Abu Mahara rift basin (North Oman) 369, 370Accelerated Mass Spectrometry (AMS) 14C dating 367Adeilo area (Eritrea) 323, 325, 326Adigrat Group (Ethiopia and Eritrea)

basal conglomerate 335fossils 324–5stratigraphy 322–6

Ahnet area (Algeria) 296, 298Algeria

Ahnet area 296, 298ice sheet configuration 305, 306, 307

Andvord Drift (Gerlache Strait, Antarctica) 71, 72–3,75, 76, 79, 80

Antalo Limestone (Ethiopia and Eritrea) 149Antarctic Circumpolar Current 58, 82Antarctic Ice Sheet

formation 58sediment deformation 58sediment transport/deposition 58, 59thermomechanical modelling 4, 6

Antarctic Oscillation (AO) 81Antarctic Peninsula, glaciomarine deposits 369, 372antidune formation 99, 100, 101–2, 103

bed aggradation 104Oak Ridge Moraine 105

ANTOSTRAT project 260aquifers, Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada) 105–6Arena Formation (Greenland) 382Atmospheric Convergence Line (ACL) 81Aurora Lake (Antarctica) 6Ayn Formation (Dhofar, south Oman) 380, 381

barform foreset 94, 95, 96, 97, 104compound 96

basal freeze-on mechanisms 360, 361basin slope settings, glaciomarine successions 369, 370Bear Island (Barents Sea) 357Bear Island Trough (Norwegian–Greenland Sea) 56,

57bed deformation, glacier basal motion 23bedding, moraine–mound complex 16bedforms, climbing 104BEDMAP topographic dataset 4bedrock

drumlins 168, 172, 174, 175depth to 173–4elevation 168, 172

elevation equation 39

Index

Note: page numbers in italics refer to figures, those in bold refer to tables

exposure in Ennerdale (English Lake District) 251greywacke 168, 172, 175

biosiliceous facies, laminations 68bioturbation

clay grain orientation 151condition in Antarctic 68post-depositional alteration 160–1silt-clay rhythmites 158

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) xvii, 203–29age 227–8calcium carbonate-equivalent content 211channels 223, 224

incision 222orientation 221

colour determination 207, 211, 212conduits 206, 223cross-bed orientation 207diamicton 209, 212, 227diapirism 212drainage system 223faulting 223flint clasts 207, 209, 216–17, 225, 226flow direction 206, 218, 220, 221, 224fluid flow 212–13formation environment 223–4geomorphology 204, 206, 207, 208glaciofluvial deposition 210, 223gravel 206–7, 212, 213, 215, 216, 224

exotic 225–6orientation 218, 219, 220

ice sheet margin 224internal stratification 214inverse grading 218lithology 207, 210, 220–1, 224–7, 228, 229origin 222–3palaeoflow direction 221–2particle size distribution 207, 209, 213, 214, 215, 218,

224penultimate cold stage 206Quaternary sediment 206, 207sand 209–10, 212, 214, 215, 216, 221sediment

age 227–8entrainment 225provenance 224–7

stratigraphy 208subglacial conduit 206subglacial formation 223

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402 Index

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) (cont’d )subglacial valley 226–7tills 227transport of particles 218trough cross-stratified sand 214, 215Unit 1 209, 220–1Unit 2 209–10, 220–1Unit 3 210–12, 220–1Unit 4 212–14, 221–2Unit 5 214–16, 221–2Unit 6 221–2Wolstonian age 205–6

boulder drift, Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire)189

braid deposits, glaciofluvial 144Briton’s Lane Sand and Gravel Member 228, 229Byrd Glacier (Antarctica), drainage basin 4, 8

13C depleted carbonates 34614C AMS dating 367calcium carbonate–equivalent, Blakeney Esker

(Norfolk, UK) 211cap carbonates 346–7Cape Roberts Project (Ross Sea, Antarctica) xviii,

259–87Cape Roberts sedimentary units 265–73Cenozoic section chronology 266–8Chemical Index of Alteration 278, 279climate trends 277–80conglomerate 269–70, 270–1core description/analysis 264–5cycles 275, 276diamictite 271–2, 278, 280diamicton 268, 272–3Eocene–Oligocene boundary 267–8facies 265, 269, 270, 273, 286–7fossils 279–80geological setting 261glacial facies 278–9glacial scenarios 274, 276Granite Harbour 262grounded off shore ice 271, 278–9interglacial scenarios 274, 276lithologic log 265, 266lithostratigraphical units 265magnetostratigraphy 267, 268mudstone 271–2, 280Oligocene–Miocene boundary 266orbital forcing 275, 276oxygen isotope record 278palynomorphs 279–80quartz sandstone 268–9Quaternary deposits 268regional setting 262, 263, 264

sand 268, 280sandstone 268–9, 270–3, 279sanidine 268sea level cycles 276–7seismic stratigraphy 262, 263, 264sequence stratigraphic model 265sequence stratigraphy 273, 275–7tephras 268water-depth variations 277

carbon cycling 346–7Carstairs esker ridges (Scotland) 178–9

boulder gravels 189Cenozoic

Cape Roberts Projectchronology 266–8facies 269, 270, 286–7

climate history 260, 382East Antarctic Ice Sheet 38glacial cycles 273, 275, 369, 371, 373, 374–9, 380glacial epoch duration 369, 371, 373, 374–9, 380glaciation 344, 345ice-sheet variations 38sea-level cycles 273, 275Transantarctic Mountains 262

channel(s)Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 221, 222, 223, 224braided 199Ennerdale (English Lake District) river sediments

241with glacial deposits from late Ordovician 336meltwater flow 184Röthlisberger 223, 224see also conduit

Chemical Index of Alteration (CIA) 278, 279depositional cycles 373, 380

chlorite 278chute and pool regime 102, 104circumpolar current see Antarctic Circumpolar

Currentclast(s)

fabric analysis 363–4flint at Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 207, 209,

216–17, 225, 226gravel alignment 363outsize at Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province,

Ethiopia) 330, 332, 333, 334roundness measurements 239striated 367

clast ploughing 23–33drag force 28, 30–1, 32experiments 28–32ice–bed coupling 24laboratory apparatus 24–6pore-water pressure 28, 30, 31–2

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sedimentcompression test 27consolidation 29–30properties 26–8yield strength 31–2

triaxial tests 27–8clay

illite/chlorite content 278mineralogy 279

climateCenozoic of Victoria Land coast (Antarctica) 259–81cooling 112Holocene warming 117Neoproterozoic change 373, 380soil surface temperature control 110trends at Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 277–80

climatically forced retreatsice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 40–4sensitivity experiments 40–4

climbing ripplescross-stratification 136, 137–8, 143Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 332–3,

336–7megaripples in North Gondwana Platform (North

Africa) 309, 310clinoforms, Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada)

96–7coal, Ricker Hills nunatak (Victoria Land, Antarctica)

291, 292compression

forces in thrust-moraine formation 250, 251sediment tests 27see also thrusting

Concordia, Lake (Antarctica) 6drainage 7–8

conduitBlakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 223deposits 105–6destabilisation with glacier advances 123glacial in North Sea Basin 227ice-roofed 104subglacial 226

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 206see also channel(s)

conglomerateCape Roberts (Ross Sea, Antarctica) 269–71North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 298

continental shelves, glaciated land masses 45continental slope failures, submarine 347Contorted Drift 203, 205Coppenbrügge fan systems (Lake Rinteln, northern

Germany) 125, 130, 136–8, 141, 143climbing ripple sequences 137–8palaeoflow direction 136, 137–8, 141

Cordilleran Ice Sheet 60Croker Passage (Gerlache Strait, Antarctica) 79, 80Cromer ridge (Norfolk, UK) 206Cromer Till 205cross-stratification

antidune 99, 100, 101–2, 104climbing dune-scale 97–9, 104–5climbing ripple 136, 137–8, 143large-scale 94–5

low-angle clinoforms 96–7medium-scale

bimodal/openwork gravel 95–6climbing 97–9planar-tabular 92

Oak Ridge Moraine 105sands

Blakeney esker 214, 215Newbigging eskers 186, 187, 188, 189, 190

Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada) 92, 93, 94–9,100, 101–2

currentsGerlache Strait (Antarctica) 70, 72, 72, 79, 80turbidity 151, 158

Cwm Idwal (North Wales) 252thrust moraines 250, 253

cymatiosphaerid marine algae 278, 279–80

deltasGilbert-type glaciofluvial 380, 381Lake Rinteln (Germany) 123, 125see also fan deposits

depocentres, Algeria 306, 307depositional cycles 373, 380Devensian

glaciolacustrine sediments in Ireland 149–62tills 228

Devonian, quartz sandstone 268–9diamictite

Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 271–2, 278, 280Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia)

329–31, 332, 333, 335, 336, 337melt-out 338

glaciomarine deposits 311Neoproterozoic successions 369, 380, 381North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 308,

310–11palaeoenvironmental discrimination of facies 347,

348–56, 357, 358–9, 360–1, 362, 363–5, 366, 367Petrovbreen (Svalbard) 363, 380Ricker Hills nunatak (Victoria Land, Antarctica)

290–2Svalbard 362, 363Udden-Wentworth particle-size scale 363Wilsonbreen (Svalbard) 362, 363

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diamictonBlakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 209, 212, 227Cape Roberts Project (Antarctica) 268, 272–3Ennerdale (English Lake District) 239–41, 244,

245ice-roofed conduit 104Kelling deposits 227moraine–mound complex facies 13, 14, 19, 20Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 182, 184,

192Salthouse deposits 227

diapirism, Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 212Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) 12, 17, 18dolerite, Ricker Hills nunatak (Victoria Land,

Antarctica) 290–1dolomite, Palaeoproterozoic pavement 258Dome C (East Antarctica) 3, 4

drainage pathways 7–8lakes 5, 7–8thermomechanical modelling 4, 6

drag force, clast ploughing 28, 30–1, 32drainage event, catastrophic 124, 143, 144dropstones 157, 159, 186

glaciotectonic structures 367Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 186, 188

drumlin(s) 365bedrock 168, 172, 174, 175

depth to 173–4elevation 168, 172

borehole logs 168, 171–2, 175Co. Down (Northern Ireland) 165–76

field site 166, 167seismic refraction surveys 167–8

depth to interfaces 175electrical resistivity surveys 168, 169, 170, 171, 172,

173, 175–6error estimation 175facies associations 165–6, 173, 174, 176field observations 168, 171–2formation 174geophysical estimates 174–5greywacke bedrock 168, 172, 175groundwater discharge 172, 173hydraulic conductivity 172, 173hydraulic gradients 173ice flow rate 174internal architecture xvii, 166–7, 171–2permeability testing 172resistivity gradient 174seismic refraction surveys 169, 170, 171, 172,

175–6seismic velocity 172subglacial lodgement, melt-out, debris flow, sheet

flow facies 176

tills 168, 172–3, 175moisture levels 175saturated 173, 174

topsoil 170, 172–3drumlinisation 174

Northern Ireland 165Dry Valleys (Antarctica)

flooding events 8Quaternary diamicton 273

dunesclimbing 98–9climbing dune-scale 97–9, 104–5sub-marine complex 339

East Antarctic Ice Sheet (EAIS) xviiiglacial phases 289ice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 37–51Lambert–Amery system 58water flow 3–9

Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 321Adi MaEkheno member 324–5, 327, 339Adi Mekeda section 327, 334Betbey section 334, 338boundary relationships 327, 328, 329climbing ripples 332–3, 336–7deposition 336–8diamictite 332, 333, 335, 336, 337

massive, matrix-supported 329–30melt-out 338poorly stratified, poorly sorted 330–1

facies types 329–32distribution 338

fossils 324–5, 334, 339glacigenic succession 338icebergs 338Mawray section 334, 338Mendefera section 335, 337, 338, 339mudstone 334, 335, 338

horizontally laminated 330, 331–2ice-rafted debris-bearing 337massive structureless 330, 332

outsize clasts 330, 332, 333, 334post-glacial development 338–9reverse soft-sediment faults 333sand-mud couplets 330, 331sandstone 334, 335, 336, 338

horizontally laminated 330, 331massive 330, 331ripple-cross laminated 330, 331soft-sediment deformed 330, 331

soft-sediment deformation 330, 331, 333, 337, 338stratigraphy 322–6subaqueous origin 337sub-marine dune complex 339

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thickness variation 329turbidites 336Zeare section 334–5, 337, 338

El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) 81electrical resistivity surveys, drumlins 168, 169, 170,

171, 172, 173, 175–6Ennerdale (English Lake District) 235–54

bedrock exposures 251clast-roundness measurements 239Cwm Idwal (North Wales) comparison 252debris transport pathways 239diamicton 239–41, 244, 245dump moraine formation 247englacial thrusting 248–9, 250geological description 237–8geomorphological mapping 238–9glacier 251–2, 253gravel 239–41, 244, 245ice stagnation 247–8, 249ice-margin recession 246–7Kirk Fell 250, 251, 252lithofacies 239–41, 242, 244, 248, 249matrix grain-size distribution 240passively transported sediment 247process-form model 251–2river channel sediments 241sand 241, 244scree sediments 241sedimentary facies 239–41sediment–landform associations 241–2, 243,

244–50stagnation deposit 252subglacial sediments 251

deformation 245–6thrust-moraine

formation 250–1preservation 251

Tongue oblique ridges 238, 241, 242, 245, 246, 249,251, 252

valley-floor moraine–mound complex 245–9origin 252thrust sediment 251

valley-side moraine–mound complex 241–2, 243,244–9

thrusting 251valley-side subdued ridges 244–6

Enticho Sandstone (Ethiopia and Eritrea)boundary relationships 327, 328, 329stratigraphy 322–6subaqueous origin 337thickness 336

entrainment see sediment entrainmentEocene conglomerate at Cape Roberts (Ross Sea,

Antarctica) 269–70

Eocene–Oligocene boundary, Cape Roberts(Antarctica) 267–8

sandstone 270–1Eritrea

glacigenic succession 327, 328, 329–35development 338

Gondwana Platform deposits xviii–xixice flow 304Ordovician glaciation 321–40post-glacial development 338–9pre-glacial morphology 336

erosionfan head 134glacial surface 275, 298, 299, 300, 301, 305ice sheets 53–63North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 298, 299,

300, 301, 305scours 102varve formation 161

erratics, Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 184eskers xvii, 105

beaded 178complex systems 177Lake Riada (Ireland) 151, 152multiple anastamosing/braided ridges 178Newbigging system (Lanarkshire) 177, 179–200North Sea Basin 203–29single ridge 178supraglacial sedimentation 177–8types 178

esker–subaqueous fan deposits 102, 104–5, 106Ethiopia

glacigenic succession 327, 328, 329–35, 338Gondwana Platform deposits xviii–xixice flow 304Ordovician glaciation 321–40post-glacial development 338–9pre-glacial morphology 336

Eurasian Ice Sheet, subglacial sediment 55–8European Ice Sheet Modelling Initiative (EISMINT) 53

fan depositsCoppenbrügge (Lake Rinteln, Germany) 125, 130,

136–8, 141, 143esker-subaqueous 102, 104–5, 106fan-head aggradation/erosion 134grounding line 123ice-contact 143

nested 250ice-margin subaqueous 121–44ice-stream 309, 310Isfjorden (Svalbard) 357Neoproterozoic successions 347, 357, 358–9Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 182, 189

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fan deposits (cont’d )North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 309,

310–11outwash 227, 312Prydz Bay (EAIS) 58Scoresby Sund (Greenland) 357stacking patterns 136–8Storfjorden (Svalbard) 357subaqueous xvii, 104

depositional processes 129–30, 131–3, 134, 135,136

high discharge phases 134Lake Rinteln (Germany) 121, 123–44Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 186, 189,

194–5, 196, 197–8, 199Norwegian–Greenland Sea 55, 56, 57sedimentation 125, 126–7, 128–30, 131–3, 134,

135, 136–8, 139–40, 141–3trough mouth fans 56, 57

faults/faultingBlakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 223glaciotectonic structures 367moraine-mound complex sediments 16, 17, 18, 20Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 194reverse soft-sediment 333

felsite, Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 184flint clasts, Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 207, 209,

216–17, 225, 226flocculation

glaciolacustrine sedimentation 151, 160shear stress 160

floodingice-stream outwash fan 309, 310outburst 8–9

flowline, marine-margin 37–51climatically forced retreats 40

flow-paths, subglacial 3, 4, 6calculation 4prediction 5

flutes 365folding

glaciotectonic structures 367moraine-mound complex 13, 16, 17–18, 20Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 192, 193,

194foraminifera

Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 272–3Mg/Ca ratios 278

fossilsAdigrat Group (Ethiopia and Eritrea) 324–5Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 272–3, 278, 279–80Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 324–5,

334, 339freezing point depression, soil 111

Gaskiers glacial epoch 345, 346Gerlache Strait (Antarctica) xvi

age model 79bathymetry 69, 70, 71, 72blockage 79, 80–1, 81CTD (conductivity, temperature and depth) 70, 71,

72, 73, 79currents 70, 72, 72, 79, 80, 81estuarine conditions 81–2glaciomarine sediment drifts 67–82magnetic susceptibility 76, 81oceanic condition variability 80–1regional setting 70, 71, 72–3sediment

drifts 71, 72–3, 75, 76, 79–80laminations 81, 82

sedimentary facies 76, 78, 79, 80, 81–2sedimentation rate 79, 80–1surface salinity 80tide model 73–5tides 79, 80, 81water mass characteristics 70water stratification 81–2

Germany, northernepisodic permafrost development 109–18glacial processes 117–18ice-margin subaqueous fans 121–45mean annual ground temperature 111–13, 114,

115–16past climate 110permafrost reconstruction 111–13, 114, 115salt domes 115–17, 118

Ghadir Manqil Formation (North Oman) 369, 370

depositional cycles 373Gilbert-type glaciofluvial delta system 380, 381glacial epochs, duration 369, 371, 373, 374–9,

380glacial event, world-wide xiiglacial processes, northern Germany 117–18glacial shear zone 300glacial stress, field orientation 289–93glacial troughs, Algeria 305, 306, 307glaciated-valley landsystem 235–54glaciation, Ross Sea (Antarctica) record 260glaciers

advance 313bottom topography 122calving rate 122catastrophic retreats 122cold-based 360, 361dynamics xvEnnerdale (English Lake District) 251–2grounding line zone 122–3

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ice marginretreat 138stability 122

ice-deformation structures 253ice-front fluctuation 122jet efflux deposition 143–4longitudinal flow compression 250pinning points 122polythermal 248, 250–1, 357, 360retreat 253, 313–14

climatically-forced 40– 4subaqueous fans 122, 138supraglacial deposition 363

stagnation deposit 252subglacial debris 361subglacial meltwater outbursts 144supraglacial debris 361, 363temperate 251, 360thermal regimes 60, 62, 122–3, 360thrusting initiation 250–1warm-based 251, 360

glacigenic succession, Ethiopia/Eritrea 327, 328,329–35

glacimarine strata, Cenozoic of Victoria Land coast(Antarctica) 259–81

glacio-eustatic processes 305glaciofluvial deposition 9

Banc-y-Warren (Cardigan, UK) 66Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 210, 223braid plain 144Lake Riada (Ireland) 151–62moraine-mound complex 16, 19–20

glaciohydraulic supercooling 361glacio-isostatic processes 305, 308glaciolacustrine sedimentation xvii

climbing cross-stratification 99flocculation 151Late Devensian 149–62

glaciomarine depositsdiamictite 311North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 310, 312sediment drifts 67–82sedimentary sequences 359, 369, 370, 372, 373sequence stratigraphy 358successions in basin slope settings 369, 370thickness 367–9, 370, 371

glaciotectonic structures 365, 366, 367North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 300, 301thrusting 311

Glaven Valley (Norfolk) 203, 204, 223cannon-shot gravels 227deposits 205palaeovalley 226–7subglacial conduit 226

GLIMMER software 53gravel

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 206–7, 212, 213, 215,216, 224

exotic 225–6orientation 218, 219, 220

boulder 189cannon-shot 227Ennerdale (English Lake District) 239–41, 244, 245moraine-mound complex 15–16

sandy 13, 14, 15, 19Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 182, 184,

187, 188, 189, 190, 191–2, 194reworked beach deposits 226

gravitational load 311Great Gable (Ennerdale, English Lake District) 251greywacke bedrock 172

drumlins 168, 175grounding line

fan deposits 123glaciers 122–3ice sheets 39, 44–5

ground-penetrating radar (GPR) 124–5groundwater

flowdrumlins 172, 173ice sheets 115

salt dome vicinity 116Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada) 105–6

Harland, Brian xi–xiiiHawkesville Spur (Waterloo Moraine, Ontario,

Canada) 87, 88–89, 90aquifer 105barform foreset 104cross-stratification 92, 93, 95, 104palaeoflow direction 104

heat flowdensity in permafrost development 113, 114, 115, 117from interior of Earth 112transfer in ground-water flow under ice sheets 115

Heinrich layers 60, 62High Atlas (Morocco), glaciated shelf 310–11high obliquity theory 343–4Hirnantian glaciation

cycles/phases 300, 302–4, 310–11glacial maximum 303–4, 305, 308ice sheet size 303–4ice-stream-related depositional systems 307–11multiphase event 302, 303North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 304–5,

306, 307sea level fall due to isostatic rebound 312syn-glacial strata 312

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Holocenebioturbated sediments 68climatic warming 117

hummocky moraine see moraine-mound complexhydraulic conductivity, drumlins 172, 173hydraulic diffusivity of sediment 32hydraulic gradients, drumlins 173hydraulic jumps 102, 142, 143hydrocarbons, glacial processes 118hydrological pathways, warm-based 4, 6hydrological shutdown, Snowball Earth hypothesis

382

icebubbly 16buried facies 13, 16, 20continuity equation 54floating tongues 122glacial deformation 253grounded off shore 271, 278–9sikussak 382stagnation in Ennerdale (English Lake District)

247–8, 249temperature equation 39see also sea ice

ice cliffs 122ice flow

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) direction 206, 218,220, 221, 224

direction from ice sheets 59–60Eritrea/Ethiopia 304models 4, 6, 54, 55, 60notation/nominal values 50rate in drumlin formation 174terrestrial 38–9thermodynamic component of model 60thermomechanical modelling 4, 6thrust-moraine formation 250unstable 60, 62velocity 9

ice frontcalving 122North Gondwana Platform (North Africa)

migrations 304recession 314

ice lobesLake Riada (Ireland) 151Lake Rinteln (Germany) 123

ice margindeposits 123–4fluctuations 124, 197Lake Rinteln (Germany) subaqueous fans 121–44landforms 236, 246–7macroscopic deformation structures 367

Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 197North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 302,

303recession 246–7retreat 138, 142, 143thrusting 250

ice mass advection equation 39ice sheet(s)

abrasion 53–63advance in North Gondwana Platform

(North Africa) 310Antarctic fluctuations 280configuration in Algeria 305, 306, 307decay 57flow equations 38–9grounding line 39

retreats 44–5ground-water flow 115Heinrich layers 60, 62ice flow direction 59–60ice-rafted debris deposits 60Late Quaternary history 59–60modelling xv–xvi, 4, 6, 8

ice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 37–52sediment erosion, transport and deposition

53–63oscillations 60, 62purge phase 62reverse bathymetric slope 45rheology 54, 55sediment erosion, transport and deposition

modelling 53–63size of pre-Pleistocene 303–4Snowball Earth hypothesis 361stretching equations 38subglacial sediment modelling 55, 56, 57–60subglacial thermal regime 60, 62surging 62thermomechanical modelling 4, 6water flow beneath 4–5see also Antarctic Ice Sheet

ice sheet/ice shelf combined model 38–9equations 49–51

ice sheet/ice shelf/sediment model 37–52basal temperatures 43climatically forced retreats 40

sensitivity experiments 40–4comparison with observations 45no climatic variations 44–5sediment

isochron pattern 45viscosity 40–3, 42, 43

slumping mechanism 44–5unforced internal oscillations 44–5

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ice shelfbreaks 45see also ice sheet/ice shelf/sediment model

ice streamsAlgeria 306, 307depositional systems 307–11Eurasian Ice Sheet 57ice sheet oscillations 62outwash fan 309, 310

ice–bed coupling, clast ploughing 24icebergs

calving 122Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia)

338periodic production 60sediment transport 338

ice-rafted debris 60, 78, 79, 369ice–sediment models 39–40illite 278Ireland, Late Devensian glaciolacustrine sediments

149–62

kamesLake Riada (Ireland) 151near Blakeney Esker (Norfolk) 206, 223topography 179, 180, 181

kaolinite 279Kaskawulsh Glacier (Yukon, Canada) ivKelling sandur 204, 227K-feldspar 291Kirk Fell (Ennerdale, English Lake District) 250, 251,

252

lakescatastrophic drainage 122, 143drainage outlet blocking 122glacier-fed 121–2ice-contact 121ice-frontal 197laminated sediments 149–62sediment input 122subglacial

connections 5, 7–8drainage system 4–5network linkages xv, 3–9outburst flooding 8–9

see also glaciolacustrine sedimentationLambert–Amery system (East Antarctic Ice Sheet)

58lamination

biosiliceous facies 68Gerlache Strait (Antarctica) sediments 81, 82lake sediments 149–62moraine-mound complex 13, 14, 16

mudstone 330, 331–2Riada, Lake (Ireland) 155, 156, 157, 158–9, 160,

161sandstone 330, 331siliciclastic facies 68varves 159–61

laminite deposition 382landsystems 236Late Devensian, glaciolacustrine sediments in Ireland

149–62Late Holocene, bioturbated sediments 68Late Ordovician

channels with glacial deposits 336ice fronts 304North Gondwana Platform glacial sedimentary

system 295–315platform-scale facies model 312–14stratigraphic architectures 307–12

Laurentide Ice Sheet 58–60, 61Libya, glaciation xviiilimestone, Ethiopia and Eritrea 149Liza, River (Ennerdale, English Lake District) 238,

242, 243, 244Loch Lomond Stadial see Younger Dryas glaciation

(Britain)Lowestoft Till 205, 221

MacAyeal–Payne thermal mechanism 43MacDonaldryggen Member of Elbobreen Formation

(Svalbard) 382Mackay Sea Valley (Antarctica) 264macrofossils, Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 272–3marine successions

thickness 367–9, 370, 371see also glaciomarine deposits

Marinoan glacial epoch 345–6Marly Drift 203–5, 220, 221

lithology 205, 228superimposed units 205

mass flow deposits, subaqueous 380Mauritania, syn-glacial strata 311–12mean annual air temperature (MAAT) 111mean annual ground temperature (MAGT)

permafrost development 110–13, 114, 115–16record construction 111, 112, 113, 114

Meseta (Morocco), glaciated shelf 310–11methane release in glacial–interglacial transitions

347micromorphology of till 289–93midre Lovénbreen (Svalbard) 11–21

geological/glaciological setting 12mass balance 12moraine-mound complex xv

Milankovitch cycles see orbital forcing

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modellingepisodic permafrost 115–16glaciers xv–xviice flow 4, 6, 54, 55, 60ice sheets xv–xvi, 4, 6, 8

ice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 37–52Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 195, 196,

197North Gondwana Platform-scale facies 312–14process-form for Younger Dryas glaciation 251–2sediment erosion, transport and deposition

53–63sequence stratigraphy 265Zipper rift model 344

moraine(s) xviablation 247dump formation 247ice-marginal 246–7lateral 247, 249medial ivpassively transported sediment 247thrust complexes 248, 250–1Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada) 85–106Younger Dryas glaciation (Britain) xvii–xviii,

235–54moraine ridges

Ennerdale (English Lake District) 247Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 182

moraine-mound complex xv, 11–21bubbly ice 16Cwm Idwal (North Wales) 252diamicton facies 13, 14dip of facies 17, 18englacial thrusting 20Ennerdale (English Lake District) 235–6exposures 244, 245facies 13, 14

buried ice 13, 16, 20dip/strike 17, 18

fluvial sediment mounds 19–20glaciofluvial deposition 16, 19–20highly elongated ridge 17, 18–19, 20ice-margin recession 246–7ice-marginal deposition 19, 20interpretation 13, 15–16morphology 18–19mud laminae 13, 14nested ice-contact fans 250origin 236rectilinear faces 242, 244, 248, 249rectilinear/curvilinear ice-proximal face 17, 18, 19rounded mound and ridge 17, 18, 19–20sediment deformation 2, 16–19strike of facies 17, 18

subglacial deformation 245–6valley-floor 245valley-side 241–2, 243, 244, 245

mudstoneCape Roberts (Antarctica) 271–2, 280Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 330,

331–2, 334, 335, 338ice-rafted debris-bearing 337

Neoproterozoic successions 369

Neoproterozoic glaciations 371, 373, 374–9, 380climate change 373, 380

Neoproterozoic successions xix, 343–83chemostratigraphy 346–7clast fabric analysis 363–4diamictite 380, 381

palaeoenvironmental discrimination of facies347, 348–56, 357, 358–9, 360–1, 362, 363–5, 366, 367

fan deposits 347, 357, 358–9glacially influenced deposits 344glaciclastic debris in basins 380glaciotectonic structures 365, 366, 367marine succession thickness 367–9, 370, 371palaeoglaciology 380, 381, 382palaeomagnetic record 345–6particle roundness 361, 362, 363radiometric age constraints 371, 374–9rift to post-rift transition 380sedimentary sequences 359, 369, 372, 373subglacial debris entrainment 357, 360–1subglacial facies 363–5terrestrial to marginal marine 380, 381

net adfreezing 360, 361Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) xvii, 177,

179–200alluvial fans 182alluvial flat 181black peat 192borehole logs 182, 183boulder drift 189braided channel systems 199composite model 195, 196, 197diamicton 182, 184, 192double ridge system 198dropstones 186, 188erratics 184esker ridges 180, 181faults 194felsite 184folds 192, 193, 194geomorphology 179, 180, 181–2gravel 182, 184, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191–2, 194ice direction 184

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ice-frontal lake 197ice-margin fluctuations 197internal architecture 190–2kame topography 179, 180, 181landform assemblages 179, 180, 181–2lithology 184meltwater channel flow 184moraine ridges 182multiple ridge system 199organic silt 192palaeocurrent direction 186palaeogeographical reconstruction 197–9provenance 183–4Quarry A 184–6, 187–8, 189Quarry B 188, 189Quarry C 186, 187–8, 189–92, 193, 194–5, 196, 197rock basin 182sands 182, 184, 185–6, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194

deposition on fan 197sediment types 182, 184sedimentary assemblages 190–2sedimentology 184–6, 187–8, 189–92, 193, 194–5,

196, 197single ridge system 198, 199stratigraphy 182–3structure 192, 193, 194subaqueous fan 186, 189, 194–5, 196, 197–8, 199subglacial tunnel 189, 198–9

branching 199system 194, 195, 196

supraglacial sandur 195, 196, 197, 199supraglacial sedimentation 195trough cross-stratified sands 186, 187, 188, 189,

190tunnel fill sediment uncovering 198valley-side terraces 182

North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) xviiiAhnet area 296, 298area closest to ice centre 300, 302climbing megaripples 309, 310deformation structures 300, 301diamictite 308, 310–11erosion 298, 299, 300, 301fan deposition 309, 310–11flood-dominated facies 309, 310geological setting 296, 297–8glacial advance 313glacial conglomerate 298glacial depositional sequences 300, 302, 312, 313glacial erosion surfaces 298, 299, 300, 301, 305glacial maximum 313–14glacial retreat 313–14glacio-eustatic/-isostatic processes 305, 308glaciomarine deposits 310, 312

glaciotectonic deformation 300, 301Hirnantian glaciation 304–5, 306, 307ice margins 302, 303ice sheet

configuration 305, 306, 307size 303–4

ice-frontmigrations 304recession 314

ice-minimum periods 314ice-sheet advance 310ice-stream-related depositional systems 307–11interglacial periods 314inter-stream area depositional system 311–12intraformational deformation structures 300Late Ordovician glacial sedimentary system

295–315major transgressive event 302, 303middle glaciated platform 307–10, 311–12outer glaciated shelf 310–11, 312palaeogeographic domains 305palaeovalleys 298platform-scale facies model 312–14pre-glacial setting 296, 297–8regressive–transgressive cycles 302, 303sand/sand injections 298sandstone 308–10shale 308stratigraphic architectures 307–12subglacial lineations 300, 301subglacial substrate 298thrust fold belts 309tide-dominated succession 302

North Sea Basineskers 203–29glacial conduit system 227

Northern Ireland, Late Devensian glaciation 165Nothofagus 280

Oligocene, Nothofagus persistence 280Oligocene–Miocene boundary, Cape Roberts

(Antarctica) 266, 274diamictite/mudstone/sandstone 271–2

orbital forcing 369Cape Roberts Project (Ross Sea, Antarctica) 275, 276cycles 371

Ordovician glaciationEritrea/Ethiopia 321–40see also Late Ordovician

oxygen isotope record 278

palynomorphs, Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 279–80pavements, striated 258, 365penultimate cold stage, Blakeney Esker (Norfolk) 206

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permafrostcontrolling parameters of development 110–11episodic development 109–18evolution xvi–xviiground-water flow 115heat-flow density 113, 114, 115, 117MAGT 110–13, 114, 115–16modelling of episodic 115–16reconstruction 111–13, 114, 115salt dome impact 115–17, 118soil factors 111

Petrovbreen (Svalbard) diamictite 363, 380Phanerozoic glaciations 343–83

chemostratigraphy 346–7plagioclase 291planetary glaciation xiiPleistocene period, northern Germany 110,

117–18permafrost reconstruction 111–13, 114, 115

Pliocene, diamicton/muddy sandstone 272–3ploughing 23–33

subglacial xvpools 102, 104pore-water

flow in sediment deformation 23–4pressure in clast ploughing 28, 30, 31–2

Porta subaqueous fan complex (Lake Rinteln, northern Germany) 125, 139–40, 141–4

pre-Quaternary glacial systems xviii–xixprogressive rifting theory 343–4Prydz Bay (East Antarctic Ice Sheet) 58

quartz sandstone, Cape Roberts (Ross Sea, Antarctica)268–9

QuaternaryBlakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 206, 207Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 268, 272–3climate signal 112, 117diamicton 272–3glacial systems xvi–xviiimuddy sandstone 272–3strata and sea level changes 260

RA/C40 index 363Ree, Lough (Ireland) xviiregelation 360–1

moraine-mound complex 13, 16Rehamna succession (Morocco) 310–11resistivity gradient, drumlins 174rhythmites 151, 153, 154

clay-dominated 154, 155, 157, 158–9, 161scanning electron microscopy 157, 159silt-clay 154, 155, 157, 158, 159, 161silt-dominated 155–6, 156, 157, 159, 161

Riada, Lake (Ireland)core samples 151–2, 153, 154floc deposition 160flocculation 151, 160geological setting 151–2ice lobes 151laminae 155, 156, 157, 158–9, 161

thickness 159, 160seasonal controls on deposition 151–62sedimentary facies 154–6, 157, 158–9site description 151–2stratigraphy 152, 153, 154

Ricker Hills nunatak (Victoria Land, Antarctica)289–93

coal layers 291, 292diamictite 290–2dolerite 290–1geomorphology 289lake depression outcrop 290–3sandstone 291, 292–3sedimentology 290–3tillite 289–93

Ridge B (East Antarctica) 3drainage pathways 7

Rinteln, Lake (Germany) xviicatastrophic drainage event 124, 143, 144climbing-ripple cross-lamination 136Coppenbrügge fan systems 130, 136–8, 141deltas 123, 125depositional processes 129–30, 131–3, 134, 135, 136fan stacking patterns 136–8, 139, 142ice lobes 123ice-dammed 124ice-margin

deposits 123–4fluctuations 124retreat 138, 142, 143subaqueous fans 121–45

jet efflux deposition 143–4levels 124, 143, 144lithofacies association 143overspills 123sedimentary facies 125, 126–7, 128–9, 131–4, 135,

142, 143architecture 136–8

strong lake-level fall 124, 143, 144study area 123–4subaqueous fan sedimentation 125, 126–7, 128–30,

131–3, 134, 135, 136–8, 139–40, 141–3subglacial meltwater outbursts 144

river channel sediments, Ennerdale (English LakeDistrict) 241

roches moutonnées 365Rodinia supercontinent break-up 380, 381

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Ross Sea (Antarctica), glaciation record 260Röthlisberger channels 223, 224

Saalian Scandinavian ice sheet xviiice-dammed lakes 121regional front 144

Saharan Ice Sheet 304salt domes 115–17, 118Salthouse sandur 204, 227

lithology 227, 228sand

Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 209–10, 212, 215, 216, 221

Cape Roberts Project (Ross Sea, Antarctica) 268, 280

Ennerdale (English Lake District) 241, 244fluvial at Wright Lower Glacier (Victoria Land,

Antarctica) 2Newbigging esker system (Lanarkshire) 182, 184,

185–6, 187, 188, 189, 190, 192, 194deposition on fan 197

North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 298wind-blown 2

sandstoneCape Roberts (Antarctica) 270–3, 279Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 330,

331, 334, 335, 336, 338North Gondwana Platform (North Africa) 308–10Ricker Hills nunatak (Victoria Land, Antarctica)

291, 292–3Taylor Group 269

sandurKelling 204, 227Salthouse 204, 227supraglacial 195, 196, 197, 199

sandy gravel, moraine-mound complex facies 13, 14,15, 19

sanidine, Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 268scanning electron microscopy (SEM) 151, 152

rhythmites 157, 159Scarth Gap (Ennerdale, English Lake District) 238, 245Schollaert Drift (Gerlache Strait, Antarctica) 71, 72, 73,

74, 76, 79, 80tidal flows 80–1

scoursantidune cross-stratification 99, 100, 101–2bed aggradation 104hydraulic jumps 102Lake Rinteln (northern Germany) 143nested 102Oak Ridge Moraine 105stacked 102, 103steep-walled 102, 103, 104subaqueous fans 134, 136

scree sediments, Ennerdale (English Lake District) 241sea ice

grounded off-shore 271, 278–9shorefast multi-annual 382Snowball Earth hypothesis 361

sea levelCenozoic of Victoria Land coast (Antarctica)

259–81cycles 260, 273, 275, 276–7falling 271–2

fall due to isostatic rebound 312sediment

compression test 27consolidation 29–30gravity flows 380hydraulic diffusivity 32isochron pattern 45shear strength at failure 27–8subaqueous mass flow deposits 380subglacial 363–5

behaviour 23–4deformation 364modelling 55, 56, 57–60

thermal conductivity 113, 115, 116transport 55, 361, 363viscosity 40–2, 42, 43yield strength 31–2

sediment debrisactive transport 361, 363ice-rafted deposits 60, 369passive transport 361, 363reorganisation in transfer 361, 362, 363supraglacially-derived angular 363thickness 368

sediment deformationAntarctic Ice Sheet 58beneath ice streams 2, 9Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 337,

338Eurasian Ice Sheet 57–8High Atlas 311ice-sheet/ice-shelf combined model 40model 39–40

equations 51– 2moraine-mound complex 2, 16–19notation/nominal values 52pore-water flow 23–4strength of subglacial 55subglacial 367subglacial tills 364water-saturated 54West Antarctic Ice Sheet 57–8

sediment drifts xviGerlache Strait (Antarctica) 67–82

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sediment entrainment 55, 62basal ice mechanisms 360Blakeney Esker (Norfolk, UK) 225cannon-shot gravel 227glacier ice thrusting 252polythermal ice association 251subglacial 357, 360–1

sedimentation, supraglacial 177–8sedimentation rate 367

Eurasian Ice Sheet 55Gerlache Strait (Antarctica) 79, 80–1

seismic refraction surveys, drumlins 167–8, 169, 170,171, 172, 175–6

sequence stratigraphy 260Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 273, 275–7glaciomarine deposits 358model 265

shale, North Gondwana Platform (North Africa)308

shear strength, at failure of sediment 27–8shear stress, flocculation 160shearing, moraine-mound complex sediments 16Shuram excursion 347sikussak ice 382siliceous muds, Gerlache Strait (Antarctica) 68siliciclastic facies laminations 68slumping 44–5, 73, 74

Gerlache Strait sediments 73, 74ice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 44–5steep-walled scours 102subaqueous 158varve formation 156

smectite 279Snowball Earth hypothesis xii, xix, 343–83

cold-based glaciers 361deglaciation 346glaciohydraulic supercooling 361hydrological shutdown 382ice sheets 361Neoproterozoic successions 380ocean/atmosphere decoupling 382sea ice 361timescales 373

soilfreezing point depression 111permafrost development 111surface temperature control 110topsoil of drumlins 170, 172–3

sorting, moraine-mound complex 16Southern Annular Mode see Antarctic Oscillation

(AO)Storsand (Oslofjorden, Norway) 358stoss beds 98, 99Sturtian glacial epoch 345

subcritical flow 102subglacial deposits 363–5

behaviour 23–4deformation 364modelling 55, 56, 57–60see also diamictite; diamicton

subglacial lakesconnections 5, 7–8drainage system 4–5network linkages xv, 3–9outburst flooding 8–9

subglacial landforms, fluvial activity 9subglacial thermal regime 60, 62, 122–3, 360subglacial tunnel, Newbigging esker system

(Lanarkshire) 189, 194, 195, 196, 198–9subglacial valleys 226–7submarine continental slope failures 347supercooling, glaciohydraulic 361supercritical flow 102, 104Svalbard xi, xiii

diamictites 362, 363polythermal glaciers 248, 250–1thrusting in glaciers 251thrust-trace mapping 250–1

syn-glacial strata, Mauritania 311–12

Taurus Mountains (Turkey), outer glaciated shelf312

Taylor Group sandstone 269temperature

basal in ice-sheet/ice-shelf/sediment model 43soil surface control 110thermodynamic ice flow component of model

60thermomechanical modelling of ice sheets 4, 6see also mean annual air temperature (MAAT);

mean annual ground temperature (MAGT)tephras, Cape Roberts (Antarctica) 268thermal conductivity of sediments 113, 115, 116thermal regimes

glaciers 122–3, 360subglacial 60, 62

thermodynamic modelling of ice sheets 60thermomechanical modelling of ice sheets 4, 6thrusting

englacial 20, 248–9, 250, 253fold belts 309glacial debris apron 2glacier ice 252glaciotectonic 311ice-margin 250initiation in glacier ice 250–1moraine-mound complex 250–1, 252steeply dipping 251

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thrust-moraine complexes 13, 19, 20, 248–9, 250–1glacier dynamics 252–3

tillbasal 364–5drumlins 168, 172–3, 175gravel clast alignment 363micromorphology 289–93pellets 367saturated 173µXR-CT 289–93

tillitesmicrotextures 289–93Permo-Carboniferous Karoo 258Svalbard xi, xiiTransantarctic Mountains xviii

Tongue Beck (Ennerdale, English Lake District) 238,242

Top-of-the-Hill site (Waterloo Moraine, Ontario,Canada) 89, 90–1, 92

antidune stratification 99, 100, 101–2, 103aquifers 105cross-stratification 96–9steep-walled scours 102, 103

topsoil, drumlins 170, 172–3Torridon (Scotland), thrust moraines 250, 253Totten Glacier (Antarctica), drainage basin 4, 8Transantarctic Mountains (Antarctica) 263, 264

Cape Roberts 262, 263, 264tillites xviiitopography 262

trough mouth fans 56, 57tunnel system, Newbigging esker system

(Lanarkshire) 189, 194, 195, 196, 198–9turbidites

Edaga Arbi Beds (Tigray Province, Ethiopia) 336Neoproterozoic successions 369surge-type 134winter 161

turbidity currents 151, 158

Udden-Wentworth particle-size scale 363Unteraarletscher (Switzerland) xv

clast ploughing 26–8sediment hydraulic diffusivity 32

Upper Circumpolar Deep Water (UCDW) 70, 72, 72, 79

varvesannual 155–6, 158false 151, 161formation 150–1seasonal controls 149–62summer laminae 159–60thickness 159, 160winter laminae 160–1

Victoria Land (Antarctica)basin sedimentation cyclical controls 368–9, 370basin-fill 262coastal glacimarine strata 259–81Oligocene–Miocene times 272, 274Pleistocene strata composition 368–9, 370Ricker Hills nunatak 289–93

Vincennes Lake (Antarctica) 6, 7Vostock, Lake (Antarctica) 4, 6

Waterloo Moraine (Ontario, Canada) xvi, 92, 93, 94–9, 100, 101–2, 103

A-1 study site 90–1, 92, 97–9aquifer 105cross-set stratification 95–6, 104steep-walled scours 102

barform foreset 94, 95, 96, 97, 104compound 96

bed aggradation 104climbing bedforms 104climbing dunes 98–9clinoforms 96–7composition 87–8conduit deposits 105–6conduit–esker setting 104cross-stratification 92, 93, 94–9, 100, 101–2, 103

antidune 100, 101–2delta foreset bedding 94–5depositional environments 102, 104–5esker-subaqueous fan deposits 102, 104–5, 106fill structures 102geological setting 87–8groundwater 105–6Hawkesville Spur 87, 88, 89–90

aquifer 105barform foreset 104cross-stratification 92, 93, 95, 104palaeoflow direction 104

location 86Oak Ridge Moraine comparison 104, 105palaeoflow direction 92, 104, 105scour surfaces 99, 100, 101–2, 103, 104sediment stratification 87, 93, 94–9, 100, 101–2, 103sedimentary signatures 85–106stoss beds 98, 99study sites 88–9, 90–1, 92subaqueous fan deposits 102, 104–5, 106Top-of-the-Hill site 89, 90–1, 92

antidune stratification 99, 100, 101–2, 103aquifer 105cross-stratification 96–9steep-walled scours 102, 103

Weertman regelation 360Weichselian period 110

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Weser Valley (north Germany) 123West Antarctic Ice Sheet (WAIS)

climate processes 81sediment deformation 57–8

West Antarctic Rift System, north–south-trendingtroughs 260

West Gondwana ice sheets 303–4Wilsonbreen diamictites (Svalbard) 362, 363wind-blown sands 2Wolstonian age 205–6Wright Lower Glacier (Victoria Land, Antarctica) 2

µX-ray computed tomography (µXR-CT) 289–93

Yakataga Formation (Alaska) 368Younger Dryas glaciation (Britain) xvii–xviii,

235–54origins 245–50process-form model 251–2sediment–landform associations 241–50thrust moraines 250, 251, 253

Zipper rift model 344

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