitimde Nitel Araştırmalar Dergisi - ENADJournal of Qualitative Research in Education - JOQRE

Volume 1, Issue 1, 2013

Global Citizenship Education in Social Studies: Experiences of Turkish Teachers and Students in International Conflict and War*

SosyalBilgilerDersindeKüreselVatandaşlıkEğitimi:UluslararasıÇatışmaveSavaşlaraİlişkinTürkÖğretmenveÖğrencilerinDeneyimleri

Arife Figen Ersoy

To cite this article/Atıf için:

Ersoy,A.F.(2013).Globalcitizenshipeducationinsocialstudies:ExperiencesofTurkishteachersandstudentsininternationalconflictandwar.Eğitimde Nitel Araştırmalar Dergisi-Journal of Qualitative Research in Education, 1(1), 7-30.[Online]:www.enadonline.com,http://dx.doi.org/10.14689/issn.2148-2624.1.1s1m

Abstract. Withtheimpactofthemedia,internationalconflictsareincreasinglybecomingapartofbotheverydaylifeandglobalcitizenshipeducation.Thepurposeofthisresearchwastounderstandtheperceptionsofstudentsandteachersabouttheincidentsofinternationalconflictandwar,howteacherspresenttheseissuesinsocialstudiescourse,andtheproblemsteachersencounterinthisprocess.Thisstudywascarriedoutasaqualitativecasestudyresearch.ThedatawerecollectedbyparticipantobservationscarriedoutinSocialStudieslessonsandbysemi-structuredinterviewswiththeparticipatingteachersandstudents.Thedatawereanalyzedusinginterpretivethematicanalysis.Thefindingsfromthisstudyrevealedthattheteachersinthisstudyactedinprotective,emotional,rationalandtentativemodeswhileteachingtheissuesofinternationalconflictandwar.Thestudyalsofoundthattheteachers’behaviorswhileteachingcontroversialissueshadaninfluenceonthestudents’knowledge,skillsandattitudesonthesubject.Inaddition,thestudents’ageandmaturitylevel,gender,socio-economicandculturallevelhadaninfluenceonlearningabouttheseissues.Finally,thefindingsindicatedthattheteacherswhoparticipatedinthisstudydidnothavesufficientknowledgeandexperienceinteachingcontroversialissuesandinternationalconflictandwar.

Keywords:Socialstudies,citizenshipeducation,globalcitizenship,controversialissues,conflictandwar,peaceeducation

Özet.Uluslararasıçatışmalarmedyanınetkisiylegerekgünlükyaşamıngereksedeküreselvatandaşlıkeğitimininbirparçasıhalinegelmeyebaşlamıştır.Buaraştırmanınamacı,uluslararasıçatışmavesavaşolaylarınıTürköğretmenveöğrencilerin

*Thispaperwaspresentedatthe89thNCSSAnnualConference,Georgia,Atlanta(November,2009).

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Cilt 1, Sayı 1, 2013

nasılalgıladıklarını,bukonularasosyalbilgilerderslerindenasılyerverildiğinivekarşılaşılansorunlarınnelerolduğunuanlamaktır.Araştırmaniteldurumçalışmasıolarakgerçekleştirilmiştir.Verilerkatılımcıgözlemveyarı-yapılandırılmışgörüşmelerletoplanmıştır.Verileryorumlamacıtematikanalizileanalizedilmiştir.Araştırmadaöğretmenlerinuluslararasıçatışmavesavaşkonularınıöğretirkenkoruyucu,duygusal,akılcıveçekimsertarzlardadavrandıklarıortayaçıkmıştır.Ayrıcaçalışmada,öğretmenlerintartışmalıkonularıöğretirkenöğrencilerinkonuyailişkinbilgileri,becerilerivetutumlarındaetkilendikleribulunmuştur.Ekolaraköğrencilerinyaşveolgunlukdüzeyleri,cinsiyetleri,sosyo-ekonomikvekültüreldüzeyleridetartışmalıkonularıöğrenmelerinietkilemektedir.Sonuçolarak,buçalışmanınbulgularıöğretmenlerinuluslararasıçatışma,savaşvetartışmalıkonularınöğretimindeyeterlibilgivedeneyimesahipolmadıklarınıgöstermektedir.

Anahtar Sözcükler: Sosyalbilgiler,vatandaşlıkeğitimi,küreselvatandaşlık,tartışmalıkonular,çatışmavesavaş,barışeğitimi

Introduction

Internationalconflictsandwarsleadtovariousproblemssuchasrefugees,poverty,violence,deathandpsychologicaldisordersandthreatensecurityanddevelopmenttodayastheyhavealwaysdone.Oxfam(2005)pointsoutthattherehavebeenmorethan120warsandconflictsintheworldsincetheendoftheColdWarin1989.Today,scientificandtechnologicaladvanceshaveacceleratedinformationsharingatthegloballevel,increasedawarenessofinternationalconflictsandcausedmanypeopletobepartoftheseconflictsinsomeways(Merryfield&Remy,1995).Meanwhile,themediaintroducedinternationalconflictsandwarstotheworldofchildrenaswell,leavingthemfacetofacewithacomplicatedandchallengingsituation(Kreidler,1984).Researchindicatesthatcontemporaryconflictsandwarsranktopamongtheissuesaboutwhichchildrenareconcernedmostregardingthefuture(Srour&Srour,2006),haveanegativeimpactonchildren’spsychologyandcausethemtoexhibitmoreaggressiveandanxiousbehaviors(Barnett,1999;Goldin,Levin,Persson,&Hägglöf,2001),andhaveanegativeimpactontheirpoliticalattitudes(Shamania&Kimhib,2006).

Equippingchildrenwiththeskillstodealwithfutureconflictsandwarsisregardedasoneofthegoalsofglobalcitizenshipeducation.Today,citizensareexpectedtocareaboutglobalproblemsaswellaslocalonesandtobecapableofgettinginvolvedandundertakingresponsibilityinsolvingtheseproblems(Merryfield&Remy,1995;Marshall,2009;Oxfam,2006a;Quillen,1944).Whenglobalcitizensobtaininformationaboutissuesofpeaceandconflict,theyalsoneedtopossessco-operationandconflictresolutionskillsandbelievethatpeoplecanmakeadifference(seeFigure1,Oxfam,2006b,p.4).Therefore,childrenneedtogainaglobalperspectiveandacquirethenecessaryknowledge,understandingandskillstosolveglobalproblems(Marshall,2009).Inaddition,globalcitizenshipeducationissupposedtosupportworldpeaceby

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developingstudents’skillsinconflictresolution(Falk,1994citedinBrown&Morgan,2008).Asglobalproblems,issuesofinternationalconflictandwarareamongthebasicelementsoftheglobalcitizenshipeducation.

Figure 1. Thekeyelementsforresponsibleglobalcitizenship

Source:Oxfam(2006b).Curriculum for global citizenship: A guide for schools.OxfamDevelopmentEducation,UK,p.4.

Theprocessofeducationshouldemphasizeinternationallife,participationandundertakingresponsibilityininternationallifeandinternationalinterdependenciesandaddressproblemssuchaspeace,under-development,mineralresourcesandenvironmentalprotection(Năstase,1983).Whatismore,studentsshouldbeabletocontributetoworldpeacebyacquiringtheskillsforidentifyingandimplementingsolutionstotheconflict,recognizingandavoidingdangeroussituations,evaluatingsuccessfulsolutions,rejectingbehaviorsthatsupportviolence,supportingacauseinanegotiableandcalmmanner,andeliminatingprejudicesandtoleratingdifferencestopreventcrimeintheirsociety(UNICEF,2007).Thefocusofthisprocessshouldbenotonaggression,miseryandfailurebutonhopeandsuccess(Jenkins,1998citedinBrown&Morgan,2008).Internationalconflictsandwarsneedtobegraduallycoveredinthecurriculaofglobalcitizenshipeducationineveryagelevel(seeTable1,Oxfam,2006b,p.7).

SocialStudiesteachersplayanimportantroleinstudents’gainingskillsofglobalcitizenship.TheaimofSocialStudieseducationistoeducateglobalcitizenswhoaresensitivetotheproblemsoftheworld,seeksolutionstotheseproblemsandareaware

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oftheirpersonalresponsibilities(Evans,1987).Coveringcontroversialissuesinsocialstudiesasapartofglobalcitizenshipeducationhelpsstudentsgainsomeskillsandvaluesthatwillpreparethemforthe21stcenturyandsupporttheirdevelopmentasglobalcitizens(Oxfam,2006a).SocialStudiesteacherspreparestudentsforcitizenshiprolesbycoveringmanycontroversialpolitical,social,andsocietalissuesandenablethemthinkcritically,communicateeffectively,acceptdifferentperspectives,beinterestedinconflictsituations,recognizebiasandthinkmulti-dimensionally(Crick,1998;Harwood&Hahn,1990;Hess,2004;Wilson,Hass,Lauglin,&Sunal,2002).Bickmore(1997)statesthatbybringingthesocialandpoliticalconflictsthatoccurinotherpartsoftheworldatdifferenttimesintotheclassroominordertoanalyzecurrentevents,teacherspresenthistoricalissuesanddifferentperspectivesespeciallyonidealsandperformanefficientanddemocraticcitizenshipeducationbyenablingstudentstoencounteranddiscussculturalandideologicaldifferences.MerryfieldandRemy(1995)suggestthatinternationalconflictsandwarsbelongtoSocialStudiescurriculumbecausetheydealwithpeopleandtheircommunicationwithothergroupsrangingfromtheirfamilytotheglobalcommunityingeneral.Also,Yamashita(2006)emphasizesthatteachersshouldcovertheseissuessothatstudentscanhaveabetterunderstandingofinternationalconflictsandwarsandmakemoreinformeddecisionslaterintheirlives.MerryfieldandRemy(1995)statethat,inSocialStudiesclass,issuesofinternationalconflictandwarcanbeassociatedwiththesubjectsofglobalhistory,worldcultures,nationalhistory,management,andeconomy.Bickmore(1993)statesthatstudentsarelikelytohavelessdevelopedconflictmanagementskills,whicharerequiredforcitizenshipinthefuture,unlesstheissueofconflictiscoveredinthiscourse’scurriculum.

TheimportanceofteachinginternationalissuesinensuringpeaceintheworldwasbetterunderstoodafterWorldWarII(Ishii,2001).Atthattime,manyteachingmaterialsconcerninginternationalconflictandpeaceeducationwerepreparedbyinternationalorganizationsandnon-governmentalorganizations(Oxfam,2005;UNESCO,1992,UNICEF,1995).Ontheotherhand,althoughinternationalconflictsandwarsareanimportantsubjectofeducation,somestudiespointoutthatthecurrentwarsarenotexaminedin-depthbuttheyareapprovedoroverlookedatschools(Field,Burlbaw&Davis,1994;Merryfield&Remy,1995)andstudentsdonothaveadequateinformationontheseissues(Haavelsrud,1970;Yamashita,2006).However,studentsdowanttolearnaboutandunderstandtheseissues(Oxfam,2006a;Stabbak2004;Yamashita,2006).Davies(2005b)statesthatsomefactorsseemtopromoteconflictratherthanpeacesuchasnotteachingcontroversialpoliticalissuesatschools,competitiveeducationingeneral,punishmentregimes,fearculture,nationalism,obediencetoauthority,neglectingthecreationofsafeidentities,competitiveandtesting-basedteachingmethods,ontheonehandandteachingdifferentculture,genderandreligionsontheother.

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Table 1.

International Conflict and War in Curriculum

Age Knowledge and understanding (peace and conflict)

Skills(Co-operation and conflict resolution

Values and attitudes(Belief that people can make a difference)

Under 5 • ouractionshaveconsequences

• co-operating• sharing• Starting to look at

resolving arguments peacefully

• Startingtoparticipate

• willingness to admit to and learn from mistakes

Ages 5-7 • conflictspastandpresentinoursocietyand others

• causesofconflictandconflictresolution–personallevel

• tactanddiplomacy• involving/including

societyandothers

• awareness that ouractionshaveconsequences

• willingness to co-operateandparticipate

Ages 7-11 • causesofconflict• impactofconflict• causesofconflictand

conflictresolution–personallevel

• strategiesfortacklingconflictandforconflictprevention

• acceptingandactingongroupdecisions

• compromising

• belief that things canbebetterandthatindividualscanmakeadifference

Ages 11-14 • causesandeffectsofconflict,locallyandglobally

• relationshipbetweenconflictandpeace

• Negotiation • willingness to take a stand on global issues

Ages 14-16 • conditionsconducivetopeace

• negotiation• mediation

• willingness to work towards a more equitablefuture

Ages 16-19 • complexityofconflictissuesandconflictresolution

• negotiation• conflictresolution

• willingness to work towards a more equitablefuture

Source:Oxfam(2006b).Curriculum for global citizenship: A guide for schools.OxfamDevelopmentEducation,UK,p.7.

Researchonthewayinternationalconflictandwarsaretaughtisstilllimited.Davies(2005a)suggestssomemodesinwhichwarsarepresentedatschoolsinacircleofnegativeandpositivepoles:hatecurriculum,defencecurriculum,stereotypesand

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allegiance,warasroutine,andomissionfromdiscussionasnegativefactorsandoftolerance,personalconflictresolution,educationforhumanitarianlaw,dialogueandencounterandactivechallengetoviolenceaspositiveattitudes.(seeFigure2,Davies,2005a,p.23).Kurt(1999)benefitedfromsimulationtechniqueinordertoteachtheBosniawarcrimes.Inadditiontothese,severalotherstudiesaboutpeaceeducationatschoolsreportadecreaseinstudents’prejudiceandstereotypicalthoughts(Biton,&Salomon,2006;Maoz,2000).However,everyinternationalwardoesnotnecessarilybringaboutthesamereactionsforeverycountryandnationandindividuals’perspectivesareaffectedbymanyfactorsfromtheirculturalbackgroundtointernationalaffairs.Forexample,BitonandSalomon(2006)foundthatIsraelichildrenseepeaceaslackofviolencewhereasPalestinianchildrenperceivepeaceasindependenceandequality.Thus,societaldifferencesmustbeconsideredwhenteachingtheseissues.Atthetimeofthisstudy,therewasnoresearchinTurkeyaboutteachingcurrentconflictsandwars.Therewasonlyonestudyconductedwithelementaryschoolteachersaboutpeaceeducation.Accordingtothisstudy,theteachersparticularlyemphasizedrespectfordifferencesforglobalpeaceandclaimedthattheexam-basededucationsysteminschoolsdidnotcontributetopeaceeducation(Demir,2012).Children’sexperiencesintheirsocio-culturalenvironment,family,religionandthemediaandtheirlearningatschoolplayakeyroleinthedevelopmentoftheirperceptionofconflictsandteachingtheseissues.Therefore,thereisaneedtodeterminechildren’sperspectivesoninternationalconflictandwarandteachers’classroomapplicationandpracticesindifferentsocio-economicandculturalsocieties.Thisresearchemergedasaresponsetothisneed.

Figure 2. Approachestoteachingaboutconflict

Source:Davies,L.(2005a).Teachingaboutconflictthroughcitizenshipeducation. International Journal of Citizenship and Teacher Education, 1(2), p.23.

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Research Questions

Theaimofthisresearchistoidentifythefactorsaffectingtheperceptionsofstudentsandteachersabouttheincidentsofinternationalconflictandwar,howteacherspresenttheseissuesinSocialStudiescourse,andtheproblemstheyhave.Thefollowingquestionswere answered in this study:

1. Whatarethefactorsaffectingstudents’perceptionofandinformationaboutthecurrentwars?

2. Whatarethefactorsaffectingteachers’perceptionofandinformationaboutthecurrentwars?

3. Whatarethepracticesofteachersrelatedtoteachingaboutthecurrentwarsinsocialstudiescourse?

4. Whatarethegainsmadebystudentsinsocialstudiescourseaboutthecurrentwars?

5. Whataretheproblemsfacedbyteachersinsocialstudiescourseinteachingaboutthecurrentwars?

TheIsraeli-Palestinianconflict,whichwasmentionedasasampleincidentinthisstudy,hasbeenacurrentissueintheagendaoftheworldsinceWorldWarIIandithasbeenfollowedcloselyinthepoliticalandsocialagendaofTurkeyaswell.TheTurkishmediahasalwaysrecognizedtheimportantplaceoftheIsraeli-Palestinianconflict,whichmeantthattheIsraeli-PalestinianconflicthasbeenoneofthemostcontroversialcurrentissuesinTurkey.However,therehavealwaysbeenopposingviewsonthisissueinTurkeyjustasthroughouttheworld.Meanwhile,thefocusofthecontroversyinTurkeywasTurkey’shumanitarianaidtoPalestineandactingasanegotiator.ThepoliticaldifferencesinTurkeyledtodiversificationinattitudesofthepeopleaboutthiswar.Also,Turkey’ssocialformationwithalargeMuslimpopulationlivinginademocraticandsecularstatestructureandtherolesundertakenbyTurkeyforpeaceintheMiddleEastduringtheincidentsintheareahavecontributedtothecontroversyofthisconflict.ConsideringthenaturalreflectionofthisglobalconflictinSocialStudiescoursecurriculum,thispaperemergedasaresultoftheneedforobtainingdataregardingteachingtheseissues.TheresearcherfeltthattherewouldbesomedifferencesbetweentheattitudesofteachersofSocialStudiesandstudents’perceptions.Therefore,thefocusoftheresearchwasthewaysinwhichtheissuesofinternationalconflictandwararepresentedinglobalcitizenshipeducation,educationaldeficiencies,andthefactorsshapingstudents’perceptionandchallenges.Datafromthisresearchwillpresentstrategiesforteachersinteachinginternationalconflictandwarandinsightsforresearchersforfuturestudies.Inaddition,itwillalsocontributetothedevelopmentofeducationalpolicies,curriculaandtextbooksaboutglobalcitizenshipeducation.Finally,thefindingsfromthisresearchmaybeusefulindesigningteachereducationprograms.

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Methodology

Participants

Thisresearchwasconductedbasedonthequalitativeholisticmultiple-casestudyresearchapproachintwoelementaryschoolswithdifferentsocio-culturalandeconomiccharacteristicsinaCentral-AnatoliancityofTurkey.West City Elementary School (WCS) (code name) wasastateschoolintheoutskirtsofthecity.Itsstudentstypicallycamefromfamilieswithlowerandmiddlesocio-economicstatus.Ingeneral,onlythestudents’fatherswereemployedinthefamilyandthemotherswerehousewives.Theirfathersusuallyworkedascasuallaborersorascivilservants.Theparentswereeitherelementaryorsecondaryschoolgraduates.TheotherschoolinthestudywasNorth City Elementary School (NCS), whichwasaprivateschoolinthecitycenter.Allofthestudentscamefromfamilieswithhighersocio-economicstatus.Ingeneral,boththefathersandmothersofthestudentswereemployed.Thestudents’parentshadhigh-payingjobssuchasbusinesspeople,doctors,andlawyers.Theparentswereusuallyhigher-educationgraduates.

Theresearchincluded6volunteerfemaleteachersfromtheseschools.InTurkey,therearethreehoursofSocialStudiesclassesperweekfrom4th Grade to 7thGrade.SocialStudiescourseistaughtbyelementaryschoolteachersinGrades4th and 5th whereas it istaughtbyteachersofSocialStudiesin6th and 7th Grades. For this reason, the study enrolled4elementaryschoolteachers,2teachersofSocialStudies,and25studentsattendingtheclassesoftheseteachers.ThestudentsinthestudywerechosenamongthosewhoexpresseddifferentopinionsintheclassdiscussionsabouttheIsraeli-Palestinianconflict.Thus,thatmadeitpossibleforthestudytoincludeasmanyvariedopinionsaspossible.Therewere13femaleand12malestudentsinthestudyand13ofthemwerefromlowersocio-economicstatusfamilieswhile12camefromhighersocio-economicstatusfamilies.Amongtheparticipants,fivestudentsin4thGrade,fivestudentsin 5thGrade,sevenstudentsin6th Grade and eight students in 7th Grade voluntarily participatedinthestudy.

Data Collection and Analysis

ResearchdatawerecollectedbyparticipantobservationscarriedoutinSocialStudieslessonsandthenbysemi-structuredinterviewsessionswiththeteachersandstudents.TheobservationswerecarriedoutfromOctober,2009toApril,2010intheclassesofsixteachers.Participantobservationswereconductedandfieldnotesweretaken.Theobservationtimewasapproximately210teachinghours.Eachclasslastedabout40minutes(seeTable2).Therewereintensiveobservationsessionsduringthepeaktimesofconflicts.

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Table 2.

Information about Observation Period

Field School Grade Observation time

Classroomteacher State 4 30teachinghoursClassroomteacher State 5 23teachinghoursSocialstudiesteacher State 6

726teachinghours

24teachinghoursClassroomteacher Private 4 25teachinghoursClassroomteacher Private 5 27teachinghoursSocialstudiesteacher Private 6

729teachinghours23teachinghours

Theinterviewswereconductedbyusinganappropriatevoicerecorderinaconvenientplaceattheschoolsattheendofthetermandeachsessiontookapproximatelyhalfanhour.Duringtheinterviews,thestudentswereaskedwhattheythoughtaboutthecurrentwars,whattheylearntaboutthecurrentwarandfromwhomtheylearntthatinformation,andwhattheylearntinSocialStudieslessons.Ontheotherhand,duringtheinterviews,theteacherswereaskedwhattheythoughtabouttheteachingofthecurrentwarsinSocialStudiescourseandhowtheytaughtabouttheseissues,whatresourcestheyprovidedforstudentsandtheproblemswhichtheyencounteredinteachingaboutthesesubjects.

Researchdatawereanalyzedwithinterpretivethematicanalysis.AlthoughthestudywasbasedonDavies’(2005a)patternsofteachinginternationalconflictandwar,thisanalysisapproachwaspreferredconsideringthattheremightbedifferentteachingpracticesindifferentcultures.Thisisbecausethematicanalysisisbasedontheoreticalpointofviewandatthesametimeitprovidesresearcherswithflexibilityandcreativityinre-establishingthethemes(Braun&Clarke,2006).Datatriangulationwasusedtoincreasethestudy’strustworthiness.Forthispurpose,boththestudentsandtheteacherswereinterviewedandobserved.Inaddition,dataanalysiswasfollowedbyamembercheck.Anexpertwasinvolvedinthepeerreviewprocessduringdataencodingandtheme(Lincoln&Guba,1985).Thestudents’schools,agesandgradesandtheteachers’branches,gradesandschoolswerestatedinpresentingtheresearchdata.Also,opinionsofthestudentsandtheteacherswerepresentedwithdirectquotationsfromtheinterviews.

Findings

Theteacherstendedtofollowprotective,emotional,rationalandtentativeapproacheswhileteachingaboutinternationalconflict.Basedontheseapproaches,Table3showsinformationabouttheteachers’modesofteachingaboutinternationalconflictandwar,perspectivesonteachingaboutconflict,teachersapplicationsandstudentacquisitions.

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Theteachingapproachesfollowedbytheteacherswerefoundtoaffecttheskillsforglobalcitizenshiptobeacquiredbythestudents.

Table 3.

Teachers’ Modes of Teaching about International Conflict and War, Opinions about Conflict Education, Teacher Applications and Student Acquisitions

Teachers’Mode

Opinions about conflict education

Teaching applications Student acquisitions

Protective ItadverselyaffectsstudentsStudents cannotunderstand these subjects

Lettingstudentsrelaxby allowing them to expressthemselvesReducing theirconcernsRaising national awareness

WarisanaturalprocessWars are difficult toresolveWorking hard to avoid this situation

Emotional Children should be taught about warsGuilty and not guilty parties ofwars shouldbe taught

Trying to show the right side

Developingprejudiceand generalization oracceptingtheexistingclichésandgeneralizations

Rational Children should be taught about wars Students should have multidimensional perspectivesaboutthecausesofwarsStudents should think about the solution of theseproblems

Empathizingwithbothsides of the war FocusingonsolutionoftheproblemCriticizingnationalandglobalpoliticalpoliciesDevelopingindividualand national responsibilityEmphasizing worldcitizenship

Being sensitive about theissuesofconflictand war AcceptingdifferentopinionsaboutthesesubjectsUnderstandingthatprejudiceandgeneralizations are wrong Realizing that these problemscanbesolvedthroughcollaborationUndertakingresponsibilityinsolvingtheseproblemsBeingabletocriticallyevaluate national and globalpolicies

Tentative Students should learn about international conflict

ShowingthecausesandconsequencesofconflictAvoidingpoliticalissuesGuiding students towards different learning resourcesDevelopingnationalawareness

Being sensitive about theissuesofconflictand war Evaluating in terms of human rights Democracyisnotpracticedthroughouttheworld

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Protective

ThetwoteachersatNCSadoptedanindifferentmodeofteachingbecausetheydidnotmentionthecurrentwarsinSocialStudiescourse.Theseteachersthoughtthatthecurrentwarsweredifficulttounderstandforstudents(4th and 5thgrades),highschoolentranceexamsinTurkeydidn’tincludeanyquestionsaboutthemandtheycouldadverselyaffectstudents’psychology.Nevertheless,althoughtheseteacherswereprotectivediscourseabouttheseissuesduringtheirclasses,theirstudentsthemselvesmentionedthetopicintheclasses.Forexample,the4thgradestudentsaskedtheirteachersifshewatchedtheimagesofwarintelevisionnewsandwhatshethoughtaboutthem.However,theteacherignoredtheirquestionandtoldthemtofocusonanothertask.Therefore,theteacherdidnotseethecurrentwarsasateachingsubject.Sheexplainedthatshedidnotincludethecurrentwarsinlessonsdeliberatelybysaying,“Actually,I’mnotraisingtheseissuesbecauseIworrythattheyareaffectedbythem…reallydeeply.OfcourseIwatchedthose images. There were awful images.” A 5thgradestudentinthesameschoolstartedadiscussionduringthelessonbyclaimingthatthereshouldbenotradewithIsrael.Theteacherjustwatchedthestudentsdiscusstheissuewitheachotherandthenturnedbacktothesubjectinthesyllabus.Thisteacherpreferredtofocusonacademicachievementandfollowedthesubjectscoveredinthetextbooks.Theteacherexplainedherbehaviorbysaying,“Thesemattersneedtobediscussedonlyaftertheactualsubjectinthesyllabusisstudied.Asamatteroffact,thesechildrenwillbesittingforexamsthisyearandI’mnotsureiftheyneedtheseissuesastheschoolsubjectsaremoreimportantandtheyarejusttooyoung…”

Duringtheinterviewswiththestudentsfromtheseteachers’classes,alotofstudentsjustexpressedtheirfeelingsaboutthewarandsaidthattheyweresorryforciviliancasualties.Forinstance,oneofthechildrensaid“I’mreallysorrybecauseciviliansarekilledtoo…Whatismore,childrenarekilledthere;whatistheirfault?”(Female,WCS,4thgrade).Feelingsympathyforchildrenkilledinwar,theyoungerchildren(4th and 5th grade)wereworriedaboutthefuture.Oneofthemsaid,“Theyusedbombsandchildrenwerekilled.Theydidnotdoanythingwrong.Perhaps,theirancestorsdidsomethingbad…it’snottheirfault…”(Male,WCS,5thgrade).Theteachersinthisgroupadvisedtheir students to be alert and work hard so that their students’ level of future anxiety couldbereducedandtheircountrywouldn’texperiencesimilarincidents.Forexample,ateachersaid“Iwarnthemthatwehavetobealert,workhardandcareforourcountry.Iexplainthatlessdevelopedcountriesexperiencethiskindofthings,sowemustworkhard”.

Whilethestudentswerediscussingthewar,theprotectiveteachersletthemexpresstheirfeelingsandapprovedtheiropinionsbutgavenoinformationaboutthecausesorcourseofthewar.Asaresultofthis,theseteachers’studentscouldn’tgetadequateinformationaboutthecauseandcourseoftheconflictandtheeffortsandmethodstoresolvethatconflictatnationalandinternationallevel.Therefore,forthesestudents,warremainedasanissuewhichiscompletelycomplexanddifficulttosolve.Intheinterviews,mostofthestudentsreplied“Idon’tknow”whentheywereaskedaboutthecauseofthewar.When

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theywereaskedwhethertheywantedlearnabouttheseissuesatschoolthemajorityofthestudents(18)saidtheywantedto.Forexample,astudentexplainedthebenefitoflearningaboutthesesubjectsbysaying,“Ibelievethatweshouldhaveawarenessaboutthissubjecteventhoughwe’rechildren…becauseitisalwayspeoplethatstartwars.Ifwehaveawarenessaboutthesesubjects,thesewarsareunlikelytobreakoutinourtimeas we will be the adults of the future” (Female, WCS, 5th grade).

Emotional

OneoftheteachersatWCSwhoincludedthissubjectinherlessonhadabiasedviewoftheissue.Theteacherdescribedherselfasanationalistandconservativeandherviewofconflictissueswasaffectedbyherbackground,prejudicesandtheculturalstructureinwhichshelivedin.Theteachersaid“They[theIsraeli]believethattheyareAllah’s(childrenandseethemselvesasthechosenrace”andaddedthatshelearntthisfromherteachers,historybooksandfather.Althoughtheteacherdidnotdirectlydeclareherbiasedopinions,shedidnotmakeanyefforttoeliminatethestudents’socialprejudicesandstereotypicaljudgments.Theinterviews,ontheotherhand,revealedthatnotallofthestudentsofthisteacherhadabiasedviewofthisconflictbuttheteacherplayedaroleinreinforcingstudents’opinionsiftheirfamilyhadalreadyabiasedopinionaboutthiswar.Whenthosestudentsfromconservativefamiliesinthisteacher’sclassmentionedtheirparents’viewsofthewar,itwasfoundthattheiropinionsweresimilartothoseoftheteacher.Forexample,astudentsaid“Theytoldinthenews…theystruckourlandagain…about100peoplewerekilled…mostofthemwerechildren…myparentstoldmesoandsometimestheymentionitinthenewstoo…”(Male,NCS,4th Grade). Accordingtoafemalestudentinthesameclassroom,whowereneutralaboutthiswar,ethnicandreligiousdifferenceswouldn’tchangetheeffectsofwaronpeople.Warisdifficultforallpeople,soweneedtohelppeople.Intheinterview,thisstudentsaid,“I’mdeeplysorry...WecannotignoreitwhensomeonedeclaredwarontheFrench,British,Turkishpeoples…becausetheyarealsopeoplelivinginthisworld.Wemusthelpthemas well”.

TheteacherincludedthisinternationalconflictinherlessonbyassociatingitwiththeTurkishWarofIndependence.Whilepresentingthenotionofsovereignty,theteachertoldthestudentsthatthenation’sflagandanthemshouldberespectedandsheemphasizedpatriotismbysayingthatthestudents’ancestorssacrificedtheirlivesfortheindependenceofthiscountryintheWarofIndependenceandassociateditwiththisconflict.Theteacherexplained,“ThiswarappearedasanissueduringthelessonwhenIwastellingthestudentsthattodaywearelivingfreethankstoourancestors.IgavePalestiniansasanexample…theyarenotfree.Theircountryisunderattack…Wewereabletosurviveahorriblewarbutwedonotappreciatewhatwehavegot”.Intheinterview,shealsoexplainedheraimbysaying,“Noonegivesusourindependence;weearneditwitheverythingwegot”.Thisteacherhadaconservativeandnationalistapproachaboutthisissueandstatedthatinternationalwarswereamatterofpowerstrugglebutshedidnotpresentanyinformationaboutthestartorcourseofthewarandshedidnotstatethatthisincidentwasaproblemoftheworldandindividualsand

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countriescantakeresponsibilityinsolvingthisproblem.Theteachertriedtodevelopasenseofnationalunitybymakinguseofthissubjectandpointedoutthatacountrycanprotectitselfagainstthesewarsbybecomingapowerfulstate.

Duringtheclassdiscussionsamongthestudentsaboutthewar,thereweredifferencesbetween the attitudes of the female students and male students. The female students expressedtheirsadnessinamoreemotionalapproach.Theyeitherdidn’twanttotalkatallorgaveresponsessuchas“It’stoobad”,“I’mreallyworried”,or“That’senough;Idonotwanttotalkaboutit”.Onthecontrary,themalestudentsdisplayedastricterattitudesaying,forexample,“Weshouldgoandfightinthewar,too”.Theinterviewsshowedthattheperceptionsofthefemalestudentsandmalestudentsaboutthecurrentwarsandconflictsweredifferent.Forinstance,astudentsaid“Ifeelverybadbecauseinnocentpeoplearedyingatwars.Warisaverybadthing”(Female,NCS,4th Grade) andanothersaid,“Ifeltsorryforchildreninthiswarmost.Theirsufferingdespitetheirinnocencewasverysad.”(Female,NCS6th Grade) The male students, on the other hand,hadamoreself-centeredperspectivethroughwhichtheylookedatthecurrentincidentsofconflictandwarintermsofnationalinterestsandpowerrelations.Someofthemsaid“Theyareattackingus,sowhydon’tweattackthem?”Also,thetraditionalperspectiveoftheemotionalteachermighthaveencouragedthemtoexpresssimilaropinionsmorecomfortably.Whatismore,theotherteachersinterviewedalsostatedthatgenderdifferenceswereeffectiveinmakingsenseoftheseincidentsandtheynoticedthedifferencesinperceptionsofthemaleandfemalestudentsaswell.

Rational

Whenpresentingthissubjectinclass,oneoftheteachersinWCSfollowedarationalapproachandtriedtoensurethatthestudentscouldgainawareness,developempathy,eliminatetheirprejudices,thinkcriticallyandinmultidimensionalwaysanddevelopproblem-solvingskills.Thisteacherstartedthelessonbyasking,“Doyouwatchthenews?What’shappeninginourcountryandaroundtheworld?’TheteacherexplainedthatshemadeuseoftheIsraeli-Palestinianconflicttomakestudentsrecognizetheproblemsoftheworldandfindsolutionstothem:

Mygoalwastoshowthemthatincidentslikethathappenedintheworld.Iwantedthechildrentothinkaboutwhatcanbedone...Weshoulddefendthevictimizednomatterwhotheyareandweshouldwarnthosewhovictimizeotherpeoplenomatterwhotheyare…Wecannotjustignoreinjustice.Thewholeworldisoursandeveryonecanbeaffectedbythisnegativity…

Thisteacherexplainedthecausesofthewar,theworld’sattitude,whatcanbedonetosolvetheproblemandhowtosolvetheseproblems.TheteacheralsoexplainedwhatindividualresponsibilitiesmightbeaswellastheroleofNATOandtheUNfortheworldpeace.Thestudentsofthisteacherweremoreknowledgeableaboutthereasonforthisconflictandthecourseofthewar.Aboutthecauseofthewar,astudentsaid,“Ithinktheywanttoownandcontrolthisland.Intheend,bothofthepartieswantGaza.”

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(Female, NCS, 5thgrade)Thestudentsalsomentionedtheciviliancasualtiesduringthewarandtheweaponsusedinthisprocess.Accordingtomostofthestudents,conflictsshouldberesolvedbymeansotherthanwarsorconflictsandallcountriesshouldworkhardforthat.Theyaddedthatallcountriesshouldbecomeinvolvedinthepreventionofinternationalconflictandwar.Thesestudentsthoughtthatothercountriesshouldhelpapowerlessandvictimizedcountryregardlessofitsreligionbecauseitisinadifficultsituation.TheyconsideredthepositionofTurkeywithintheframeworkofthisthought.MostofthembelievedthatTurkeyshouldspendefforttoendthisconflictandthewarandthereforeapprovedTurkey’saidcampaignandroleasamediator.OneofthemexplainedtheroleofTurkeyandtheworldinthisconflictbysaying“Turkeyisaverycharitablecountry.ItwastherightthingforTurkeytohelpbecauseTurkeyhelpedacountrywhichneededitshelp.Nooneisdoinganything,though…Theworldleaderscouldhavecometogetherandgivenwarnings”(Male,WCS,4th grade) However, some ofthestudentsstatedthatTurkeygaveanemotionalresponse[becausetheyfollowthesamereligion]intheIsraeli-PalestinianconflictbutTurkeydidnotspendthesameeffortforallthewarsintheworld.Also,someofthemdidnotapproveTurkey’sroleasamediatorforpeace.ThesestudentsarguedthatthisistheUN’stask.Forinstance,oneofthemstatedthattheUNfailedtoensureinternationalpeacebysaying“TheUnitedNations should have used its authority. Well, if the nations of the world had been able to cometogether,theycouldhavebeenabletostopthiswar.However,theycouldnotusetheirright.Theyjuststeppedback…”(Female,WCS,7thGrade)MostoftheteacherssaidthattheybecamemoresensitiveaboutthiswarandtookresponsibilityduringtheaidcampaignforGazaheldintheschool.Particularly9/10-year-oldstudentsofthelowersocio-economicstatusschool-WCSwerefoundtobemoresensitive.Astudentsaid,“Imadeadonation…Duringtheceremony,Ifeltempathyforthechildrenthere.Here,wefeelupsetjustbecausewecan’tplaycomputergamessometimesbuttheyareworriedwhethertheycouldsurvivethenextday.Itriedtoempathizewiththem.”(Male,WSC,5th Grade).

Discussionofdifferentaspectsofinternationalwarsinthisteacher’slessoncausedthestudents’sensitivityabouttheissuetogobeyondtheclass.Moreover,thesestudentsstatedthattheytriedtounderstandeachotherandbetolerantwhentheyhaddifferencesofopinioninthediscussionsoutsidetheclass.Forexample,oneofthemsaid,“Irespectmy friends’ ideas. I have this friend who does not think like me. We disagree at some points,butthenwearriveatacommonconclusion...Wehaveopposingviewsabout[Turkey’s]sendingtroopsornot.Isupportitbutmyfrienddoesnot.”(Male,WSC,5th Grade).

Byallowingthestudentstoexpresstheiropinions,theteacherfirstexposedtheirprejudicesandstereotypicalopinionsandthentriedtodestroythem.HavingnoticedthatsomeofthestudentstookthePalestinianside,theteacheraskedthestudentstothinkabout the reason why these two nationsmaybefightingbytryingtosympathizewithPalestinianandIsraelicitizens.Theteacherexplainedherbehaviorbysaying,“Let’sputourselvesinthosechildren’splace.Whatwouldwedoinsuchacase...Whatisimportanthereisnottobeofthesamecolor,religionorfaith;we’retalkingaboutahumanregardlessofreligionorrace.Weshouldhelpanyonefacinginjustice...”

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Thediscussionsinthisteacher’slessonandtheinterviewswiththestudentsrevealedthatforthem,televisionnewswasthemostimportantprimarysourcesofinformationaboutthewars.Inaddition,itwasdeterminedthatthemedia’sviewoftheconflictplayedanimportantroleinshapingtheperceptionofthechildrenandsocietyandtheprejudicesandstereotypicaljudgmentsweremoreprevalentespeciallyonloweragegroups,whodidn’thavedevelopedskillsofquestioningandcriticalthinkingandonchildrenfromconservativefamilieswithlowersocio-economiclevelswhodidn’thaveenoughinformationabouttheincidentandhadanemotionalattitudetowardsit.Someoftheteacherssaidthatsometelevisionchannels’presentationofthisconflictasareligiouswarcausedsomestudentstoperceivethiswarasareligiouswar.Astudent,forexample,toldaboutwhatshesawonTVbysaying“Theyarebombingmosques…Muslimsareusuallykilled.” (Male, NCS, 5thGrade)Someoftheteachersclaimedthatthemediaimagesofwaradverselyaffectedthestudents’psychologyandsaid,“TheyarefrightenedoftheimagestheyseeonTV…Anormalpersoncannotstandit...Inforeigncountries,violentimages,forexamplethoseincludingbloodarenotdirectlypresented.Well,weshowthemost negative.”

Thisteacher’sclassdiscussionsrevealedthatthestudents’familieswereanotherimportantprimarysourceofinformationaboutthecurrentwarsforthem.Whenaskedaboutthesourceoftheirinformation,thestudentsusuallytoldtheylearneditfromtheirparents.Forinstance,astudentsaid,“IlearntfrommyfatherthatthewarbrokeoutbecauseGazaisinIsrael.”(Male,NCS,4thGrade)Intheinterviews,oneoftheteacherssaidthattheconservativefamilieswithlowersocio-economicleveldidnotfollowtheseincidentsbuttendedtohaveanemotionalorreligiousattitudeandchildrenareadverselyaffectedbytheconversationsathome.Theteacherexplained,“Theparentsofstudentknowingaboutthesubjecthavegotjobsandahigherlevelofeducationalbackground.Theyregularlyreadnewspaperorkeepuptodatewithcurrentdevelopmentsthroughothermedia.However,therearealsootherchildrenwhoseparentsdonottalkaboutthissubject…Theyjustdonotknowandcannotsayanythingaboutthesubject.Forexample,theydonothaveanewspapersubscription…”Inaddition,theteacherbelievedthatconservativeapproachesofthefamiliesledtheirchildrentoconsiderthiswarwithreligious feelings.

Tentative

AteacherfromWCSandanotherfromNCSadoptedatentativeattitudewhenpresentingissuesofwarandconflict.Theseteachersdidmentionthiswarbuttheyjustprovidedasuperficiallevelofrelationshipwiththecoursesubjectsandtheyrefrainedfrompresentingacriticalperspective.Aboutpresentingtheissueofwarinthelesson,theteacherinWCSsaid,“Ithinkthatisacrimeagainsthumanity.Thisisaclearexampleofaworldorderinwhichtheweakarevictimizedbythepowerful.Weneedtodiscusstheseissuessothattheycanstandagainstinjustice…andexpresstheiropinions”.TheteacherinNCSsaid,“TheSocialStudiescoursenarrateshistory.WhathashappenedbetweenIsraelandPalestineisahistory.Infact,thechildrenarewitnessinghistory”.

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Intheirclasses,theseteachersdealtwithwarintermsofhumanrightsandemphasizedtheneedforthedevelopmentofdemocracyintheworld.TheteacherinNCSsaid,“Wetrytoteachourstudentstheuniversalsenseoftheloveofhumanity.Weknowwhatbadconsequenceswarcancause.Therefore,Iseethiswarasashameonhumanity”.Intheirlessons,theseteacherstriedtohavetheirstudentsdevelopanawarenessofthecurrenteventsbuttheydidnotpromoteanin-depthanalysisoftheissueandmakethestudentsthinkaboutasolutiontothisproblem.Instead,theymentionedthecauseofthewar,theweaponsusedinthewar,andtheeffectofwaroncivilians.TheymadecomparisonswithUS-IraqandAfghanistanwars.Also,althoughtheteachersdidnotexpresstheirviewsonthesubjectinclass,theyallowedtheirstudentstoexpresstheirs.Ingeneral,theteacherseitherapprovedtheirstudents’viewsorremainedsilent.TheteacherinNCSexplained,“Ichosetoremainsilentwhentheyreactedaggressivelyorwereclearlybiasedabouttheissue.Itisthestudentsthataresupposedtotalk.Wejustpresentedthetopicobjectively.Ontheotherhand,wetriedtoraisetheirawarenessofnationalvaluesandtoldthemtheywerewrongwhentheyrespondedaggressivelyandwithabias”.However,theteacherstriedtochangethesubjectespeciallywhenthestudentsbegantocriticizegovernmentpolicies.Whenthestudentscriticizedthegovernment’spoliciesregardingthiswar,theteacherinNCSsaid“OK.Whydon’twemakeasearchonthissubjectintheInternetandseewhatpeoplethink”andthereforeencouragedthemtoinvestigatethesubjectfirst.TheteacherinWCSjustifiedthisattitudebysaying:

Itriednottodealwithpoliticalissues...IaskedthemtoreadandsearchontheInternet.TheycanalwaystellwhatIcouldnotsay.Wetriednottoenterpolitics.Ithinkpoliticsshouldnotbeallowedineducation,too…Thereisthepast;weallknowitwesawthings,orsawpeoplewhoexperiencedthesethings.Somethingunpleasantmayhappenifchildrenaremanipulated.

TheteacherinWCSjustifiedtheopinionthat“politicalissuesshouldnotbediscussedinclass”bysayingthat“I’mworriedthatstudentscouldbemanipulatedintothevariouspoliticalgroups”.TheteacherpointedoutthemaltreatmentexperiencedduringthemilitarycoupbytheyoungwhowereinterestedinpoliticsandinthepoliticalhistoryofTurkey.Theteacherwasconcernedthatviolentincidentsofthosetimessuchasdisruptededucation,manyyoungpeoplequittingschool,studentsandteacherskilledduringtheperiodofthemilitarycoupcouldhappenagainandsheactedinatentativemanner.ThemilitarycoupsinthepoliticalhistoryofTurkeypreventedpeoplefromdiscussingpoliticalissuesinthesocietyandatschool.Forthisreason,manyteachersandfamiliesbelievethat“politicalissuesshouldnotbediscussedatschool”.Therefore,theteacherswereworriedaboutthereactionoffamilies.Forinstance,theteacherinWCSsaid,“Asamatteroffact,whatwediscusshereinclasscanbeheardbystudents’parentsathomejustlikewehearaboutwhatistoldintheirhomesandthiscancausemisunderstanding.Similarly,particularlywhenthestudentsinNCSmentionedaboutpoliticalpartiesduringthediscussionaboutthisconflict,theteacherwarnedthestudentsbysaying,“pleasedonotusethenamesofpoliticalpartiesandtrytoavoidpoliticalmatters”andthereforeintervenedinstudents’criticizingthegovernmentonthissubject.

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Themajorityofthestudentsofthetentativeteachersbelievedthatitisalwaysthepowerfulattackingtheweakininternationalwars.Thisopinionwasexpressedmorebythestudentsin6th and 7thgrades.Oneofthestudentscriticizedthewarbysaying,“Itisalreadytheendoftheworldifthepowerfulattacktheweak”(Male,WCS,7th grade). The studentsoftheteacherswhoactedinatentativemanneralsothoughtthatthewarsofthiskindwereroutine,theycouldnotberesolved,andtheycanhappenagaininthefuture.TheteacherinWCSexplained,“ThechildrenwatcheditonTVandthemedia…theywatchedthesituationofthechildrenthereandbombsexploding...theyalreadywitnessedtheAmerica-Iraqwar3-5yearsago.Actually,theirfaithindemocracywasshaken.Thebeliefthatthepowerfulwineverythingwasconfirmedforthem”.

Thesuperficialpresentationoftheissuesofwarintheseteachers’lessonsdidnotmeetthestudents’knowledgeneedsonthissubject.Duringtheinterviews,thestudentsin6th, and 7thgradessaidtheywantedtolearnaboutthesesubjectsinmoredetailandtheyhadabetterunderstandingoftheseissueswhentheywerediscussedinclass.Forexample,astudentsaid,“weseetheminthenews,butourteachercantellusbecausesheisclosertousandmoreknowledgeable.Wecannotexactlyunderstandthingsinthenews.Ourteachercantellustillwecanunderstand”(Female,NCS,6th grade). Another studentclaimedthatfuturegenerationswillberaisedasunthinkingcitizensbecauseofnotteachingaboutthesepoliticalissuesandcriticizedtheeducationsystembysaying“wars…weneedtoknowwhattodoincaseofwar…peopledonotlearnaboutanything…theyareunabletocomprehendpoliticsandtheycannotbesureaboutwhattodoandhowtoprepareforthefuture”(Male,WCS,7th grade).

Conclusion and Implications

TheresultsofthisstudyrevealedthatmostofSocialStudieslessonsfailedtoadequatelypresenttheissuesofinternationalconflictandwarsoastoequipthestudentswithglobalcitizenshipskills.Themajorityoftheteacherswereunabletoteachinawaythatwouldhavethestudentsgainmulti-dimensionalthinking,problem-solvingskills,empathyandtoleranceinaninterdependentworld.Whenteachingabouttheinternationalcurrentwars,someoftheteachersdisplayedanindifferentmodeofteaching,someofthemtendedtofollowamorenationalandnationalistapproachandthereforereinforcedthesocialstereotypicalideasandprejudices,andsomeothersconsideredthemaspoliticalissuesandrefrainedfromanalyzingandcriticizingtheminclass.Onlyoneoftheteacherstriedtohavethestudentsdevelopsensitivitytoglobalproblemsandfocusedonthestudents’establishingempathy,criticalthinkingandproblem-solving.Thisresultsuggeststhatteachersdoneedtrainingforglobalcitizenshipeducation.Ontheotherhand,thekeypointsthatneedtobedevelopedinstudentsinteachinginternationalconflictsandwarsincludestrategiesfortheresolutionofthepeacesuchascriticalthinking,rationalinquiry(Levine&Cox,2005),preventionofprejudiceandstereotypicaljudgments(Prutzman&Johnson,1997),problemsolving,toleranceandempathydevelopment.Teachersshouldteachstudentshowtoevaluateissuesofinternationalconflictandwarfromamultidimensionalperspectivethatisappropriatefortheirlevelintermsofhistorical,economic,politicalandsocialaspectsinSocialStudies.Forthispurpose,theyshould

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makesurethatstudentsdevelopnecessaryskillstoaccessandinterpretvarioussourcesofinformationandanalyzetheactionsbefore,duringandafterthewarbasedonhumanrightsandvalues.Moreover,teachersshouldencouragestudentstothinkaboutsolutionsandpeacebyusingclassdiscussionaboutcurrentconflictsandwar.Studentsneedguidancefromteachersaboutthefirst-handinformationsourcesincludingdifferentopinionsandread,observeandestablishempathy.Severalreasonsforteachers’lackofknowledgeandexperienceinteachingabouttheissuesofinternationalconflictandwaremergedinthestudy.Oneofthesereasons,asstatedbytheteachersduringtheinterviews,wasthefactthattheywereconcernedaboutthepossiblepressurefromtheschooladministration,parentsandsocietybecausetheissuesofinternationalconflictandwarwererelatedtopolitics.Anotherreasonwasthat,particularlyin4th and 5th Grades SocialStudiescourse,theteachersusuallyaddressednationalandlocalissuesbuttheydidnotaddressglobalissuesconcerningworldpolitics.Thisresultwasprobablyduetothefactthattheteachershadaninadequatepointofviewofglobalcitizenshipeducationandstrongerperceptionofnationalcitizenship.Thissituationmighthavebeencausedbytheinadequateglobalcitizenshipeducationinteachertrainingprograms.Teachersneedtobegivenglobalcitizenshipeducationtoachievethisgoal.Inaddition,byprovidingaconvenientpoliticalenvironmentandlawstodiscussthesesubjectsinclass,teachersshouldbegiventheiracademicfreedom.

Studentsneedtolearncurrentissuesofconflictandwar,butschoolscannotmeettheirneedsinthisregard,sotheyturntothemediaandthefamilyenvironmenttoacquireinformation.ThissituationindicatesthatinTurkey,themediaisthesourcewhichstudentsobtainmostinformationabouttheinternationalcurrentwars.Findingsfromseveralstudiessuggestthatchildrenlearnabouttheissuesofinternationalconflictfromthemediamost,followedbythefamily(Alvik,1968;Brock-UtnecitedinHall;1993;ConnellcitedinHall,1993;Field,Burlbaw&Davis,1994;Geddie&Hildreth,1944;Oxfam,2006a).Thesefindingsalsoshowthatschoolistheleasteffectiveplaceintermsofstudents’learningabouttheissuesofinternationalconflictandwar.Thisisanotherfactorinstudents’acquiringmanysocialprejudicesandstereotypicalideasaboutthesesubjectsoutsidetheschool.Inaddition,thisstudydeterminedthatthosestudentswhometsimilarstereotypicalideasandprejudicesinfamily,school,themediaandthesocietyadoptedtheseopinionsmoreeasilyandtheseopinionswereintensified.Prutzman(1994)statesthatteachersandparentshaveanimportantroleinpreventingprejudicedstatementsandiftheyfailtomeettheseroles,childrenwilltakethemasmodels,thinkingthatbiasedandstereotypicalideasareright.Pruztmanfurtherstatesthatthesebiasesarenotusedonlyincertaincasesbuttheymayalsocausemoreviolenceandhatecrimes(citedinPrutzmanandJohnson,1997).Continuationofprejudiceandstereotypicalideascertainlypreventsthedevelopmentofsustainablesocialpeaceandnatureatbothlocalandgloballevel.Forthisreason,bycreatingaclassroomenvironmentwherechildrencandiscussthesubjectandexplaintheirthoughts,teachersshouldidentifytheirprejudicesanddevelopstrategiestopreventthem.Bickmore(1997)statesthatteachersshouldbringconflictualsituationsintotheclassroominSocialStudieslessonsandcreateanopenclassroomenvironmenttoidentifystudents’viewsofintolerance,recognizetheirinterpersonalandsocialconflictsandestablishaframeworkforanactivecitizenship

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educationapluralisticdemocracy.Also,Prutzman&Johnson(1997)emphasizetheimportanceofhavingstudentsrecognizetheirownprejudicesandstereotypicalideas.Resultsofthisstudyshowthattoday,ontheotherhand,onlyhavingchildrenrecognizetheirownstereotypicaljudgmentsatschoolwillnotbeenough.Teachersshouldconvincestudentsthatprejudiceandstereotypicaljudgmentsareanobstacletopeaceandprovidethemwithstrategiestocopewiththeexistingstereotypicalideasandprejudicesinthesociety.Studentsshouldbetaughtnotonlyhowtorecognizesuchprejudicesaroundbutalsohowtodealwiththemwhentheyfacethem.

Accordingtotheresultsofthisstudy,thestudents’levelofdevelopmentandmaturitylevel,gender,socialandculturalenvironmentwaseffectiveintheircomprehensionoftheissuesofinternationalconflictandwar.Teachersshouldknowtheirstudentsverywellandplantheirteachingaccordingly.Youngerstudents(age9-11)in4th and 5th Gradestendtofollowamoreemotionalapproachtoconflictandwarincidentsandhavedifficultyinmakingsenseoutofthem.Therefore,thesestudentsaremoreaffectedbytheincidentsconflictandwarandworriedaboutthem.Atthesametime,thesestudentsmorequicklyadoptwhattheyhavelearnedintheirenvironmentandtheyareopentosocialinfluence.Ontheotherhand,olderstudents(age12-14)in6th, 7thand8th Grades areabletotakealittlemorecriticalstancetowardstheinformationtheygainfromtheirenvironmentandtheyarenotinfluencedbythisinformationasmuchasyoungerstudents.Evidencesuggeststhatlogicalreasoningdevelopswithage(Haavelsrud,1970)andfeelingsofyoungchildrencanbevolatileandvariablebutadolescentchildrencanhavesoundideas(Hoffman&Bizman,1996).Asshownbytheresultsofthisstudy,students’logicalreasoningskillsneedtobeimprovedatayoungagesothattheywon’tdevelopananxiousanddesperateattitudetowardstheseissues.

Findingsfromthisstudyalsoshowedthatthestudents’perspectivesonwarvariedbasedon gender. The female students tended to have more emotional and sensitive views of thewarandconflictwhereasthemalestudentsadoptedamoreaggressiveapproachwithmottossuchas‘’let’sgoandfight’.Whilethefemalestudentsexhibitedanattitudemoreopentodialoguebysuggestingthattheremightbeotherwaystoavoidfighting,themalestudentsconsideredwarasinevitable.Studiesabouttheperceptionofwarreportsimilarfindingsregardinggender.Malestudentstendtobemoreinterestedintheincidentsofconflictandwarthanfemalestudents(Geddie&Hildreth,1944;Tolley,1973,citedinHakvoort&Oppenheimer,1993;Frydenbergetal,2001)andfemalestudentstendtoregardinterpersonalquarrelsanddisputes,thingsclosertotheminsocialrelations,asawar whereas male students see war as army and soldiers, things not so usual in their daily lives(Hakvoort&Oppenheimer,1993).Teachersshouldbeawareofthedifferencesbetweenmaleandfemalestudents’perspectives,guidemalestudentsintodialogueandnegotiations,andtrytoreducefemalestudents’anxietyandconcernsbydevelopingtheirskillsoflogicalreasoning.

Anotherfactoraffectingthestudents’perceptionsofconflictandwarwastheirsocio-economiclevel.Thestudentsfromuppersocio-economiclevelwereabletothinkinamorequestioningandcriticalwayaboutinternationalconflictsandwars.These

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studentscriticizedthegovernments,theUnitedNationsandinternationalagenciesfornotfulfillingtheirresponsibilities.Duringtheinterviews,theysaidthatthissubjectwasdiscussedathome.Also,thesestudentswereabletotakeanunbiasedstancetowardstheincidentofinternationalwar.Alvik(1968),statesthatstudentsfromuppersocio-economiclevelaremorecapableofskillsrelatedtoreciprocalreasoningandmoraljudgmentaboutwar.Anotherpointemphasizedbytheteachersinthisstudywasthefactthattheyoungerstudentsfromtraditionalandconservativefamilieswithlowsocio-economiclevelweremoreopentosocialinfluence.Ontheotherhand,thestudentswhoareolderandcomefromuppersocio-economiclevelsareinfluencedlessbysocialeffectssincetheycanevaluateeventscritically.Forthisreason,teachersshouldactknowingthatstudentswhoareyoungerandcomefromtraditionalfamilieswithlowersocio-economiclevelsaremoreinfluencedbythesociety.Teachersshouldknowstudents’socio-culturalenvironmentverywellandbeawareoftheopinionsstudentscanobtainfromthissocialenvironment.

Limitations

ThisresearchislimitedtoonlytheobservationsintheSocialStudieslessonsinTurkeyandtheinterviewdatafromtheteachersandstudents.Nodatawereobtainedabouttheimpactoftheothercoursesandthecontributionofthecultureattheschoolonglobalcitizenshipeducation.Morecomprehensivestudieswhichsimultaneouslyexaminethecontributionofallcoursesinteachinginternationalconflictandwar,extracurricularactivitiesandschoolcultureareneeded.Inaddition,conductingactionresearchwithteachersaboutthissubjectindifferentprogramsmightfacilitatethepreparationoftrainingmaterialsforteachers.

Asaresult,thisstudyactuallyhighlightsthesignificanceofglobalcitizenshipeducationandstudiesinthisareaformaintainingglobalpeaceanddevelopment.Offeringglobalcitizenshipandpeaceeducationwithineachlevelofeducationandcurriculumandinactivitiesbringingtogetherschoolandsocietyinmanycountriesremainsamongtheimportantstepstobetakentogivefuturegenerationsasaferandmorepeacefullife.

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Author Contact

ArifeFigenERSOY,PhD,iscurrentlyanassociateprofessoratthesocialstudieseducation.Herresearchinterestsincludesocialstudieseducation,citizenshipeducation,democracyandhumanrightseducation,andchildren’srighteducation.

Assoc.Prof.ArifeFigenERSOY,AnadoluUniversity,FacultyofEducation,DepartmentofSocialStudiesEducation,26470,Tepebasi,Eskisehir,Turkey.e-posta:[email protected]

global citizenship education in social studies...

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