glass cutter

7/24/2019 Glass Cutter

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Glass cutter

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Nocleanup reason has been speci ed. Please help impro e this article if you can.!"pril #$%#&

This article is ritten like a personal re(ection or essay rather than anencyclopedic description of the sub)ect. Please help impro e it by re ritin* it inan encyclopedic style. !"pril #$%#&

Glass cutter, sho in* hardened steel cuttin* heel !far left&, notches forsnappin*, and ball !on end of handle& for tappin*

" *lass cutter is a tool used to make a shallo score in one surface of a piece of*lass that is to be broken in t o pieces. The scorin* makes a split in the surfaceof the *lass hich encoura*es the *lass to break alon* the score. +e*ular,annealed *lass can be broken apart this ay but not tempered *lass, since itshatters rather than breakin* cleanly into t o pieces.

" *lass cutter may use a diamond to create the split or more commonly a smallcuttin* heel is used made of hardened steel or tun*sten carbide - mm indiameter, ith its cuttin* ed*e *round to a /-shaped pro le. 0ome *lass cuttershold a small amount of cuttin* oil, hich both lubricates the heel and pre entsthe split in the *lass from closin*. When properly lubricated a steel heel can*i e a lon* period of satisfactory ser ice. 1o e er, tun*sten carbide heelsha e a si*ni cantly lon*er life than steel heels and o2er other ad anta*es inuse, such as *reater and more reproducible penetration in cuttin* andconsequently easier partin* of the *lass.

3n the 4iddle "*es *lass as cut ith a tool hich as nothin* more than asharply pointed rod of iron, heated to a hi*h temperature. The red hot point asdra n alon* the moistened surface of the *lass causin* it to snap apart. Thefracture as not ery accurate and the rou*h piece had to be chipped or *ro5eddo n to the e6act shape ith the help of a hooked tool called a *ro5in* iron. Thepresent day 0teel Wheel 7utter, hich is almost uni ersally used, as in entedin %8 9 by 0amuel 4once in :ristol. 7onnecticut.;%?@#= diameter

heel *i es best results. For a duller heel on soft *lass a sli*htly di2erentpressure is required. This is compensated for ith a lar*er heel, %? = indiameter makin* it unnecessary for the operator to chan*e the hand pressure.

The smaller heel, %?8= in diameter, is used for cuttin* patterns, and for cuttin*circles. 1ere the heel ith a small arc is necessary to follo cur ed lines

ithout dra**in*.

" computer-assisted 7N7 semi-automatic *lass cuttin* table is usually used toscore lar*e sheets of *lass, hich are then broken out by hand into the indi idualsheets of *lass !also kno n as =lites=;#< in the *lass industry&.

7ontents ;hide 0ee also

8 +eferences

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and on thicker *lass this may be an issue. Where a ti*htly-cur ed ed*e isrequired care must be taken as *lass ill follo the path of least resistance henseparatin* and may not follo the score, so cuttin* ti*ht corners, small shapesand internal corners may be ery diBcult to perform. 4any internal cuts requirespeciali5ed equipment to be successful.

"fter breakin* the *lass alon* the score it ill re eal the =clean cut= ed*e. 7leancut ed*es on thick *lass may be =splayed=. " splay is here the cut ed*e is ara5or sharp featherin* on the ed*e and e6tra caution should be used here. "tthis point the clean cut ed*e of the *lass panel may be *round to remo e thesharp ed*es or the arris.

General purpose *lass is mostly made by the (oat *lass and is obtainable inthicknesses from %.Amm to #Amm. Thin (oat *lass *lass cuts ery easily ith asharp cutter but needs rm support under the panel because of the pressureplaced on it hen scorin*. Thick *lass such as %$mm (oat *lass is more diBcultto cut and break requirin* considerable skill and stren*th, Ci2erent Glass ithte6tured or patterned surfaces may demand specialised methods for scorin* andopenin* the cuts.

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sli*htly di2erent desi*ns of cutters for such pro)ects that allo for the cutter tond center and s in* an arm ith a steel head around the bottle makin* a clean

score line. There are a fe di2erent methods of *ettin* a clean cut from thispoint. 3t becomes more diBcult than pushin* a*ainst the *lass because it illshatter. There are three popular methods that can be used to make the cut. Thisincludes the rope method, the torch method and the ater method.

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Although all methods include a cold stream, thisis the only method in which to make a cutusing entirely water. Problems that occur inthe rope method and the torch method is thatthe glass becomes too hot too quickly makinginaccurate breaks with large stress lines andfractures in the glass. With the water method,you can obtain an almost perfect cut and at afaster and cheaper rate than almost all othermethods. In this method, boiling water ispoured slowly on the score line raising thetemperature in the glass at a much slower ratethan a re method and will maintain a muchlower temperature. Once the bottle becomeswarm, it is then placed under the cold runningwater for the break. Problems still occureduring this method with sometimes aggededges and stress lines and fractures, howe!er"most methods are a #$%&'$% success rate,where as the water method is about a (#%success rate. Glass

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the material. For other uses, see Glass (disambiguation) .

Moldavite, a natural glass formed bymeteor impact, from Besednice, Bohemia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moldavite_Besednice.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moldavite_Besednice.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moldavitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meteorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besednicehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_(disambiguation)


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Roman Cage Cup from the 4th century C

!ldest mouth"blo#n #indo#"glass in $#eden % &osta Glasbruk, '(4)*+ n the middle is the pontil mark from

theglassblo#er-s pipe+

Glass is an amorphous %non"crystalline* solid material+ Glasses are typicallybrittle and

opticallytransparent+

.he most familiar type of glass, used for centuries in #indo#s and drinking vessels, is soda"lime glass,

composed of about (/0 silica %$i!) * plussodium o1ide %2a)!* from soda ash, lime %Ca!*, and several

minor additives+ !ften, the termglass is used in a restricted sense to refer to this specific use+

n science, ho#ever, the term glass is usually defined in a much #ider sense, including every solid that

possesses a non"crystalline %i+e+, amorphous* structure and that e1hibits a glass transition #hen heated

to#ards the li3uid state+ n this #ider sense, glasses can be made of 3uite different classes of materials

metallicalloys, ionic melts, a3ueous solutions , molecular li3uids, andpolymers+ For many applications
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontil_markhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontil_markhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontil_markhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glasswarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glasswarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kosta-window.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kosta-window.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_diatretglas.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_diatretglas.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cage_cuphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontil_markhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brittlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_and_translucencyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_glasswarehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aqueous_solutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymer


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%bottles, eye#ear * polymer glasses %acrylic glass, polycarbonate, polyethylene terephthalate* are a lighter

alternative to traditional silica glasses+

Contents

[hide ]

1 Silicate glass

o 1.1 History

o 1.2 Glass ingredients

o 1.3 Contemporary glass production

1.3.1 Architecture

o 1.4 Glassmaking in the la oratory

2 !ther glasses

o 2.1 "et#ork glasses

o 2.2 Amorphous metals

o 2.3 $lectrolytes

o 2.4 A%ueous solutions

o 2.& 'olecular li%uids

o 2.( )olymers

o 2.* Colloidal glasses

o 2.+ Glass,ceramics

3 Structure

4 Glass -ersus supercooled li%uid

o 4.1 eha-ior o/ anti%ue glass

& )hysical properties

o &.1 !ptical properties

o &.2 Color
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_Bottleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_Bottleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewear_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewear_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass_ingredientshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Contemporary_glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glassmaking_in_the_laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Other_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Network_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Amorphous_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Electrolyteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Aqueous_solutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Molecular_liquidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Polymershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Colloidal_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass-ceramicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass_versus_supercooled_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Behavior_of_antique_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Physical_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Optical_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Colorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_Bottleshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eyewear_(disambiguation)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycarbonatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyethylene_terephthalatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Silicate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Historyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass_ingredientshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Contemporary_glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Architecturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glassmaking_in_the_laboratoryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Other_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Network_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Amorphous_metalshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Electrolyteshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Aqueous_solutionshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Molecular_liquidshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Polymershttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Colloidal_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass-ceramicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Structurehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Glass_versus_supercooled_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Behavior_of_antique_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Physical_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Optical_propertieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#Color


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( Glass art

o (.1 'useums

* See also

+ 0e/erences

urther reading

1 $ ternal links

5edit6$ilicate glass

$ilica %the chemical compound $i!)* is a common fundamental constituent of glass+ n

nature, vitrification of 3uart7 occurs #hen lightning strikes sand , forming hollo#, branching rootlike

structures called fulgurite+

5edit6History

Main article: History of glass

.he history of creating glass can be traced back to 8/99 BC in Mesopotamia+5citation needed 6 .he

term glass developed in the late Roman mpire+ t #as in theRoman glassmaking center at .rier , no# in

modern Germany, that the late":atin term glesum originated, probably from a Germanic #ord for

a transparent , lustrous substance+5'6

5edit6Glass ingredients

;uart7 sand %silica* is the main ra# material in commercial glass production

While fused 3uart7 %primarily composed of $i!)* is used for some special applications, it is not very

common due to its high glass transition temperature of over ')99


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o1ide %Mg!* and aluminium o1ide %@l)! 8* are added to provide for a better chemical durability+ .he

resulting glass contains about (9 to (40 silica by #eight and is called a soda"lime glass+586 $oda"lime

glasses account for about =90 of manufactured glass+

Most common glass contains other ingredients added to change its properties+:ead glass or flint glass ismore -brilliant- because the increasedrefractive inde1 causes noticeably more specular reflection and

increased optical dispersion+ @dding barium also increases the refractive inde1+.horium o1ide gives glass

a high refractive inde1 and lo# dispersion and #as formerly used in producing high"3uality lenses, but due

to its radioactivity has been replaced by lanthanum o1ide in modern eye glasses+5citation needed 6 ron can be

incorporated into glass to absorb infrared energy, for e1ample in heat absorbing filters for movie proAectors,

#hile cerium% * o1ide can be used for glass that absorbs #avelengths+546

.he follo#ing is a list of the more common types of silicate glasses, and their ingredients, properties, and

applications

'+ Fused silica glass, vitreous silica glass silica %$i!) *+ ?as very lo# thermal e1pansion, is very hard

and resists high temperatures %'999D'/99


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+ !1ide glass alumina =90 E germanium o1ide %Ge!)* '90+ 1tremely clear glass, used for fiber"

optic #ave guides in communication net#orks+ :ight loses only /0 of its intensity through ' km of

glass fiber+5(6

@nother common glass ingredient is >cullet> %recycled glass*+ .he recycled glass saves on ra# materialsand energy ho#ever, impurities in the cullet can lead to product and e3uipment failure+

Fining agents such as sodium sulfate, sodium chloride, or antimony o1ide may be added to reduce the

number of air bubbles in the glass mi1ture+586 Glass batch calculation is the method by #hich the correct ra#

material mi1ture is determined to achieve the desired glass composition+

5edit6Contemporary glass production

@ moderngreenhouse in Wisley Garden, ngland, made from float glass

Main articles: Glass production , Float glass , and Glazier

Follo#ing the glass batch preparation and mi1ing, the ra# materials are transported to the furnace+$oda"

lime glass for mass production is melted ingas fired units+ $maller scale furnaces for specialty glasses

include electric melters, pot furnaces, and day tanks+586

@fter melting, homogeni7ation and refining %removal of bubbles*, the glass isformed+ Flat glass for #indo#s

and similar applications is formed by thefloat glass process, developed bet#een '=/8 and '=/( by

$ir @lastair ilkington and &enneth Bickerstaff of the &-s ilkington Brothers, #ho created a continuous

ribbon of glass using a molten tin bath on #hich the molten glass flo#s unhindered under the influence of

gravity+ .he top surface of the glass is subAected to nitrogen under pressure to obtain a polished finish+5H6 Container glass for common bottles and Aars is formed byblo#ing and pressing methods+ Further glass

forming techni3ues are summari7ed in the tableGlass forming techni3ues+

!nce the desired form is obtained, glass is usually annealed for the removal of stresses+ $urface

treatments, coatings or lamination may follo# to improve the chemical durability %glass container

coatings, glass container internal treatment*, strength %toughened glass , bulletproof glass, #indshields*, or

optical properties %insulated gla7ing, anti"reflective coating*+

5edit6Architecture

Main articles: rchitectural glass and Glazing
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisley_Gardenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisley_Gardenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glass_forminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glass_forminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair_Pilkingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair_Pilkingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_container_production#Forming_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glass_forminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Coatingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Coatingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Coatingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Internal_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Internal_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughened_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletproof_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windshieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windshieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated_glazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-reflective_coatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-reflective_coatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RHSGlasshouse.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RHSGlasshouse.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_recyclinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_sulfatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_chloridehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batch_calculationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=4http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhousehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wisley_Gardenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda-lime_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_productionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Furnacehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-ullmann-3http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glass_forminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Float_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alastair_Pilkingtonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_container_production#Forming_processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Glass_forminghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laminationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Coatingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Coatingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_production#Internal_treatmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toughened_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulletproof_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windshieldhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insulated_glazinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-reflective_coatinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architectural_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glazing


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.he use of glass in buildings is a transparent feature to allo# light to enter into rooms and floors,

illuminating enclosed spaces and framing an e1terior vie# through a #indo# + t is also a material for

internal partitions and e1ternalcladding+

5edit6Glassmaking in the laboratory2e# chemical glass compositions or ne# treatment techni3ues can be initially investigated in small"scale

laboratory e1periments+ .he ra# materials for laboratory"scale glass melts are often different from those

used in mass production because the cost factor has a lo# priority+ n the laboratory mostly

pure chemicals are used+ Care must be taken that the ra# materials have not reacted #ith moisture or

other chemicals in the environment %such as alkali or alkaline earth metal o1ides and hydro1ides, or boron

o1ide*, or that the impurities are 3uantified %loss on ignition*+5=6 vaporation losses during glass melting

should be considered during the selection of the ra# materials, e+g+, sodium selenite may be preferred over

easily evaporating $e! ) + @lso, more readily reacting ra# materials may be preferred overrelativelyinert ones, such as @l%!?*8 over @l)! 8+ sually, the melts are carried out in platinum crucibles to

reduce contamination from the crucible material+ Glass homogeneity is achieved by homogeni7ing the ra#

materials mi1ture %glass batch *, by stirring the melt, and by crushing and re"melting the first melt+ .he

obtained glass is usuallyannealed to prevent breakage during processing+5=65'96

n order to make glass from materials #ith poor glass forming tendencies, novel techni3ues are used to

increase cooling rate, or reduce crystal nucleation triggers+ 1amples of these techni3ues

include aerodynamic levitation %cooling the melt #hilst it floats on a gas stream*,splat 3uenching %pressing

the melt bet#een t#o metal anvils* and roller 3uenching %pouring the melt through rollers*+$ee also !ptical lens design , Fabrication and testing of optical components

5edit6!ther glasses

5edit6Network glasses

@CN"RW %CN*+ Chalcogenide glasses f orm the basis of re"#ritable CN and N N solid"state memory technology+5''6

$ome glasses that do not include silica as a maAor constituent may have physico"chemical properties

useful for their application infiber optics and other speciali7ed technical applications+ .hese include fluoride

glasses , aluminosilicates, phosphate glasses , borate glasses , and chalcogenide glasses +
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_in_green_buildingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_in_green_buildingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-pnnl-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_selenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_selenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_selenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-pnnl-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-pnnl-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic_levitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic_levitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splat_quenchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splat_quenchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_lens_design#Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_lens_design#Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_lens_design#Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrication_and_testing_of_optical_componentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-RWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Greer05-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminosilicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminosilicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borate_glass&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borate_glass&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borate_glass&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CD-RW_bottom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CD-RW_bottom.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_in_green_buildingshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windowhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cladding_(construction)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemicalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boron_trioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-pnnl-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_selenitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenium_dioxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inerthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_hydroxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium_oxidehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homogeneous_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_batchhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annealing_(glass)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-pnnl-9http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic_levitationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splat_quenchinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_lens_design#Processhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabrication_and_testing_of_optical_componentshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=7http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-RWhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Greer05-11http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber_opticshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluoride_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminosilicatehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phosphate_glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Borate_glass&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chalcogenide_glass


12/21

.here are three classes of components for o1ide glasses net#ork formers, intermediates, and modifiers+

.he net#ork formers %silicon, boron, germanium* form a highly cross"linked net#ork of chemical bonds+

.he intermediates %titanium, aluminium, 7irconium, beryllium, magnesium, 7inc* can act as both net#ork

formers and modifiers, according to the glass composition+ .he modifiers %calcium, lead, lithium, sodium,

potassium* alter the net#ork structure they are usually present as ions, compensated by nearby non"

bridging o1ygen atoms, bound by one covalent bond to the glass net#ork and holding one negative charge

to compensate for the positive ion nearby+ $ome elements can play multiple roles e+g+ lead can act both as

a net#ork former % b4E replacing $i4E*, or as a modifier+

.he presence of non"bridging o1ygens lo#ers the relative number of strong bonds in the material and

disrupts the net#ork, decreasing the viscosity of the melt and lo#ering the melting temperature+

.he alkali metal ions are small and mobile their presence in glass allo#s a degree of electrical

conductivity, especially in molten state or at high temperature+ .heir mobility, ho#ever, decreases thechemical resistance of the glass, allo#ing leaching by #ater and facilitating corrosion+ @lkaline earth ions,

#ith their t#o positive charges and re3uirement for t#o non"bridging o1ygen ions to compensate for their

charge, are much less mobile themselves and also hinder diffusion of other ions, especially the alkalis+ .he

most common commercial glasses contain both alkali and alkaline earth ions %usually sodium and calcium*,

for easier processing and satisfying corrosion resistance+5')6 Corrosion resistance of glass can be achieved

by dealkali7ation, removal of the alkali ions from the glass surface by reaction #ith e+g+ sulfur or fluorine

compounds+ resence of alkaline metal ions has also detrimental effect to the loss tangent of the glass,

and to its electrical resistance glasses for electronics %sealing, vacuum tubes, lamps+++* have to take this in

account+

@ddition of lead% * o1ide lo#ers melting point, lo#ers viscosity of the melt, and increases refractive inde1+

:ead o1ide also facilitates solubility of other metal o1ides and therefore is used in colored glasses+ .he

viscosity decrease of lead glass melt is very significant %roughly '99 times in comparison #ith soda

glasses* this allo#s easier removal of bubbles and #orking at lo#er temperatures, hence its fre3uent use

as an additive in vitreous enamels and glass solders + .he high ionic radius of the b)E ion renders it highly

immobile in the matri1 and hinders the movement of other ions lead glasses therefore have high electrical

resistance, about t#o orders of magnitude higher than soda"lime glass %'9H+/ vs '9 +/ !hmOcm,NC at

)/9


13/21

$amples of amorphous metal, #ith millimeter scale

n the past, small batches ofamorphous metals #ith high surface area configurations %ribbons, #ires, films,

etc+* have been produced through the implementation of e1tremely rapid rates of cooling+ .his #as initially

termed >splat cooling> by doctoral student W+ &lement at Caltech, #ho sho#ed that cooling rates on the

order of millions of degrees per second is sufficient to impede the formation of crystals, and the metallic

atoms become >locked into> a glassy state+ @morphous metal #ires have been produced by sputtering

molten metal onto a spinning metal disk+ More recently a number of alloys have been produced in layers

#ith thickness e1ceeding ' millimeter+ .hese are kno#n as bulk metallic glasses %BMG*+:i3uidmetal

.echnologies sell a number of 7irconium"based BMGs+ Batches of amorphous steel have also been

produced that demonstrate mechanical properties far e1ceeding those found in conventional steel alloys+5'/6

5' 65'(6

n )994,2 $. researchers presented evidence that an isotropic non"crystalline metallic phase %dubbed >3"

glass>* could be gro#n from the melt+ .his phase is the first phase, or >primary phase,> to form in the @l"Fe"

$i system during rapid cooling+ nterestingly, e1perimental evidence indicates that this phase forms by

a first!order transition +.ransmission electron microscopy %. M* images sho# that the 3"glass nucleates

from the melt as discrete particles, #hich gro# spherically #ith a uniform gro#th rate in all directions+

.he diffraction pattern sho#s it to be an isotropic glassy phase+ Pet there is a nucleation barrier, #hich

implies an interfacial discontinuity %or internal surface* bet#een the glass and the melt+5'H65'=6

5edit6Electrolytes

lectrolytes or molten salts are mi1tures of different ions+ n a mi1ture of three or more ionic species ofdissimilar si7e and shape, crystalli7ation can be so difficult that the li3uid can easily be supercooled into a

glass+ .he best studied e1ample is Ca 9+4&9+ %2!8*'+4+

5edit6Aqueous solutions

$ome a3ueous solutions can be supercooled into a glassy state, for instance :iCl " ? )! in the composition

range 4Q" QH+

5edit6Molecular liquids
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=12http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bulk_Metallic_Glass_Sample.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_metalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquidmetalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-15http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isotropichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_electron_microscopyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_scattering_techniqueshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-19http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=10http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrolytehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=11http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=12


14/21

@molecular li#uid is composed of molecules that do not form a covalent net#ork but interact only through

#eak van der Waals forces or through transient hydrogen bonds+ Many molecular li3uids can be

supercooled into a glass some are e1cellent glass formers that normally do not crystalli7e+

@ #idely kno#n e1ample is sugar glass +nder e1tremes of pressure and temperature solids may e1hibit large structural and physical changes that

can lead to polyamorphic phase transitions+5)96 n )99 talian scientists created an amorphous phase

of carbon dio1ide using e1treme pressure+ .he substance #as named amorphous carbonia%a"C! )* and

e1hibits an atomic structure resembling that of silica+5)'6

5edit6Polymers

5edit6Colloidal glasses

Concentrated colloidal suspensions may e1hibit a distinct glass transition as function of particle

concentration or density+5))65)865)46

5edit6Glass-ceramics

@ high strength glass"ceramic cooktop #ith negligiblethermal e1pansion+

Glass"ceramic materials share many properties #ith both non"crystalline glass and crystalline ceramics+

.hey are formed as a glass, and then partially crystalli7ed by heat treatment+ For e1ample, the

microstructure of #hite#are ceramics fre3uently contains both amorphous and crystalline phases+

Crystalline grains are often embedded #ithin a non"crystalline intergranular phase ofgrain boundaries+

When applied to #hite#are ceramics, vitreousmeans the material has an e1tremely lo# permeability to

li3uids, often but not al#ays #ater, #hen determined by a specified test regime+5)/65) 6

.he term mainly refers to a mi1 of lithium andaluminosilicates that yields an array of materials #ith

interesting thermomechanical properties+ .he most commercially important of these have the distinction of

being impervious to thermal shock+ .hus, glass"ceramics have become e1tremely useful for countertop

cooking+ .he negative thermal e1pansion coefficient %C. * of the crystalline ceramic phase can be

balanced #ith the positive C. of the glassy phase+ @t a certain point % (90 crystalline* the glass"ceramic

has a net C. near 7ero+ .his type of glass"ceramic e1hibits e1cellent mechanical properties and can

sustain repeated and 3uick temperature changes up to '999


15/21

.he amorphous structure of glassy $ilica %$i! )* in t#o dimensions+ 2o long range order is present, ho#ever there is

local ordering #ith respect to the tetrahedralarrangement of o1ygen %!* atoms around the silicon %$i* atoms+

5edit6$tructure

Main article: $tructure of li#uids and glasses

@s in otheramorphous solids, the atomic structure of a glass lacks any long range translational periodicity+

?o#ever, due to chemical bondingcharacteristics glasses do possess a high degree of short"range order

#ith respect to local atomic polyhedra+5)(6

5edit6Glass versus supercooled li3uid

Main article: Glass transition

n physics, the standard definition of a glass %or vitreous solid* is a solid formed by rapid melt 3uenching+5)H6

5)=6589658'658)6 ?o#ever, the term glass is often used to describe any amorphous solid that e1hibits a glass

transition temperature . g+ f the cooling is sufficiently rapid %relative to the characteristiccrystalli7ation time*

then crystalli7ation is prevented and instead the disordered atomic configuration of the supercooled li3uid is

fro7en into the solid state at . g+ Generally, the structure of a glass e1ists in ametastable state #ith respect

to its crystalline form, although in certain circumstances, for e1ample in atactic polymers, there is no

crystalline analogue of the amorphous phase+5886

$ome people consider glass to be a li3uid due to its lack of a first"orderphase transition 584658/6 #here

certain thermodynamic variables such as volume,entropy and enthalpy are discontinuous through the glass

transition range+ ?o#ever, the glass transition may be described as analogous to a second"order phase

transition #here the intensive thermodynamic variables such as the thermal e1pansivity and heat

capacity are discontinuous+58 6 Nespite this, the e3uilibrium theory of phase transformations does not

entirely hold for glass, and hence the glass transition cannot be classed as one of the classical e3uilibrium

phase transformations in solids+58'658)6

List of unsolved problems in physics
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Zallen83-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Cusack87-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability_in_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability_in_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Folmer-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Gibbs-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_variablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-autogenerated11507-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-autogenerated11507-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silica.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Silica.svghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetrahedralhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=16http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_of_liquids_and_glasseshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translational_symmetryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_bondinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyhedrahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-27http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=17http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-28http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Zallen83-29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Cusack87-30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amorphous_solidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallizationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooledhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metastability_in_moleculeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crystallinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atactichttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Folmer-33http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Gibbs-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-35http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamic_variablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volumehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entropyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enthalpyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_expansionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_capacityhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-autogenerated11507-36http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Elliot84-31http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Horst_Scholze_1991-32http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_unsolved_problems_in_physics


16/21

What is the nature of the transition between a fluid or regular solid and a glassy phase?

56he deepest and most interesting unsol-ed pro lem in solid

state theory is pro a ly the theory o/ the nature o/ glass and

the glass transition.5 ).7. Anderson [3*]

Glass is an amorphous solid+ t e1hibits an atomic structure close to that observed in the supercooled li3uid

phase but displays all the mechanical properties of a solid+584658H6 .he notion that glass flo#s to an

appreciable e1tent over e1tended periods of time is not supported by empirical research or theoretical

analysis %seeviscosity of amorphous materials*+

@lthough the atomic structure of glass shares characteristics of the structure in asupercooled li3uid, glass

tends to behave as a solid belo# its glass transition temperature+ 58=6 @ supercooled li3uid behaves as a

li3uid, but it is belo# the free7ing point of the material, and in some cases #ill crystalli7e almost instantly if

a crystal is added as a core+ .he change in heat capacity at a glass transition and a melting transition of

comparable materials are typically of the same order of magnitude, indicating that the change in

active degrees of freedom is comparable as #ell+ Both in a glass and in a crystal it is mostly only

the vibrational degrees of freedom that remain active, #hereas rotational and translational motion is

arrested+ .his helps to e1plain #hy both crystalline and non"crystalline solids e1hibit rigidity on most

e1perimental time scales+

5edit6 eha!ior o" antique glass

.he observation that old #indo#s are sometimes found to be thicker at the bottom than at the top is often

offered as supporting evidence for the vie# that glass flo#s over a timescale of centuries+ .he assumption

being that the glass #as once uniform, but has flo#ed to its ne# shape, #hich is a property of li3uid+5496 ?o#ever, this assumption is incorrect once solidified, glass does not flo# anymore+ .he reason for the

observation is that in the past, #hen panes of glass #ere commonly made by glassblo#ers , the techni3ue

used #as to spin molten glass so as to create a round, mostly flat and even plate %the cro#n glass process,

described above*+ .his plate #as then cut to fit a #indo#+ .he pieces #ere not, ho#ever, absolutely flat the

edges of the disk became a different thickness as the glass spun+ When installed in a #indo# frame, the

glass #ould be placed #ith the thicker side do#n both for the sake of stability and to prevent #ater

accumulating in the lead cames at the bottom of the #indo#+54'6 !ccasionally such glass has been found

thinner side do#n or thicker on either side of the #indo#-s edge, the result of carelessness during

installation+54)6

Mass production of glass #indo# panes in the early t#entieth century caused a similar effect+ n glass

factories, molten glass #as poured onto a large cooling table and allo#ed to spread+ .he resulting glass is

thicker at the location of the pour, located at the center of the large sheet+ .hese sheets #ere cut into

smaller #indo# panes #ith nonuniform thickness, typically #ith the location of the pour centred in one of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Warren_Andersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Warren_Andersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Gibbs-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Gibbs-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity_of_amorphous_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooled_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-42http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass_transitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Warren_Andersonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-37http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-Gibbs-34http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-38http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity_of_amorphous_materialshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercooled_liquidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-39http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freezing_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melting_pointhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degrees_of_freedom_(physics_and_chemistry)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibrationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotationalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(physics)http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-40http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glassblowinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_glass_(window)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-41http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glass#cite_note-42


17/21

the panes %kno#n as >bull-s"eyes>* for decorative effect+ Modern glass intended for #indo#s is produced

as float glass and is very uniform in thickness+

$everal other points can be considered that contradict the >cathedral glass flo#> theory

Writing in the @merican Sournal of hysics, materials engineer dgar N+ Lanotto states >+++ the

predicted rela1ation time for Ge! ) at room temperature is '9 8) years+ ?ence, the rela1ation period

%characteristic flo# time* of cathedral glasses #ould be even longer+>5486 %'98) years is many times

longer than the estimated age of the niverse +* f medieval glass has flo#ed perceptibly, then ancient Roman and gyptian obAects should have

flo#ed proportionately more T but this is not observed+ $imilarly, prehistoricobsidian blades should

have lost their edge this is not observed either %although obsidian may have a differentviscosity from

#indo# glass*+5846

f glass flo#s at a rate that allo#s changes to be seen #ith the naked eye after centuries, then the

effect should be noticeable in anti3ue telescopes + @ny slight deformation in the anti3ue telescopic

lenses #ould lead to a dramatic decrease in optical performance, a phenomenon that is not observed+5846

.here are many e1amples of centuries"old glass shelving that has not bent, even though it is under

much higher stress from gravitational loads than vertical #indo# glass+

.he above does not apply to materials that have a glass transition temperature close to room temperature,such as certain plastics used in daily life likepolystyrene and polypropylene+

5edit6 hysical properties

$ee also: %ist of physical properties of glass

5edit6#ptical properties

Glass is in #idespread use largely due to the production of glass compositions that are transparent to

visible #avelengths of light+ n contrast, polycrystalline materials do not in general transmit visible light+5446 .he individual crystallites may be transparent, but their facets %grain boundaries* reflect or scatter light

resulting in diffuse reflection+ Glass does not contain the internal subdivisions associated #ith grain

boundaries in polycrystals and hence does not scatter light in the same manner as a polycrystalline

material+ .he surface of a glass is often smooth since during glass formation the molecules of the

supercooled li3uid are not forced to dispose in rigid crystal geometries and can follo# surface tension,

#hich imposes a microscopically smooth surface+ .hese properties, #hich give glass its clearness, can be

retained even if glass is partially light"absorbing i+e+ colored+54/6

Glass has the ability to refract, reflect, and transmit light follo#ing geometrical optics, #ithout scattering it+ t

is used in the manufacture of lenses and #indo#s+ Common glass has a refraction inde1 around '+/+
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18/21

@ccording to Fresnel e3uations , the reflectivity of a sheet of glass is about 40 per surface %at normal

incidence in air*, and thetransmissivity of one element %t#o surfaces* is about =90+ Glass also finds

application inoptoelectronics e+g+, for light"transmittingoptical fibers+

5edit6Color Main article: Glass coloring and color mar&ing

Common soda"lime float glass appears green in thick sections because of Fe )Eimpurities+

$tudio glass or art glass often includes multiple colors, #hich increases the difficulty of production, as each color has

different chemical and physical properties #hen molten+

Color in glass may be obtained by addition of electrically charged ions %or color centers* that are

homogeneously distributed, and by precipitation of finely dispersed particles %such as inphotochromic

glasses *+54 6 !rdinary soda"lime glass appears colorless to the naked eye #hen it is thin, although iron% *

o1ide %Fe!* impurities of up to 9+' #t054(6 produce a green tint, #hich can be vie#ed in thick pieces or #ith

the aid of scientific instruments+ Further Fe! andCr )! 8 additions may be used for the production of green

bottles+ $ulfur , together #ith carbon and iron salts, is used to form iron polysulfides and produce amber

glass ranging from yello#ish to almost black+54H6 @ glass melt can also ac3uire an amber color from a

reducing combustion atmosphere+Manganese dio1ide can be added in small amounts to remove the greentint given by iron% * o1ide+ When used inart glass or studio glass glass is colored using closely guarded
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19/21

recipes that involve specific combinations of metal o1ides, melting temperatures and -cook- times+ Most

colored glass used in the art market is manufactured in volume by vendors #ho serve this market although

there are some glass makers #ith the ability to make their o#n color from ra# materials+

5edit6Glass art

@vase being created at the ReiAmyre glass#orks, $#eden

aper#eight #ith items inside the glass,Corning Museum of Glass

@ glass sculpture byNale Chihuly, >.he $un> at the >Gardens of Glass> e1hibition in &e# Gardens, :ondon+ .he piece

is 4 metres %'8 feet* high and made from '999 separate glass obAects+
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Museum_of_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Chihulyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Chihulyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass.sculpture.kewgardens.london.arp.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paperweight,_Corning_Museum_of_Glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paperweight,_Corning_Museum_of_Glass.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass_worker,_Reijmyre_glasbruk,_Sweden.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Glass_worker,_Reijmyre_glasbruk,_Sweden.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Glass&action=edit&section=22http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vasehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kosta_Glasbrukhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperweighthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corning_Museum_of_Glasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dale_Chihuly


20/21

Glass tiles mosaic %detail*+

@ display atCanberra Glass#orks , @ustralia

Main articles: $tudio glass , rt glass , and Glass art

From the '=th century, various types of fancy glass started to become significant branches of

the decorative arts+ Cameo glass #as revived for the first time since the Romans, initially mostly used for

pieces in a neo"classical style+ .he @rt 2ouveau movement in particular made great use of glass, #ith RenU

:ali3ue , Vmile GallU, and Naum of 2ancy important names in the first French #ave of the movement,producing colored vases and similar pieces, often in cameo glass, and also using lustre techni3ues+ :ouis

Comfort .iffany in @merica speciali7ed in secular stained glass, mostly of plant subAects, both in panels and

his famous lamps+ From the )9th century, some glass artists began to class themselves as in effect

sculptors #orking in glass, and as part of the fine arts+

$everal of the most common techni3ues for producing glass art include blo#ing, kiln"casting, fusing,

slumping, pate"de"verre, flame"#orking, hot"sculpting and cold"#orking+ Cold #ork includes traditional

stained glass #ork as #ell as other methods of shaping glass at room temperature+ Glass can also be cut

#ith a diamond sa#, or copper #heels embedded #ith abrasives, and polished to give gleaming facets thetechni3ue used in creatingWaterford crystal+54=6 @rt is sometimes etched into glass via the use of acid,
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21/21

caustic, or abrasive substances+ .raditionally this #as done after the glass #as blo#n or cast+ n the '=)9s

a ne# mould"etch process #as invented, in #hich art #as etched directly into the mould, so that each cast

piece emerged from the mould #ith the image already on the surface of the glass+ .his reduced

manufacturing costs and, combined #ith a #ider use of colored glass, led to cheap glass#are in the '=89s,

#hich later became kno#n as Nepression glass+ 5/96 @s the types of acids used in this process are e1tremely

ha7ardous, abrasive methods have gained popularity+

@nother techni3ue is devitrification+

!bAects made out of glass include not only traditional obAects such as vessels %bo#ls , vases , bottles, and

other containers*, paper#eights , marbles,beads , but an endless range of sculpture and installation art as

#ell+ Colored glass is often used, though sometimes the glass is painted, innumerable e1amples e1ist of

the use of stained glass+

5edit6Museums @part from historical collections in general museums, modern #orks of art in glass can be seen in a variety

of museums, including the Chrysler Museum, the Museum of Glass in .acoma, the Metropolitan Museum

of @rt, the .oledo Museum of @rt, andCorning Museum of Glass, in Corning, 2P, #hich houses the #orld-s

largest collection of glass art and history, #ith more than 4/,999 obAects in its collection+5/'6

.he ?arvard Museum of 2atural ?istory has a collection of e1tremely detailed models of flo#ers made of

painted glass+ .hese #ere lamp#orked by:eopold Blaschka and his son Rudolph, #ho never revealed the

method he used to make them+ .he Blaschka Glass Flo#ers are still an inspiration to glassblo#ers today+5/)6
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