geosynthetics - polymerjournals.com · volume 11 report 121 polyamides as engineering thermoplastic...

ISBN 1-85957-375-4

Geosynthetics

David I. Cook

Previous Titles Still AvailableVolume 1Report 3 Advanced Composites, D.K. Thomas, RAE, Farnborough.

Report 4 Liquid Crystal Polymers, M.K. Cox, ICI, Wilton.

Report 5 CAD/CAM in the Polymer Industry, N.W. Sandlandand M.J. Sebborn, Cambridge Applied Technology.

Report 8 Engineering Thermoplastics, I.T. Barrie, Consultant.

Report 11 Communications Applications of Polymers,R. Spratling, British Telecom.

Report 12 Process Control in the Plastics Industry,R.F. Evans, Engelmann & Buckham Ancillaries.

Volume 2Report 13 Injection Moulding of Engineering Thermoplastics,

A.F. Whelan, London School of Polymer Technology.

Report 14 Polymers and Their Uses in the Sports and LeisureIndustries, A.L. Cox and R.P. Brown, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Report 15 Polyurethane, Materials, Processing andApplications, G. Woods, Consultant.

Report 16 Polyetheretherketone, D.J. Kemmish, ICI, Wilton.

Report 17 Extrusion, G.M. Gale, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 18 Agricultural and Horticultural Applications ofPolymers, J.C. Garnaud, International Committee forPlastics in Agriculture.

Report 19 Recycling and Disposal of Plastics Packaging,R.C. Fox, Plas/Tech Ltd.

Report 20 Pultrusion, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Report 21 Materials Handling in the Polymer Industry,H. Hardy, Chronos Richardson Ltd.

Report 22 Electronics Applications of Polymers, M.T.Goosey,Plessey Research (Caswell) Ltd.

Report 23 Offshore Applications of Polymers, J.W.Brockbank,Avon Industrial Polymers Ltd.

Report 24 Recent Developments in Materials for FoodPackaging, R.A. Roberts, Pira Packaging Division.

Volume 3Report 25 Foams and Blowing Agents, J.M. Methven, Cellcom

Technology Associates.

Report 26 Polymers and Structural Composites in CivilEngineering, L. Hollaway, University of Surrey.

Report 27 Injection Moulding of Rubber, M.A. Wheelans,Consultant.

Report 28 Adhesives for Structural and EngineeringApplications, C. O’Reilly, Loctite (Ireland) Ltd.

Report 29 Polymers in Marine Applications, C.F.Britton,Corrosion Monitoring Consultancy.

Report 30 Non-destructive Testing of Polymers, W.N. Reynolds,National NDT Centre, Harwell.

Report 31 Silicone Rubbers, B.R. Trego and H.W.Winnan,Dow Corning Ltd.

Report 32 Fluoroelastomers - Properties and Applications,D. Cook and M. Lynn, 3M United Kingdom Plc and3M Belgium SA.

Report 33 Polyamides, R.S. Williams and T. Daniels,T & N Technology Ltd. and BIP Chemicals Ltd.

Report 34 Extrusion of Rubber, J.G.A. Lovegrove, NovaPetrochemicals Inc.

Report 35 Polymers in Household Electrical Goods, D.Alvey,Hotpoint Ltd.

Report 36 Developments in Additives to Meet Health andEnvironmental Concerns, M.J. Forrest, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Volume 4Report 37 Polymers in Aerospace Applications, W.W. Wright,

University of Surrey.

Report 39 Polymers in Chemically Resistant Applications,D. Cattell, Cattell Consultancy Services.

Report 41 Failure of Plastics, S. Turner, Queen Mary College.

Report 42 Polycarbonates, R. Pakull, U. Grigo, D. Freitag, BayerAG.

Report 43 Polymeric Materials from Renewable Resources,J.M. Methven, UMIST.

Report 44 Flammability and Flame Retardants in Plastics,J. Green, FMC Corp.

Report 45 Composites - Tooling and Component Processing,N.G. Brain, Tooltex.

Report 46 Quality Today in Polymer Processing, S.H. Coulson,J.A. Cousans, Exxon Chemical International Marketing.

Report 47 Chemical Analysis of Polymers, G. Lawson, LeicesterPolytechnic.

Volume 5Report 49 Blends and Alloys of Engineering Thermoplastics,

H.T. van de Grampel, General Electric Plastics BV.

Report 50 Automotive Applications of Polymers II,A.N.A. Elliott, Consultant.

Report 51 Biomedical Applications of Polymers, C.G. Gebelein,Youngstown State University / Florida Atlantic University.

Report 52 Polymer Supported Chemical Reactions, P. Hodge,University of Manchester.

Report 53 Weathering of Polymers, S.M. Halliwell, BuildingResearch Establishment.

Report 54 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, A.R. Nutt,Arnold Nutt & Co. and J. Wade.

Report 55 Computer Modelling of Polymer Processing,E. Andreassen, Å. Larsen and E.L. Hinrichsen, Senter forIndustriforskning, Norway.

Report 56 Plastics in High Temperature Applications,J. Maxwell, Consultant.

Report 57 Joining of Plastics, K.W. Allen, City University.

Report 58 Physical Testing of Rubber, R.P. Brown, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Report 59 Polyimides - Materials, Processing and Applications,A.J. Kirby, Du Pont (U.K.) Ltd.

Report 60 Physical Testing of Thermoplastics, S.W. Hawley,Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 6Report 61 Food Contact Polymeric Materials, J.A. Sidwell,

Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 62 Coextrusion, D. Djordjevic, Klöckner ER-WE-PA GmbH.

Report 63 Conductive Polymers II, R.H. Friend, University ofCambridge, Cavendish Laboratory.

Report 64 Designing with Plastics, P.R. Lewis, The Open University.

Report 65 Decorating and Coating of Plastics, P.J. Robinson,International Automotive Design.

Report 66 Reinforced Thermoplastics - Composition, Processingand Applications, P.G. Kelleher, New Jersey PolymerExtension Center at Stevens Institute of Technology.

Report 67 Plastics in Thermal and Acoustic Building Insulation,V.L. Kefford, MRM Engineering Consultancy.

Report 68 Cure Assessment by Physical and ChemicalTechniques, B.G. Willoughby, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 69 Toxicity of Plastics and Rubber in Fire, P.J. Fardell,Building Research Establishment, Fire Research Station.

Report 70 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Polymers,M.E. Adams, D.J. Buckley, R.E. Colborn, W.P. Englandand D.N. Schissel, General Electric Corporate Researchand Development Center.

Report 71 Rotational Moulding, R.J. Crawford, The Queen’sUniversity of Belfast.

Report 72 Advances in Injection Moulding, C.A. Maier,Econology Ltd.

Volume 7

Report 73 Reactive Processing of Polymers, M.W.R. Brown,P.D. Coates and A.F. Johnson, IRC in Polymer Scienceand Technology, University of Bradford.

Report 74 Speciality Rubbers, J.A. Brydson.

Report 75 Plastics and the Environment, I. Boustead, BousteadConsulting Ltd.

Report 76 Polymeric Precursors for Ceramic Materials,R.C.P. Cubbon.

Report 77 Advances in Tyre Mechanics, R.A. Ridha, M. Theves,Goodyear Technical Center.

Report 78 PVC - Compounds, Processing and Applications,J.Leadbitter, J.A. Day, J.L. Ryan, Hydro Polymers Ltd.

Report 79 Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theoryand Innovation, Part I: Vulcanising Systems,Antidegradants and Particulate Fillers for GeneralPurpose Rubbers, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 80 Anti-Corrosion Polymers: PEEK, PEKK and OtherPolyaryls, G. Pritchard, Kingston University.

Report 81 Thermoplastic Elastomers - Properties and Applications,J.A. Brydson.

Report 82 Advances in Blow Moulding Process Optimization,Andres Garcia-Rejon,Industrial Materials Institute,National Research Council Canada.

Report 83 Molecular Weight Characterisation of SyntheticPolymers, S.R. Holding and E. Meehan, RapraTechnology Ltd. and Polymer Laboratories Ltd.

Report 84 Rheology and its Role in Plastics Processing,P. Prentice, The Nottingham Trent University.

Volume 8

Report 85 Ring Opening Polymerisation, N. Spassky, UniversitéPierre et Marie Curie.

Report 86 High Performance Engineering Plastics,D.J. Kemmish, Victrex Ltd.

Report 87 Rubber to Metal Bonding, B.G. Crowther, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Report 88 Plasticisers - Selection, Applications and Implications,A.S. Wilson.

Report 89 Polymer Membranes - Materials, Structures andSeparation Performance, T. deV. Naylor, The SmartChemical Company.

Report 90 Rubber Mixing, P.R. Wood.

Report 91 Recent Developments in Epoxy Resins, I. Hamerton,University of Surrey.

Report 92 Continuous Vulcanisation of Elastomer Profiles,A. Hill, Meteor Gummiwerke.

Report 93 Advances in Thermoforming, J.L. Throne, SherwoodTechnologies Inc.

Report 94 Compressive Behaviour of Composites,C. Soutis, Imperial College of Science, Technologyand Medicine.

Report 95 Thermal Analysis of Polymers, M. P. Sepe, Dickten &Masch Manufacturing Co.

Report 96 Polymeric Seals and Sealing Technology, J.A. Hickman,St Clair (Polymers) Ltd.

Volume 9

Report 97 Rubber Compounding Ingredients - Need, Theoryand Innovation, Part II: Processing, Bonding, FireRetardants, C. Hepburn, University of Ulster.

Report 98 Advances in Biodegradable Polymers, G.F. Moore &S.M. Saunders, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 99 Recycling of Rubber, H.J. Manuel and W. Dierkes,Vredestein Rubber Recycling B.V.

Report 100 Photoinitiated Polymerisation - Theory andApplications, J.P. Fouassier, Ecole Nationale Supérieurede Chimie, Mulhouse.

Report 101 Solvent-Free Adhesives, T.E. Rolando, H.B. FullerCompany.

Report 102 Plastics in Pressure Pipes, T. Stafford, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Report 103 Gas Assisted Moulding, T.C. Pearson, Gas Injection Ltd.

Report 104 Plastics Profile Extrusion, R.J. Kent, TangramTechnology Ltd.

Report 105 Rubber Extrusion Theory and Development,B.G. Crowther.

Report 106 Properties and Applications of ElastomericPolysulfides, T.C.P. Lee, Oxford Brookes University.

Report 107 High Performance Polymer Fibres, P.R. Lewis,The Open University.

Report 108 Chemical Characterisation of Polyurethanes,M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Volume 10

Report 109 Rubber Injection Moulding - A Practical Guide,J.A. Lindsay.

Report 110 Long-Term and Accelerated Ageing Tests on Rubbers,R.P. Brown, M.J. Forrest and G. Soulagnet,Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 111 Polymer Product Failure, P.R. Lewis,The Open University.

Report 112 Polystyrene - Synthesis, Production and Applications,J.R. Wünsch, BASF AG.

Report 113 Rubber-Modified Thermoplastics, H. Keskkula,University of Texas at Austin.

Report 114 Developments in Polyacetylene - Nanopolyacetylene,V.M. Kobryanskii, Russian Academy of Sciences.

Report 115 Metallocene-Catalysed Polymerisation, W. Kaminsky,University of Hamburg.

Report 116 Compounding in Co-rotating Twin-Screw Extruders,Y. Wang, Tunghai University.

Report 117 Rapid Prototyping, Tooling and Manufacturing,R.J.M. Hague and P.E. Reeves, Edward MackenzieConsulting.

Report 118 Liquid Crystal Polymers - Synthesis, Properties andApplications, D. Coates, CRL Ltd.

Report 119 Rubbers in Contact with Food, M.J. Forrest andJ.A. Sidwell, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 120 Electronics Applications of Polymers II, M.T. Goosey,Shipley Ronal.

Volume 11

Report 121 Polyamides as Engineering Thermoplastic Materials,I.B. Page, BIP Ltd.

Report 122 Flexible Packaging - Adhesives, Coatings andProcesses, T.E. Rolando, H.B. Fuller Company.

Report 123 Polymer Blends, L.A. Utracki, National ResearchCouncil Canada.

Report 124 Sorting of Waste Plastics for Recycling, R.D. Pascoe,University of Exeter.

Report 125 Structural Studies of Polymers by Solution NMR,H.N. Cheng, Hercules Incorporated.

Report 126 Composites for Automotive Applications, C.D. Rudd,University of Nottingham.

Report 127 Polymers in Medical Applications, B.J. Lambert andF.-W. Tang, Guidant Corp., and W.J. Rogers, Consultant.

Report 128 Solid State NMR of Polymers, P.A. Mirau,Lucent Technologies.

Report 129 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Photo-oxidation,D.C. Wright.

Report 130 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Chemical Attack,D.C. Wright.

Report 131 Failure of Polymer Products Due to Thermo-oxidation,D.C. Wright.

Report 132 Stabilisers for Polyolefins, C. Kröhnke and F. Werner,Clariant Huningue SA.

Volume 12

Report 133 Advances in Automation for Plastics InjectionMoulding, J. Mallon, Yushin Inc.

Report 134 Infrared and Raman Spectroscopy of Polymers,J.L. Koenig, Case Western Reserve University.

Report 135 Polymers in Sport and Leisure, R.P. Brown.

Report 136 Radiation Curing, R.S. Davidson, DavRad Services.

Report 137 Silicone Elastomers, P. Jerschow, Wacker-Chemie GmbH.

Report 138 Health and Safety in the Rubber Industry, N. Chaiear,Khon Kaen University.

Report 139 Rubber Analysis - Polymers, Compounds andProducts, M.J. Forrest, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Report 140 Tyre Compounding for Improved Performance,M.S. Evans, Kumho European Technical Centre.

Report 141 Particulate Fillers for Polymers, Professor R.N.Rothon, Rothon Consultants and ManchesterMetropolitan University.

Report 142 Blowing Agents for Polyurethane Foams, S.N. Singh,Huntsman Polyurethanes.

Report 143 Adhesion and Bonding to Polyolefins, D.M. Brewisand I. Mathieson, Institute of Surface Science &Technology, Loughborough University.

Report 144 Rubber Curing Systems, R.N. Datta, Flexsys BV.

Volume 13

Report 145 Multi-Material Injection Moulding, V. Goodship andJ.C. Love, The University of Warwick.

Report 146 In-Mould Decoration of Plastics, J.C. Love andV. Goodship, The University of Warwick

Report 147 Rubber Product Failure, Roger P. Brown

Report 148 Plastics Waste – Feedstock Recycling, ChemicalRecycling and Incineration, A. Tukker, TNO

Report 149 Analysis of Plastics, Martin J. Forrest, RapraTechnology Ltd.

Report 150 Mould Sticking, Fouling and Cleaning, D.E. Packham,Materials Research Centre, University of Bath

Report 151 Rigid Plastics Packaging - Materials, Processes andApplications, F. Hannay, Nampak Group Research &Development

Report 152 Natural and Wood Fibre Reinforcement in Polymers,A.K. Bledzki, V.E. Sperber and O. Faruk, University ofKassel

Report 153 Polymers in Telecommunication Devices, G.H. Cross,University of Durham

Report 154 Polymers in Building and Construction, S.M.Halliwell, BRE

Report 155 Styrenic Copolymers, Andreas Chrisochoou andDaniel Dufour, Bayer AG

Report 156 Life Cycle Assessment and Environmental Impact ofPolymeric Products, T.J. O’Neill, PolymeronConsultancy Network

Volume 14

Report 157 Developments in Colorants for Plastics, Ian N.Christensen

ISBN 1-85957-375-4

Geosynthetics

David I. Cook

Geosynthetics

1

Contents

1 Scope .......................................................................................................................................................... 3

2 Introduction to Geosynthetics.................................................................................................................... 3

2.1 General Description ........................................................................................................................ 3

2.2 History............................................................................................................................................. 3

2.3 Publications ..................................................................................................................................... 3

3 Geotextiles ................................................................................................................................................. 4

3.1 Description and Manufacturing ...................................................................................................... 4

3.1.1 Woven Geotextiles .............................................................................................................. 53.1.2 Non-Woven Geotextiles ..................................................................................................... 53.1.3 Knitted Geotextiles ............................................................................................................. 5

3.2 Polymers ......................................................................................................................................... 6

3.2.1 Polyester ............................................................................................................................. 63.2.2 Polypropylene ..................................................................................................................... 63.2.3 Polyamide (Nylon) ............................................................................................................. 73.2.4 Polyethylene ....................................................................................................................... 73.2.5 Natural Fibres ..................................................................................................................... 73.2.6 Comparative Properties ...................................................................................................... 7

3.3 End Uses ......................................................................................................................................... 7

3.4 Testing and Properties of Geotextiles ............................................................................................. 8

3.4.1 Tensile and Other Mechanical Properties .......................................................................... 93.4.2 Hydraulic Properties ......................................................................................................... 123.4.3 Durability .......................................................................................................................... 12

3.5 Construction Products Directive: CE Marking ............................................................................. 14

4 Geomembranes ........................................................................................................................................ 15

4.1 Description and Manufacturing .................................................................................................... 15

4.2 Polymers ....................................................................................................................................... 16

4.2.1 Polyethylene ..................................................................................................................... 194.2.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) ................................................................................................ 194.2.3 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE) ........................................................................... 194.2.4 Polypropylene ................................................................................................................... 194.2.5 Ethylene Interpolymer Alloy (EIA) ................................................................................. 19

4.3 End Uses ....................................................................................................................................... 20

4.4 Testing and Properties of Geomembranes .................................................................................... 21

4.4.1 Tensile Properties ............................................................................................................. 214.4.2 Durability .......................................................................................................................... 24

5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs) ........................................................................................................... 25


5.2 Polymers and Constituent Materials ............................................................................................. 25

5.3 End Uses ....................................................................................................................................... 25

5.4 Testing and Properties of GCLs .................................................................................................... 26

Geosynthetics

2

The views and opinions expressed by authors in Rapra Review Reports do not necessarily reflect those ofRapra Technology Limited or the editor. The series is published on the basis that no responsibility orliability of any nature shall attach to Rapra Technology Limited arising out of or in connection with anyutilisation in any form of any material contained therein.

5.4.1 Hydraulic Conductivity .................................................................................................... 265.4.2 Friction ............................................................................................................................. 26

6 Geogrids ................................................................................................................................................... 26


6.2 Polymers ....................................................................................................................................... 28

6.3 End Uses ....................................................................................................................................... 28

6.4 Testing and Properties of Geogrids .............................................................................................. 29

7 Geocomposites ......................................................................................................................................... 30

7.1 Geonets ......................................................................................................................................... 30

7.1.1 End Uses of Geonets ........................................................................................................ 307.1.2 Testing and Properties of Geonets .................................................................................... 30

7.2 Other Geocomposites .................................................................................................................... 32

7.2.1 Geotextile-Geomembrane Composites ........................................................................... 327.2.2 Geomembrane-Geogrid Composites ................................................................................ 327.2.3 Geocells ............................................................................................................................ 327.2.4 Geotextile-Steel Composites ............................................................................................ 327.2.5 Geotextile-Bead Composites ............................................................................................ 327.2.6 Polymeric Fibres ............................................................................................................... 327.2.7 Geofoam ........................................................................................................................... 327.2.8 Polyurethane/Geotextile Composites ............................................................................... 32

Additional References ..................................................................................................................................... 32

Abbreviations and Acronyms .......................................................................................................................... 34

References and Abstracts ................................................................................................................................ 35

Subject Index ................................................................................................................................................. 109

Company Index ..............................................................................................................................................117

Geosynthetics

3

1 Scope

Geosynthetics is now the generally accepted term forthe whole range of ‘geo’ materials used in civilengineering. The main sub categories or families aregeotextiles, geomembranes, geosynthetic clay liners(GCLs), geogrids and geocomposites.

The field of geosynthetics is a vast one. Many thousandsof articles and dozens of books have been written onvarious aspects of these materials. It is not, therefore,possible, in this review, to provide a comprehensivecoverage but rather a brief overview which should proveuseful to newcomers to this subject. The constituentpolymeric materials used to make these products areparticularly highlighted.

The review will cover, in outline, the following aspectsof geosynthetics:

• What they are made of, i.e., their constituentpolymers

• How they are made

• What they are used for

• How they are tested

The author’s background is testing and characterisationof geosynthetics and so this topic is given specialattention.

2 Introduction to Geosynthetics

2.1 General Description

Geosynthetics are sheet materials made, for the mostpart, from synthetic polymers. They have been used sincethe early 1970s by civil engineers to perform severalmajor functions in geotechnical (soil) structures:

• Separation

• Reinforcement

• Drainage

• Filtration

• Protection

• Barrier to fluids (water, gases)

These functions will be discussed later under theindividual geosynthetic family headings.

2.2 History

The reader is referred to an excellent series of articlesin the magazine Geotechnical Fabrics Report whichdescribe and reflect on the growth of the geosyntheticsindustry over the past 20 years (a.1-a.4). There are fourpapers, each covering a four year period. The first paperby Giroud (a.1) covers the early years 1983-1987 andhighlights, amongst other things, the rise, during thisperiod, in the use of geosynthetics for environmentalapplications, such as landfills, and the development ofsoil reinforcement.

A later article by Koerner (a.4) discusses theorganisational, technical, design and testing changeswhich have taken place over the period 1998 to 2002.

2.3 Publications

There are several magazines published which specialisein the geosynthetics industry and its products:

• Geotechnical Fabrics Report (GFR) is published,nine times a year, by Industrial Fabrics AssociationInternational (IFAI), GFR is an official publicationof the Geosynthetic Materials Association. Thismagazine contains articles of general interest andcase studies written, generally, in a non-technicalstyle. GFR issue yearly an excellent ‘Specifier’sGuide’ (a.5). This guide is a directory ofgeosynthetic products, applications and servicessuch as testing, consultation and inspection.

• Geotextiles and Geomembranes is the officialjournal of the International Geosynthetics Society(IGS), and describes its function as ‘providing aforum for the dissemination of informationamongst research workers, designers, users andmanufacturers’. The articles tend to be detailed,researched based and very technical.

• Geosynthetics International published by IFAI isanother official journal of IGS of interest to peopleinvolved in research, design, testing andspecification of geosynthetics. Each bimonthlyissue covers all aspects of materials, research andapplication technology relating to geosynthetics.

Geosynthetics

4

• Geosynthetics World’, published by ConstructionPublications, is aimed, like GFR, at manufacturersand users rather than research workers.

3 Geotextiles

3.1 Description and Manufacturing

According to the US standard ASTM D4439, a geotextileis defined as follows (a.6):

A permeable geosynthetic comprised solely oftextiles. Geotextiles are used with foundation, soil,rock, earth or any other geotechnical engineeringrelated material as an integral part of a human madeproject, structure or system.

Geotextiles were the first geosynthetics to be used incivil engineering. They are manufactured byconventional textile processes, namely, weaving, knittingand non-woven technology.

Woven and non-woven geotextiles are by far the mostcommon.

The market for geotextiles, and other geosynthetics,changes from year to year. Various authors haveconducted surveys, or at least commented on the useand consumption of geotextiles. Ghosh and Horrocks

stated (112) that the annual market for geotextiles in 1995was nearly 1,000 million m2 or about 250,000 tonnes ofraw materials, of which over 70% comprisespolypropylene. More up to date information gives aworld consumption of geotextiles of about1,400 million m2 (a.7) of which over half is used forseparation and stabilisation.

Figure 1 shows the rise in world consumption ofgeotextiles from 1970 to 2000.

Bradley remarked (224) that in the UK the market wassplit roughly 65:35 between woven and non-wovenproducts with between 60 and 70 different types ofgeotextile in 5 to 10 broad categories.

Full market surveys have been carried out by Frost andSullivan for North America and Western Europe (296),and, earlier, for the USA only (333). Kulke andAssociates carried out a survey of the world polyolefinmarket, which included geosynthetics (208).

As for the future, a market report by the Freedonia Group(a.8) estimates growth in the USA, for all geosynthetics,to be 4% per year up to 2006 with geotextiles accountingfor the largest share of the geosynthetics demand (75%).

Finally, on the subject of market growth and share,Koerner (a.9) has provided an interesting comparisonof the sales and value of geotextiles compared with theother geosynthetic categories mentioned in this review(Table 1).

Figure 1Growth in world use of geotextiles, 1970-2000

Geosynthetics

5

3.1.1 Woven Geotextiles

Woven geotextiles are manufactured on a loom fromvarious types of yarn.

The main warp (threads running along the length ofthe loom) and weft yarns (threads crossing at rightangles to the warp), utilised in the construction ofwoven geotextiles, are:

• Monofilament; a yarn of one filament

• Multifil; a yarn comprising many fine continuousfilaments twisted or intermingled together

• Staple: short lengths of fibre twisted together toform a yarn

• Slit film: tape like strands formed by splitting acontinuous polymer sheet

• Slit film yarn; combination of slit films twisted tomake a yarn

Plain weave, where the warp and weft threads arealternated through the fabric, is usually employed forgeotextile and other industrial textiles. Occasionallyother weave structures such as twill or basket patternsmay be encountered (a.10).

Woven geotextiles, depending on the component yarns,can be much stronger than non-wovens. They are also,generally, much stiffer (higher modulus) and, therefore,do not stretch very much when load is applied. Wovensalso tend to be less permeable to water than non-wovens.

Further information on weaving technology can befound in references a.9, a.10 and a.11.

3.1.2 Non-Woven Geotextiles

The two most important processes for manufacturingnon-woven geotextiles are spun bonding and needling.In spun bonding, continuous filaments of athermoplastic polymer are extruded onto a movingconveyor belt to form a web. The web, or mat offilaments, is then bonded, usually by a thermaltreatment, before being wound up into a roll. In heatbonding, the filaments are melted together at theircross over points. One prominent geotextilemanufacturer uses the heterofil principle to adherethe filaments, in which the filament sheath consistsof a polymer with a lower softening point temperaturethan that of the core.

In the needle punching process, the fibres or filamentsare consolidated by repeatedly pushing barbed needlesthrough the fibrous web. The needles orientate manyof the fibres vertically and thus achieve a high degreeof mechanical bonding. Needle punched fabrics tendto be thicker and less stiff than spun bonded materials.An article in GFR (a.12) gives a good description ofneedle punching. It covers the basic manufacturingprocess, products and markets (including geotextiles)and recent advances in this technique.

The geotechnical applications of non-woven fabricshave been reviewed (206). The author deals withfiltration, subsurface drainage, fin drains and erosioncontrol and several other outlets.

3.1.3 Knitted Geotextiles

Knitted geotextiles are much less common than wovenand non-woven. Warp, rather than weft knitting (a.10),is the preferred manufacturing technique, often with

8991SU,scitehtnysoegfoseirogetactnereffidfoselasevitarapmoC1elbaT

yrogetaC mnoillim(selaS 2) mreptsoC 2 )$( )$noillim(eulavlatoT

selitxetoeG 005 9.0 054

senarbmemoeG 57 0.01 057

srenilyalccitehtnysoeG 05 5.2 521

sdirgoeG 04 5.2 001

stenoeG 05 0.2 001

setisopmocoeG 52 0.5 521

scitehtnysoegrehtO 5 0.4 02

Geosynthetics

6

weft insertion. Such fabrics, usually made frompolyester for strength and stiffness, are used mainlyfor reinforcement.

3.2 Polymers

The most common polymers used in the manufactureof geotextiles are polypropylene and polyester.

Polyamide (nylon) and polyethylene feature to a muchsmaller extent. Certain applications, where heatresistance is required, employ glass fibres and yarns.Natural materials with low biological resistance suchas jute and sisal are utilised for erosion control.

The choice of the polymer is governed by two factors:economics and properties. The availability and cost ofthe polymer obviously influence the decision. Thecharacteristics of the geotextile, are determined to someextent by the polymer. This applies particularly todurability, i.e., the ability of the polymer to withstandenvironmental agencies such as heat, light andchemicals.

3.2.1 Polyester

The general repeat unit of polyester polymer is:

Nearly all the polyester used for textiles, includinggeotextiles, is polyethylene terephthalate (PET) madeby polymerising terephthalic acid and ethylene glycol.Unless otherwise specified, polyester refers to PET inthis review.

A large amount of clothing, and other domestic textiles,has been made from PET polyester for over forty years.Its cost, strength, durability and easy care propertieshave proved invaluable for this purpose. It was natural,therefore, that PET and other polyesters should beconsidered for industrial and engineering materials suchas geotextiles.

Polyester is a thermoplastic polymer made by meltspinning continuous filaments. These filaments can bemade into a tow and cut into short lengths, to makestaple, or stretched (drawn) after spinning to producea multifil yarn. The properties of this yarn, especiallytenacity (strength per unit weight), can be varied overa wide range by adjustment of:

• Resin properties; molecular weight, intrinsicviscosity, etc.

• Spinning conditions; quench, wind up speed, etc.

• Drawing conditions; temperature, draw ratio, etc.

For example a high draw ratio (extent of stretching)orients the molecules to such a degree that strong, hightenacity filaments are produced. Variation in yarndecitex (weight per unit length) and adjustment ofweaving parameters, such as end (warp) and pick (weft)density, can be employed to produce geotextile fabricswith a wide range of strength (10 to 1000 kN/m) andstiffness (modulus) properties (a.5).

Geotextiles made from polyester have the followingadvantages over polypropylene of similar weight andconstruction:

• Stronger

• Greater elastic modulus

• Less prone to creep, i.e., extension under constantload with time

• Higher resistance to UV light and oxidation, lessneed for anti-oxidant and light resistance additives.

Polypropylene scores over polyester under thefollowing criteria:

• Lighter

• Better chemical resistance, especially to alkaline(high pH) environments and other aqueous media

• Lower cost.

3.2.2 Polypropylene

The chemical formula of polypropylene is:

The hydrocarbon backbone and nonpolar nature of theside groups in polypropylene, confer good resistance

Geosynthetics

7

to aqueous solutions, e.g., acids and alkalis, but lessgood resistance to hydrocarbons such as petroleum anddiesel fuel. As indicated in Section 3.2.1,polypropylene’s lower resistance to gradual extensionunder constant load (creep) makes the polymer lessuseful than polyester for reinforcement end uses, wheresignificant creep would result in unacceptabledeformation of the geotechnical structure.

3.2.3 Polyamide (Nylon)

Various nylons can be made by using monomerscontaining different numbers of carbon atoms. Nylon66, so called because each monomer contains sixcarbon atoms, is produced by heating adipic acid withhexamethylene diamine.

Geotextiles made from nylon are relatively rare thesedays. Polyamides do not have the strength, elasticmodulus and low creep of polyester. Polyamides arealso more susceptible to acid hydrolysis than polyestersalthough resistance to acids is better.

3.2.4 Polyethylene

Polyethylene (polythene) is made by polymerisingethylene and has the following repeat unit:

There are many forms of polyethylene, all with differentproperties. The various types of polyethylene will bediscussed in more detail in Section 4 on geomembranes.

Geotextiles made wholly from polyethylene are rare.The commonest usage of polyethylene in geotextilesis as a low softening point sheath surrounding a highersoftening point polypropylene core in spun bonded,non-woven fabrics.

3.2.5 Natural Fibres

Natural, as distinct from man made, fibres like jute,coir, coconut, sisal, ramie, etc., have been utilised in

applications where durability is not an issue. Productsdesigned to reduce soil erosion are the commonest enduse for such materials (about 13% by area of allgeotextiles in 2000), where gradual degradation overa period of a year or two is an advantage over the moredurable synthetic products.

Smith has conducted an in depth study of the potentialmarket for some natural fibres (sisal and henequen) asconstituents of geotextiles (a.7).

A geotextile made from synthetic (PP) and naturalfibres (ramie) has been reported in Textile Horizons(359).

3.2.6 Comparative Properties

The comparative properties of all four geotextilesynthetic polymers are shown subjectively in Table 2.

3.3 End Uses

It is important to distinguish between the end uses andfunctions of geotextiles. End uses or applications referto the geotechnical structures in which the geotextilesare incorporated. Function is a description of the rolethe material is performing in the structure.

There are a number of papers which discuss the usesof geotextiles (17, 304). A review is given of theapplications of non-woven geotextiles in HighPerformance Textiles (206).

The principal functions of geotextiles are:

• Separation – A geotextile is used to permanentlyseparate two distinct layers of soil in, say, aroadway to be constructed across a poorly drained,fine grained soil. The geotextile, which is laid downprior to laying the gravel, keeps the soft, underlyingsoil from working its way up into the gravel. Italso prevents the gravel from punching down intothe soft soil.

• Reinforcement – Geotextiles, which are good intension and poor in compression, can be used tostrengthen or reinforce soil which, in contrast, isgood in compression but poor in tension.Geotextiles for example, can reinforce a softfoundation soil which would normally be too weakto support an overlying structure like a road.

Geosynthetics

8

• Drainage and filtration – The geotextile acts as afilter allowing water to pass while at the same timestopping fine grained soil from entering andcontaminating adjacent coarse grained layers.

• Protection – The geotextile covers and preventsdamage by an external agency or overlaying layer,e.g., protection of geomembranes from drainagegravel in a landfill.

There are many applications and end uses forgeotextiles in which the material performs one or moreof the above functions (a.9). The importance of thefunction depends on the application. For example,filtration and drainage are the primary functions forthe construction of drains whereas reinforcement is thekey function for steep side embankments and earthwalls. Table 3 lists some of the more commongeotextile applications and functions.

3.4 Testing and Properties of Geotextiles

The properties of the geotextile depend on the natureand manufacturing conditions of the fabric andconstituent polymer which are varied and adjusted toproduce the required values.

The main committees responsible for developing testmethods for geotextiles, and other geosynthetics, are:

• In Europe : CEN 189 committee

• Internationally: ISO TC38/SC21 committee

• In UK: British Standards (BS) committee B553

• In America: ASTM D35 committee

There are also standards organisations in many othercountries, Canada, Australia, South Africa and mostEuropean countries. However, for geotextiles, and mostother materials, European countries no longer producestandards. The national committees, like B553 in theUK, feed their views and proposals to the controllingEuropean and international committees.

The standard methods are known as either ‘index’ or‘performance’ tests. Index tests tend to be simple, quickand relatively cheap and do not attempt to simulatesite conditions. They are used for conformancepurposes, i.e., to confirm, say, that delivered materialhas the same properties as the original sample or asthose claimed in the manufacturers’ literature.Performance tests, on the other hand, attempt to

)31.a(sremylopelitxetoegfoseitreporpevitarapmoC2elbaT

ytreporP retseyloP edimayloP enelyporpyloP enelyhteyloP

tsoC H M L L

thgieW H M L L

htgnertS H M L L

suludoM H M L L

kaerbtanoisnetxE M M H H

peerC L M H H

:otecnatsiseR

thgilVU H M )desilibats(H)desilibatsnu(M

)desilibats(Hdesilibatsnu(L

sisylordyhenilaklA L H H H

sisylordyhdicA H L H H

smsinagroorciM H H H H

)leuf(snobracordyH M M L L

woL:L,muideM:M,hgiH:H

Geosynthetics

9

reproduce at least some of the site conditions in thelaboratory. Performance tests, therefore, tend to bemore expensive and take longer to perform.

The tests are generally subdivided into the followingmajor categories:

• Characterisation

• Mechanical

• Hydraulic

• Durability

There are too many tests to describe the background,rationale and procedure for each one, or even eachcategory. Instead some key information on the mostimportant tests is shown in Table 4 viz. category,

property, standard number, comments on use, principleand procedure and some literature references.

Selected geotextile test methods will now be discussedin more detail, especially, where not already mentioned,those properties where the nature of the polymer canhave a significant influence.

3.4.1 Tensile and Other Mechanical Properties

Tensile strength is probably the most important propertyof geotextiles, along with other tensile characteristics,derived from the stress-strain curve, such as stiffness,toughness and elongation.

The importance of tensile properties is clearlyparamount where the function of the geotextile is toreinforce a soil structure. In the current European and

)selpmaxe(snoitcnufdnasesudneelitxetoeG3elbaT

noitacilppa/esudnE noitcnuF

)devapnudnadevap(sdaoR esabenotsdnaedargbusfonoitarapeSsliostfosrevo:tnemecrofnieR

sdleifriA esabenotsdnaedargbusfonoitarapeStnemniatnoclaretaldnasliostfosrevo:tnemecrofnieR

syawliaR tsallabdnaedargbusfonoitarapeSsliostfosrevo:tnemecrofnieR

tsallabhtaenebeganiarD

sepolspeets/stnemknabmE liostnemknabmefonoitasilibatsdnatnemecrofnieRliosnoitadnuofdnatnemknabmefonoitarapeS

sllawgniniateR sllawdnihebeganiarD)911(sllawdetcurtsnocfotnemecrofnieR

sdleifstropS slairetamralimissidfonoitarapeS

smadkcordnahtraE senozsuoiravfonoitarapeSstnenopmocmadehtfotnemecrofnieR

yrellageganiardroniardyenmihC

lortnocnoisorE gnicuderdnanoitategevfohtworggnigaruocneybsepolsfonoitasilibatSdeepsffonurretaw

sknabreviR noitasilibatsdnanoitcetorP

sllifdnaL reyaleganiarddnasdnaenarbmemoegfonoitarapeSreyalesabroeganiard,liosbusmorfenarbmemoegfonoitcetorP

etahcaelfonoitartliFsenarbmemoeghtaenebeganiarD

dnayresrun,erutlucirgAepacsdnal

)781(srevocnoitcetorpdnaedahs,sreniatnoceert,sreirrabhtworgdeeW)7.a(etamilcorcimlaicifenebgnidivorpybtnemecnahneporC

Geosynthetics

10

selitxetoegrofstsetdradnatS4elbaT

yrogetaC ytreporP rebmuN stnemmoC

noitasiretcarahC gnilpmaS 4534DMTSA cirbafgnivomerdnagnitcelesroferudecorPgnitsetrofseceip

gnilpmaS 369NE

)sreyalelgnis(ssenkcihT 1-469NE setacidni,aPk002dna02,2tAytilibisserpmoc

ssenkcihT 3689OSI

)sreyal-itlum(ssenkcihT 2-3689OSINE

ssenkcihT 9915DMTSA scitehtnysoegllafossenkcihtlanimoN

aeratinurepssaM 569NE

aeratinurepssaM 4689OSI

lacinahceM seitreporpelisneT 91301OSINE tadehcterts)mc02(elpmashtdiwediW)821(eruliafotnim/%02

seitreporpelisneT 5954DMTSA tadehcterts)mc02(elpmashtdiwediWeruliafotnim/%01

seitreporpelisneT 1traP6096SB tadehcterts)mc02(elpmashtdiwediWeruliafotnim/%01

seitreporpelisneT 2364DMTSA nim/sehcni21tadednetxeelpmashcni4x1erutpurot

stniojroftsetelisneTsmaesdna

12301OSINE dohtemhtdiwediW

ainrofilaC(erutcnuP))RBC(oitargniraeb

63221OSINE egdedednuor,retemaidmm05hsupotecroF.derusaemelpmashguorhtrednilyc

)nip(erutcnuP 3384DMTSA eborpegdedelleveb,worranhsupotecroF.derusaemelpmashguorht

noitarofrepcimanyD)pordenoC(

819NE nognippordsenotsprahssetalumiSdnaelpmasnodeppordenocgk1.elitxetoeg

.derusaemelohfoezis

htgnertsraeT 3354DMTSA nitucenalpninaetagaporpotderiuqerecroFnemicepsdepahsdiozeparta

)raehstcerid(noitcirF 1-75921OSINErp otdeilppaecrofevisserpmoclamroN,ecafretniotdeilppaniartsraehs,nemiceps

dnadedrocertnemecalpsidsusrevecrofraehsnoitcirffotneiciffeocecneht

)enalpdenilcni(noitcirF 2-75921OSINErp delliflioshcihwtaelgnasinoitcirffoelgnAtnatsnoctadenilcninehwsedilsxobdethgiew

)91(deeps

tsettuolluP 83731NErp egarohcnA

htgnertstsruB 6873DMTSA erusserpdiulfgnisaercnI.tsetciluardyHstsrubtilitnuelpmascirbafsdnetsid

egamadnoitallatsnI 1-22701OSIVNE ,991,14(slairetamralunargninoitallatsnI)762

egamadnoitallatsnI 2-22701OSINErp sreyalralunargdnaliostfosneewteB

Geosynthetics

11

)deunitnoC(selitxetoegrofstsetdradnatS4elbaT

yrogetaC ytreporP rebmuN stnemmoC

ciluardyH )gniveisyrd(eziseroP 2tP:6096SB ahguorhtdeveiserasdaebinitollabyrDderusaemdeniatertnuomaehtdnaelpmas

)251(

)gniveisyrd(eziseroP 1574DMTSA ahguorhtdeveiserasdaebinitollabyrDderusaemdeniatertnuomaehtdnaelpmas

)gniveistew(eziseroP 65921OSINE hguorhtdehsawsiegnarezisediwfolioSelcitraP.rekahseveisanodetarbiv,elpmas

sinoitcarfgnissapfonoitubirtsidezis)561,951(derusaem

)lamron(wolfretaW 85011OSINE ,enalpehtotlamron,etarwolF;ytivittimrePrednudaehciluardyhdeificepstaderusaem

daolon

)enalpni(wolfretaW 85921OSINE lairetamehtniwolfretaW:ytivissimsnarTdnadaoldeificepsrednudenimretedsienalp

tneidargciluardyh

)enalpni(wolfretaW 7tP:6096SB lairetamehtniwolfretaW:ytivissimsnarTdnadaoldeificepsrednudenimretedsienalp

tneidargciluardyh

daehhguorhtkaerB 26531NE erusserpcitatsordyhotecnatsiseR

ytilibaruD tsetairetircytilibaruD 62221NESB gnidargedoterusopxeretfatsetelisnetpirtSycnega

erutpurpeerc/peerC)elisnet(

13431OSINE tnatsnocrednuniartsfoegnahcmretgnoLsdaolfoegnarrednu,rh0001,ssertselisnet

)34,12(

)kcolbgnidils(noisarbA 72431OSINE nohtolcyremehtiwdedarbaelpmaSretfahtgnertselisneT.kcolbgnitacorpicer

.derusaemnoisarba

ycneiciffenoitcetorP 91731NESB noitcetorpotnodesserpstun61M:tsetxednI0021dna006,003(sesserts3taelitxetoeg

derusaemniartsdettimsnarT.rh001rof)aPketalpdaelno

ycneiciffenoitcetorP tnemnorivnEhcraM;ycnegA

8991

desserplevargeganiarD:tsetecnamrofrePssertsdeificepstaelitxetoegnoitcetorpotno

noderusaemniartsdettimsnarT.rh001rof)971,141,041,931(etalpdael

ycneiciffenoitcetorP OSINESB82431

egamadtcapmitsniaganoitcetorP

)gnirehtaew(thgilVU 42221NESB yarpsretawrh1ybdewollof,thgilAVUrh5rh034rof

noitadixO 83431OSIVNE 011ro001:tsetnevO ° ,syad65ot41rofCesudnednaremylopnognidneped

sdiuqiL 06921OSIVNE dicafoelitxetoegnotceffE:tsetgnineercS06tasyad3,ilakladna °C

sisylordyH 74421NESB 59;retawfotceffE ° syad82rofC

smsinagroorciM 52221NESB 62taskeew61:tsetlairublioS ° %59,C)HR(ytidimuhevitaler

Geosynthetics

12

international methods, a 20 cm wide specimen isstretched uniaxially, at constant strain rate, until failureresults. The specimens are wider than conventionaltextile test strips (5 cm) to reduce, to some extent, theeffect of material ‘necking’ or ‘waisting’ duringextension. This necking occurs in the ‘in isolation’laboratory test but not in an actual geotechnicalstructure where the soil covering confines the materialand allows deformation in one plane only to take place;an effect known as plane strain. Confined tensilestrength, where the specimen is prevented fromnecking, has been measured by McGown and others(a.14). The test is complex and time consuming butthe results of this performance test give a betterreproduction of site conditions than the ‘in isolation’uniaxial test.

Section 3.2 explains, to some degree, how the natureof the polymer and fabric can determine the strengthand stiffness of the geotextile.

Figure 2 illustrates, schematically, the very differentstress-strain curves of three common geotextiles. Thewoven is strong, stiff and has a low extension at break.The non-wovens are weaker and have much higherbreaking extensions.

3.4.2 Hydraulic Properties

One of the major functions that geotextiles performis that of filtration. Geotextiles are, thus, designed to

be permeable and allow water to pass across theirplane and retain the larger soil particles. Cross plane(normal) water flow is affected by the properties ofthe fabric, e.g., the size and distribution of the holesin the material.

The pores are determined by the structure of the weavein woven fabrics or the orientation and density of theindividual filaments in the case of non-wovens. Theconstituent polymer, therefore, plays very little partin affecting the porosity and hydraulic properties ofgeotextiles. Bhatia and Smith confirmed, in a majorstudy (152) that geotextile structure, rather thanpolymer properties, determined the pore sizedistribution of geotextiles

3.4.3 Durability

The polymer, rather than the fabric structure, has a muchlarger influence over durability characteristics thanmechanical and hydraulic properties. Durability refersto those environmental agencies, such as weathering,light, heat, chemicals and microorganisms, which couldaffect the life of a geotextile. Reference is made at thispoint to a very useful book by Brown and Greenwoodentitled ‘Practical Guide to the Assessment of the UsefulLife of Plastics’ (10). This book contains much usefulinformation on durability tests and life prediction ofgeosynthetic and other polymers. Other good generalreviews are by D’Souza and Horrocks (360) and Wrigley(363).

Figure 2Typical geotextile stress-strain curves (schematic)

Geosynthetics

13

A conference on ‘Durability and Ageing ofGeosynthetics’ was held at the Geosynthetic ResearchInstitute in 1988. Sessions covered all geosyntheticcategories with special emphasis on long-termperformance of these materials in waste containmentapplications (312).

3.4.3.1 Microorganisms

As shown in Table 2, all the common geotextilepolymers are unaffected by microorganisms, bacteriaand fungi. Good confirmation of this resistance hasbeen shown by Ionescu and co-workers (a.15) whoexposed polypropylene and polyester fabrics for 5 to17 months to a range of media, including three strainsof bacteria. No significant effect on permeability,strength or chemical change to the polymer wasdetected.

Although bacteria do not feed on, or otherwise damage,geotextile polymers, they can still, by growing on thesurface of fabric, block the pores and thus destroy itsfunction as a filter. There is a long-term flow test todetermine the potential for complete fabric clogging,over a period of time, by either ordinary soil particlesor bacterial growth. This is the Gradient Ratio test (a.7,a.16) in which a sample of site soil or bacteria is placedin a cylinder. Instead of measuring flow rates, thehydraulic head, at various locations in the soil column,is measured. Head differences are converted tohydraulic gradients and a gradient ratio is calculated.This ratio will rise with time if the fabric is graduallybecoming clogged for some reason, e.g., bacterialgrowth.

3.4.3.2 Weathering and UV Light

Sunlight is an important cause of degradation for allorganic materials, including synthetic polymers.

The energy from the sun which causes polymerdegradation is in the ultraviolet (UV) region. UVA(400 to 315 nm) causes some degradation, UVB (315 to280 nm) can cause severe polymer damage. The actualdegradation is caused by photons of light breaking thechemical bonds of the polymer. For each type of bondthere is a threshold wavelength for bond scission abovewhich bonds will not break. There are changes in bothintensity and spectrum of sunlight over the seasons, e.g.,a reduction in the shorter wavelength UV radiationduring the winter months. Location, temperature, cloudcover, wind and moisture are also factors which canaffect the UV degradation of polymers. Laboratory

simulations of all these conditions is very difficult. It is,therefore, not straightforward to use laboratoryweathering results to predict fabric life in field and siteconditions, although crude rules of thumb exist fordifferent parts of the world. The standard European test(BS EN 12224) has a weathering test involving rain aswell as a light component. This is achieved by. sprayingthe sample with water for 1 hour after every 5 hours ofUV light exposure.

Although geotextiles are, in most cases, eventuallyburied and thus protected from the weather, in someend uses they remain permanently uncovered (e.g., siltfences) and in all cases are exposed during installationor if stored outdoors. Geotextile polymers, if untreated,can be especially sensitive to UV light and oxidation.Carbon black and other materials are added to thepolymers as UV absorbers.

Rauman (a.8) demonstrated the susceptibility of severalcommercial geotextiles to UV radiation. He showed,for example, that a certain polypropylene fabric couldlose over 90% of its original strength after eight weeksof exposure to Florida sunlight.

3.4.3.3 Ageing

Polymer ageing generally refers to the degrading effectof temperature and time. The chemical breakdown isby a process of oxidation with a similar mechanism tothat of radiation. The current, very simple, test (ENVISO 13438) is to measure the fabric strength beforeand after oven exposure at an elevated temperature.However, a new, more realistic and predictive test, isunder development which employs high pressureoxygen (47).

3.4.3.4 Chemical Resistance

Section 3.2.5 referred to the relative chemical resistanceof the main geotextile polymers. Polyolefins, likepolypropylene and polyethylene, have a better chemicalresistance than polyester to the chemicals likely to beencountered in most applications. Within thepolyethylene range, the higher the density or crystallinitythe better the chemical resistance.

There is a test specifically for assessing the resistanceof polyester to hydrolysis. The test conditions are28 days in water at 95 °C (66, 68, 220).

Another test, for all geotextile polymers, determinesthe effect of acid (dilute sulphuric acid, pH 3) and alkali

Geosynthetics

14

(saturated calcium hydroxide solution, pH 12). Theseacid and alkaline conditions are regarded as theextremes likely to be met in a soil environment.

A third screening test, under development, againchallenges the fabrics with acid and alkali but inaddition offers a third method which simulates a typicallandfill leachate. The synthetic leachate contains14 chemicals, many of which are organic acids. As forother durability tests, tensile strength is measuredbefore and after treatment.

Reference a.9 provides a useful Table (p.107) whichshows the effect of pH on the degradation of variousgeotextiles (20 °C for 120 days). The work showed,for example, that a non woven geotextile made frompolyester staple fibres, lost half of its strength afterexposure to sodium hydroxide solution for 120 days at20 °C.

3.5 Construction Products Directive: CEMarking

A European Directive, which is relevant to geotextilesand related products is the Construction ProductsDirective (CPD), 89/106/EEC. This directive requiresthat all construction products (including geotextiles),used in the civil engineering and building industries,shall be CE marked after satisfying the requirementsof the appropriate application or ‘RequiredCharacteristic Standard’. Compliance with the directiveis compulsory in order to permit the placing on themarket and the free movement of regulated goodswithin Europe, irrespective of their origin. The CE markenables the inspection authorities to confirm that theproducts satisfy the regulations.

The harmonised requirement standards (number andend use) for geotextiles are given in Table 5.

selitxetoegrofsdradnatsdesinomraH5elbaT

dradnatS esu-dnE raeY eltiT

94231NESB sdaoR 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGdnasdaorfonoitcurtsnocehtniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC)noisulcnitlahpsadnasyawliargnidulcxe(saeradekciffartrehto

05231NESB syawliaR 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGsyawliarfonoitcurtsnocehtniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

15231NESB skrowhtraE 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGdnasnoitadnuof,skrowhtraeniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

serutcurtsgniniater

25231NESB eganiarD 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGsmetsyseganiardniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

35231NESB lortnocnoisorE 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGlatsaoc(skrowlortnocnoisoreniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

)stnemteverknab,noitcetorp

45231NESB dnasriovreseRsmad

1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGsriovreserfonoitcurtsnocehtniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

smaddna

55231NESB slanaC 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGslanacfonoitcurtsnocehtniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

65231NESB slennuT 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGslennutfonoitcurtsnocehtniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

serutcurtsdnuorgrednudna

75231NESB etsawdiloS 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGslasopsidetsawdilosniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

56231NESB etsawdiuqiL 1002 .stcudorpdetaler-elitxetoegdnaselitxetoeGtnemniatnocetsawdiuqilniesurofderiuqerscitsiretcarahC

stcejorp

Geosynthetics

15

These EN requirement standards instruct manufacturersto declare the mean value and tolerance of certainproduct characteristics. The required characteristicsdepend on the end use and function (separation,filtration, etc.) of the fabric. These characteristics aredetermined by some of the test methods listed inTable 3. Some tests (referred to as H tests in thestandards) are mandatory, i.e., required by Mandate M/107 issued by the European Community to theEuropean standardisation committee for geotextiles,CEN 189. Some (referred to as A tests in the standards)are relevant to all conditions of use. The A tests are notlegally required but are commercially important. A thirdtest category (S) is relevant to specific conditions of use.

For more information and detail on the CPD and CEmarking of geotextiles, the reader is recommended toconsult a relevant and useful web site on quality andstandardisation of geotextiles (www.vinci-quality.com).

It should be noted that ‘geotextile related products’includes all other categories of geosynthetic exceptgeomembranes and GCLs. The latter two groups arenow known as ‘geosynthetic barriers’ and are in aseparate CPD sector from geotextiles and relatedproducts.

The application standards for geosynthetic barriers are,at the time of writing, still at the provisional stage(prENs). There are five provisional geosynthetic barrierstandards (www.vinci-quality.com):

• prEN 13361 reservoir and dam construction

• prEN 13362 canal construction

• prEN 13491 fluid barrier in tunnel and undergroundstructures

• prEN 13492 liquid waste containment

• prEN 13493 solid and hazardous waste storage

4 Geomembranes


Geomembranes are thin, flexible sheets of material withvery low permeability. They are manufactured fromsynthetic or bituminous products and may be

strengthened with a fabric or film. Geomembranes areemployed invariably as a barrier to prevent the passageof gases and fluids.

A commonly accepted definition of a geomembranefrom the ASTM is:

A geomembrane is a continuous membrane liner orbarrier having sufficiently low permeability tocontrol migration of fluids in a constructed project,structure or dam.

The original geomembranes were made of butyl rubber.Nowadays, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or some form ofpolyethylene account for a high proportion of the totalgeomembrane useage. The different types ofgeomembrane polymer will be discussed in more detaillater (Section 4.2).

The manufacture of geomembranes commences withthe production of the raw materials, i.e., the polymerresin and a wide range of additives such as stabilisers,plasticisers, softeners, fillers, processing aids etc.

The raw materials can then be processed in three ways:

The first method produces the simplest type ofgeomembrane; single ply and non-reinforced. In thismethod the raw materials are blended and compoundedbefore being extruded as sheets or cylinders. Theextruder produces sheet material 0.1 to 5 mm thick and1 to 5 m wide. Calendering, or pressing the sheetsbetween counter rotating rollers, works them intouniform thickness and improves the mechanicalproperties. Full thickness sheets can also be blown intoa large long bubble which is cut and opened into thefinal sheet form.

In the second method, multi-ply geomembranes aremade by laminating several layers together. Laminatedgeomembranes can be non-reinforced or reinforced byinclusion of a fabric scrim between the layers. Thescrim improves the mechanical properties (e.g., tensileand tear strength) of the composite material but doesnot reinforce the soil on which the geomembrane isplaced.

The third production method is known as spreadcoating. In this method, a geotextile, usually a needle-punched non-woven, is used as a substrate on whichthe molten polymer is spread into its final thickness.

Geomembrane manufacturing methods are describedin more detail in (a.9).

Geosynthetics

16

The surface of some geomembranes is roughened ortextured, by spraying or embossing, to increase thesoil/polymer friction (a.19). Three common techniquesare coextrusion, lamination and impingement (a.20):

• Coextrusion uses a blowing agent in the extrudatewhich expands on cooling to cause a roughenedsurface.

• In lamination, a sheet containing a foam is adheredto a conventional sheet. The foaming agentprovides a froth that produces a rough, texturedlaminate stuck to the smooth, solid sheet.

• Impingement is the projection of hot particles onto the smooth sheet.

A review of these texturing techniques and a discussionon characterisation of the surface topography has beenpresented by Zettler and co-workers (7).

4.2 Polymers

The vast majority of geomembranes are thin sheets offlexible thermoplastic or thermosetting polymericmaterials. The main polymers used are (a.9):

Thermoplastic polymers

• Polyethylene (PE) – high density (HDPE), mediumdensity (MDPE), linear low density (LLDPE), lowdensity (LDPE), very low density (VLDPE)

• Polypropylene (PP)

• Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

• Chlorinated polyethylene (CPE)

• Polyamide (PA)

Thermoset polymers

• Isoprene-isobutylene (IIR) or butyl rubber

• Epichlorohydrin rubber

• Ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer (EDPM)

• Polychloroprene (Neoprene)

• Ethylene-propylene terpolymer (EPT)

• Ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA)

• Ethylene interpolymer alloy (EIA)

Combination polymers

• PVC-nitrile rubber

• PE-EPDM

• PVC-EVA

• Crosslinked CPE

• Chlorosulfonated polyethylene (CSPE) ‘Hypalon’

Others

• Bitumen impregnated geotextiles

• Elastomer impregnated geotextiles

• Aluminium foil coated geomembranes forprotection against hydrocarbons (329).

Which geomembrane polymer to choose depends, asusual, on its properties, availability and, of course, onthe application and structure in which the geomembraneis to be incorporated. The properties will be discussedin more detail in Section 4.4 (Testing).

No study appears to have been performed whichcompares the properties of all these polymers asgeomembrane sheets. However, Table 6 (a.21) providesa useful qualitative comparison of geomembrane linersmade from eight polymers and, another type ofgeosynthetic barrier known as a geosynthetic clay liner(GCL). The attributes considered are physical properties,durability, installation damage, seaming and cost.

Table 6 refers to seaming methods, that is to say thetechniques used to join together the membrane sheetseither at the factory or on site. Production of a leaktight and durable seam is clearly vital otherwise thegeomembrane’s function as a fluid barrier is lost. Thereare several general seaming methods. The choice isgoverned by the polymer and site requirements.

• Solvent: A liquid solvent is brushed between twosheets of membrane followed by pressure to formthe seal.

• Adhesive: A glue dissolved in a solvent is appliedby brush or roller to the membrane sheets which arebrought together after the surface becomes tacky.

Geosynthetics

17

• Thermal: There is a range of thermal methods inwhich the opposing surfaces are melted by somemeans such as hot air or electrically heated knifeor wedge. The melted surfaces are pressed togetherby rollers.

• Mechanical: The usual mechanical joining methodsare utilisation of sticky tapes or sewing. The sewnseams are subsequently waterproofed.

The solvent and adhesive methods tend to be used forthermoplastic polymers and elastomers such as PVC,

sremylopfonosirapmoc;senarbmemoeG6elbaT

etubirttA EPDH EPDLL CVP MDPE AIE decrofnieREPSC

PPelbixelF LCG

lacimehCecnatsiser

tnellecxE dooG riaF dooG tnellecxEnehw()deruc

tnellecxE tnellecxE riaF

nobracordyHecnatsiser

dooG dooG riaF dooG tnellecxEnehw()deruc

dooG dooG rooP

;gnirehtaeWVU

ecnatsiser

tnellecxE riaF rooP tnellecxE tnellecxEnehw()deruc

tnellecxE tnellecxE rooP

lamrehTytilibats

rooP rooP dooG tnellecxE dooG tnellecxE –dooGtnellecxe

nehwdecrofnier

dooG

elisneTseitreporp

dooG dooG dooG dooG tnellecxE tnellecxE –dooGtnellecxe

nehwdecrofnier

dooG

;noitagnolElaixainu

tnellecxE tnellecxE dooG dooG riaF dooG tnellecxE riaF

;noitagnolElaixaitlum

rooP tnellecxE tnellecxE dooG riaF dooG tnellecxE riaF

erutcnuPecnatsiser

riaF tnellecxE tnellecxE dooG tnellecxE dooG dooG dooG

ssertSgnikcarc

riaF dooG tonseoDrucco

tonseoDrucco

tonseoDrucco

tonseoDrucco

tonseoDrucco

tonseoDrucco

ecnatsiseRot

noitallatsniegamad

riaF riaF tnellecxE tnellecxE dooG dooG tnellecxE dooG

gnimaeSsdohtem

/lamrehTtnellecxe

/lamrehTtnellecxe

rolamrehTtnevlos/gnidnob

doog

epaTdoog/smaes

/lamrehTtnellecxe

rolamrehTtnevlosgnidnob

doog

/lamrehTtnellecxe

ylnospaL

foesaEniriaper

ecivres

dooG dooG dooG dooG dooG sdeenrooPsevisehda

tnellecxE AN

ytilibixelF riaF tnellecxE dooG dooG dooG dooG tnellecxE AN

tsoclloR woL /woLmuidem

muidem /muideMhgih

hgiH hgiH muideM muideM

)12.a(reildaS.MmorfnoissimrephtiwdecudorpeR

Geosynthetics

18

CPE, EDPM, and CSPE. Thermal methods can beemployed for most thermoplastic polymers but areespecially important for semi-crystalline polyethylenematerials like HDPE and LDPE. A more detaileddescription of geomembrane seaming is given in Chapter5 of Designing with Geosynthetics by Koerner (a.9).

Some further advantages and disadvantages of specificpolymers are now given.

PVC (polyvinyl chloride)

• Tough without reinforcement

• Good seams by dielectric, solvent or heat

• Elasticised for flexibility, plasticiser leaches withtime

CPE (chlorinated polyethylene)

• Seams easy to make by dielectric or solvent

• Plasticised with PVC

CSPE (chlorosulfonated polyethylene thermoplasticrubber)

• Good seams by heat or adhesive

Butyl

• Poor field seams

• Low gas permeability

CP (chloroprene/neoprene cured rubber)

• Fair field seams using solvent and tape

HDPE

• Good seams by thermal or extrusion methods

• Low friction surfaces

• High thermal expansion and contraction

MDPE, LDPE and VLDPE


• Moderate thermal expansion and contraction

LLDPE

• High friction surface


• Large variation in thickness

Further comparative properties are given in Table 7which has been generated from information inreferences a.9 and a.22.

segatnavdasiddnasegatnavda:sremylopenarbmemoeG7elbaT

rotcaF CVP EPC EPSC lytuB PC EPDH EPDMEPDLEPDLV

EPDLL

tsoC wol muidem muidem otmuidemhgih

hgih wol wol muidem

lacimehCecnatsiser

- doog doog - doog tnellecxe doog doogyrev

gnirehtaeW roop doog tnellecxe otriafdoog

doog - - -

hgiHerutarepmet

roop - riaf doog doog - - -

kcarcdloC roop doog doog - - - - -

ssertSkcarc

- - - - - evitisnes enon enon

rebburenerporolhc=PC

Geosynthetics

19

Four of the more common geomembrane polymers arenow discussed.

4.2.1 Polyethylene

The most common form of polyethylene used for linersin, for example landfill, is known as high densitypolyethylene (HDPE). Strictly, HDPE is a mediumdensity resin made more dense by the addition ofcarbon black as a UV absorber. HDPE has a highcrystallinity which, in part, accounts for its goodchemical and UV light resistance.

The longevity of HDPE has been demonstrated byexcavating and retesting samples after 20 yearsexposure to waste water from a steam electricgenerating station (a.23). The study showed that nosignificant reduction in physical properties (tensile,tear, puncture) had taken place over this time period.Disadvantages of HDPE are its lack of flexibility, itshigh coefficient of thermal expansion and itssusceptibility to environmental stress cracking (ESC).HDPE geomembrane seams are made by thermalfusion, hot wedge or extrusion fillet welding.

Polyethylene is also known in lower density forms,namely very low density (VLDPE), medium density(MDPE) and linear low density (LLDPE). These lowdensity variants are more flexible and have better ESCperformance. However, their low crystallinity meansthat their chemical resistance is poorer than HDPE.

Polyethylene ozone resistance is superior to many otherpolymers due to the very low level of unsaturation inthe molecular structure. Oxidation resistance is alsogood in stabilised polyethylene products.

4.2.2 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

PVC is normally a brittle and rigid polymer. However,additives can be added to improve processing as well asproperties. Typical additives for flexible PVC are:

• Lead salts and organic compounds of barium, calciumand other metals to improve heat and light stability.

• Lubricating additives, such as stearates orpalmitates, to improve processability.

• Plasticisers to improve flexibility.

It is the presence and potential mobility of theplasticisers which make PVC susceptible to various

chemicals and UV radiation. The latter can cause lossof the plasticiser and a reversion of the PVC to its brittlestate. Suitably plasticised PVC is one of the mostflexible and workable membranes. PVC geomembraneseams used to be formed, universally, by chemicalbonding but more recently thermal fusion welding hasbeen successfully employed.

A comprehensive review of the durability of PVCgeosynthetics is given in (244). In this review, PVCchemistry, processing methods, agencies andmechanisms of degradation and an account of earlierstudies, are covered in some detail.

4.2.3 Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene (CSPE)

In CSPE, also known as Hypalon, hydrogen atoms inthe polyethylene backbone are replaced by chlorine andsulfur atoms. This chemical modification results insoftening of the geomembrane, which makes thematerial easier to work and seam. CSPE geomembranesare always scrim reinforced to improve dimensionalstability and other mechanical properties. CSPE, whennew, can be seamed by solvent bonding or thermalmethods. However, it gradually crosslinks or cures withexposure. Once cured the polymer becomesthermoplastic and seaming has to be undertaken usingsolvent based adhesives.

As Table 6 indicates, CSPE has very good chemicaland UV resistance.

4.2.4 Polypropylene

Polypropylene, the most popular geotextile polymer,is much less common as a constituent ofgeomembranes. Polymer catalyst developments haveenabled flexible polypropylene (FPP) sheets to beproduced by extrusion or calendering. FPP sheets canbe both reinforced and unreinforced. Unreinforcedpolypropylene sheets are very flexible and have highelongation. Unlike HDPE, stress cracking (ESC) is nota problem with FPP which, along with flexibility,probably represents its advantages compared withHDPE. FPP is easy to seam using thermal methods. Itsresistance to common chemicals and UV exposure isgood provided that the polymer is suitably stabilised.

4.2.5 Ethylene Interpolymer Alloy (EIA)

EIA geomembranes are an alloy of PVC with a specialethylene interpolymer (EI) which results in a flexible

Geosynthetics

20

plasticiser free material. EIA geomembranes maintainthe advantages of PVC but have a high degree ofdurability and chemical resistance, especially tohydrocarbons and high temperature. EIA isthermoplastic and so can be bonded using conventionalthermal welding methods.

Some comparative physical properties ofgeomembranes, made from various polymers, areshown in Table 8.

These comparative figures show, inter alia:

• The very high rupture strain of the olefinicpolymers; FPP, LLDPE and HDPE

• The high strength (stress) of the reinforcedmaterials; FPP-R and EIA-R

• The high thermal expansion of HDPE and the lowvalue for reinforced FPP

• The excellent puncture resistance of FPP

4.3 End Uses

Unlike geotextiles, geomembranes really have only oneprimary function; namely to act as a barrier to fluids(liquids and gases). Geomembranes are, therefore,designed to be impermeable. To all intents andpurposes, and certainly compared with other competingmaterials like clay or GCLs, geomembranes, employedas a barrier, are impermeable to liquids like water.However, because of the microporous nature of theconstituent polymer molecules, geomembranes arepermeable, to a small degree, to gases such as methaneor carbon dioxide.

Geomembranes are employed, as a waterproof or gasproof barrier, in a range of applications in geotechnicalstructures. Some examples (a.9) of geomembraneuseage are:

• As liners for waste liquids, potable waters, solarponds

• Canal and reservoir liners

• Solid waste landfill liners

• Solid waste landfill covers or caps (210)

• Landfill odour control

)12.a(senarb

memoeg

foseitreporplacisyh

P8

elbaT

ytreporP

dohteM

stinU

PP

FE

PD

LL

CV

PR-

EPS

CE

PD

HR-

PP

FR-

AIE

laixainuniarts

erutpuR

%058

008003

09057

laixaitlum

niartserutpu

R%

051051

01153

03

ssertstsru

B7165

DM

TSA

aPM

5161

4181

5324

niartstsru

B%

0906

0951

5152

noisnapxefo

tneiciffeoC

/mc/

mc°C

01x

215-

01x

215-

01x

24-

01x

26-

thgieheno

C.htgnertserutcnuP

4155D

MTS

Amc

0.018.7

0.78.1

0.10.4

decrofnier=

R-

Geosynthetics

21

• Tunnel waterproofing (113)

• Facing of earth and rockfill dams

• Floating reservoir covers to reduce evaporation lossor prevent pollution

• Prevention of gas seepage beneath buildings (e.g.,radon and hydrocarbons)

• As a waterproofing layer beneath asphalt overlays

• To form barrier tubes as dams

• Liquid storage (polymer selection important)

• Contaminated land barrier walls (177)

By far the commonest and most important use ofgeomembranes is in landfill sites as a liner containingwaste where its function is to prevent the passage ofleachate (liquid formed by interaction of rain water withthe waste products) into aquifers and river systems.

4.4 Testing and Properties of Geomembranes

As with geotextiles (Section 3.4), geomembrane testscan be subdivided into various categories;characterisation or identification, physical ormechanical, and durability. The hydraulic category doesnot yet feature because there are, currently, no fullEuropean or international standards for determining thewater permeability of geomembranes.

Table 9 lists the important properties of geomembranes,the standard test methods and some appropriatecomments.

It will be noticed in Table 9 that most of the standardtests, currently used to characterise and specifygeomembranes, are American (ASTM). This is becausethe American committee on standardisation ofgeomembranes (D 35) is further advanced than thecomparable European (CEN 189) and Internationalcommittees. Consequently, many ASTM tests havebeen, and are being, called up in geomembranespecifications and brochures. Most of the Europeantests are at the draft or provisional stage (prENS). Someof these drafts are included in Table 9.

Brief remarks follow on a few critical tests where thechemical or morphological nature of the constituentpolymer has a strong influence on the properties of thegeomembrane sheet.

4.4.1 Tensile Properties

In the commonest geomembrane tensile test, thespecimen, in the shape of a dumbbell or dogbone,38 mm long and 6.3 mm wide in the narrow centralregion, is extended to rupture. This is an index test usedfor quality control, comparison of different variationswithin one material, comparison of different types ofgeomembrane and conformance to a specification. Forreinforced geomembranes, the dumbbell shape is notsuitable and a strip specimen is tested which includesseveral elements of the reinforcing scrim.

The shape of the stress-strain curves, generated bystretching the material to failure, depends on severalfactors, of which polymer type and state are the mostimportant. Many non-reinforced membrane materials(PVC, PP) show a gradual increase in stress, with strain,until failure. HDPE, and other polyethylenes, exhibita pronounced yield point at low extension (10-12%),followed by a slight dip and then a very long elongationto failure (Figure 3). The reason for this yield and longextension behaviour is that polymer molecules inHDPE geomembrane sheets are not oriented, i.e., theyare not lined up parallel to the test strain direction.When the molecules are oriented during manufacture,as in yarns or geogrids, the stress-strain curve changes.The yield disappears, stiffness increases and extensionat break reduces.

For any one polymer type, the molecular arrangementgoverns the material properties. The essential factors are:

• Orientation (molecular alignment)

• Molecular weight

• Molecular weight distribution

• Crystallinity

• Degree of crosslinking

For example, increasing the average molecular weightresults in an increase in tensile strength, elongation andother mechanical properties such as tensile, punctureand impact strength. Resistance to heat and stresscracking are also improved.

Increasing polymer crystallinity causes an increase intensile strength, modulus and hardness, but elongation,flexibility, impact strength and stress crack resistanceis reduced.

Geosynthetics

22

senarbmemoegrofstsetdradnatS9elbaT

yrogetaC ytreporP dohtemtseT stnemmoC

noitasiretcarahC ssenkcihT 9915MTSA scitehtnysoegllafossenkcihtlanimoN

ssenkcihT 4995DMTSA senarbmemoegderutxetfossenkcihteroC

ssenkcihT 3951DMTSA decrofnierrofdesunetfonoitacificepsCVPsenarbmemoeg

ssenkcihT 157DMTSA rofdesunoitacificepslarenegcirbafdetaoCsenarbmemoeghtooms

)nmuloc(ytisneD 5051DMTSA diuqilanisknisnemicepshcihwotleveLtneidargytisnedahtiwnmuloc

)tnemecalpsid(ytisneD 9-297DMTSA riadnaretawnithgiewmorfdenimreteD

tnetnockcalbnobraC 3061DMTSA .rebrosbaVUkcalbnobraCerehpsomtanegortinnisisyloryP

tnetnockcalbnobraC 8124DMTSA ecanrufelffumgnisurianisisyloryP

noisrepsidkcalbnobraC 5103DMTSA remylopniselcitrapnobracfonoitubirtsiD.xirtam

sdradnatsrebburgnisudohtemdlO

noisrepsidkcalbnobraC 6955DMTSA nifeloyloprofyllaicepsdohtemweNsenarbmemoeg

noitprosbaretaW 075DMTSA

xedniwolftleM 8321DMTSA taecifirohguorhtdedurtxecitsalpfoetarwolFerutarepmetdnadaoltnatsnoc

ytilibatslanoisnemiD 4021DMTSA riatohoT

ruopavretaWytilibaemrep

69EMTSA ;tneidargytidimuhssorcarefsnartssaMytisoropfonoitacidni

ytilibaemrepretaW 05141NErp )131(

ytilibaemrepsaG 4341DMTSA

/lacisyhPlacinahcem

seitreporpelisneT)llebbmud(

836DMTSA .niartstnatsnoctakaerbotdednetxenemicepSkaerbdnadleiytanoisnetxednahtgnertS

seitreporpelisneT)pirts(

288DMTSA senarbmemoegdecrofnierroF

seitreporpelisneT 91301OSINE )441(selitxetoegmorfdetpadatsethtdiwediW

htgnertsraeT 4001DMTSA tnecsercnohctontagniraetetaitiniotecroFnemicepsdepahs

ecnatsisererutcnuP SMTF5602/C101

tanemicepshguorhtnevirdeborpderepaTdeepstnatsnoc

ecnatsisererutcnuP)RBC(

OSINESB63221

hguorhtnevirdregnulprednilycmm05deepstnatsnoctanemiceps

)raehs(htgnertsmaeS 7344DMTSA detoneruliaffoedomdnaecrofmumixaM

)leep(htgnertsmaeS 314DMTSA detoneruliaffoedomdnaecrofmumixaM

Geosynthetics

23

)deunitnoC(senarbmemoegrofstsetdradnatS9elbaT


ytilibaruD ssertslatnemnorivnE)CSE(gnikcarc

7935DMTSA nihctonfonoitagaporp,tsetssertstnatsnoCtnatcafrusfoecneserp

noitcudnievitadixO)TIO(emit

5983DMTSA siTIO.retemirolacCSDnidetaehnemicepSfotratsotnegyxofonoitaitinimorfemit

noitisopmoced

)gnirehtaew(thgilVU 42221VNE yarpsretawrh1ybdewollofthgilAVU,rh5rh034rof

noitadixO OSIVNE83431

011ro001:tsetnevO ° ,syad65ot41rofCremylopnognidneped

sdiuqiL OSIVNE06921

dicafoenarbmemoegnotceffE:tsetgnineercS06tasyad3,ilakladna °C

sisylordyH 72221VNE 59:retawfotceffE ° syad82rofC

smsinagroorciM 52221NESB 62taskeew61:tsetlairublioS ° HR%59,C

ecnatsiserlacimehC 0909APE 05dna32taetahcaeL ° dna09,06,03rofCsyad021

Figure 3Stress-strain curves of geomembranes

Geosynthetics

24

4.4.2 Durability

The ability to resist a range of environmental agenciesis even more important for geomembranes thangeotextiles since they are often in the presence ofaggressive materials such as landfill leachates.

One property of particular concern is environmentalstress cracking.

4.4.2.1 Environmental Stress Cracking (ESC)

ESC is the failure, by brittle fracture, of plasticmaterials at stresses well below their ultimate yieldtensile stress, in the presence of chemicals such assurfactants. Such premature failure will result in thegeomembrane losing its function as an impermeablebarrier, i.e., it will leak. Field experience of this problemhas been described (297). There are other importantpapers on ESC (44, 233).

ESC is assessed by the ‘Notched Constant Tensile Load’test (Table 8) in which a notched dumbbell shapedspecimen is placed, under constant load (30% of yieldstress), in a surface wetting agent at elevated temperature(50 °C). The time to failure by cracking across the notchis recorded. 200 hours is currently regarded as anacceptable time limit for this test (298, a.24, a.25).

Only crystalline polyethylene polymers suffer from thisphenomenon. In general, the higher the crystallinity(as indicated by density) the poorer the ESCperformance, i.e., high density polyethylene (HDPE)is especially susceptible to ESC. Manufacturers of thesecrystalline polyolefin polymers have to makemodifications to the chemical structure to reduce theirstress cracking tendency to an acceptable level

A report, explaining the causes and implications ofESC, has been written by Wright (92).

4.4.2.2 Chemical Resistance

The chemical resistance of various geosyntheticpolymers is referred to in Section 4.2. There are nofinal European tests for chemicals at the time of writing,although it is likely that the geotextile tests for liquids(acid/alkali) and the synthetic leachate screening testwill be adopted for geomembranes.

The test procedure EPA 9090, devised in the USA bythe Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), has been

the preferred method for determining whether a polymeris chemically compatible with a landfill leachate. Thisis a performance test in that the geomembranes areusually immersed in actual leachates from the site ratherthan to a standard leachate made up in the laboratory.The protocol is quite complex and time consuming.Geomembrane samples are exposed to the leachate at23 °C and 50 °C for periods of 30, 60, 90 and 120 days.A range of physical tests is then performed on specimensremoved after these intervals. The tests includedimensions (thickness, length, width), tensile properties,initial modulus, tear and puncture strength. Graphs aregenerated of percentage change in the properties versusincubation duration (days). Assessment of the curvesrequires skill and judgement to decide whether theproperty-time trends (if detected) are realistic andsignificant before pronouncing on chemicalcompatibility, and hence suitability, of the polymer toexposure in a particular leachate.

Many reports and papers have been written on thesubject of geomembrane polymer chemical resistance.A selection of interesting and relevant references fromthe Rapra Polymer Library is now given:

• Comparison of PVC with other geomembranes (48)

• Chemical compatibility of LLDPE to organic fluids(50)

• Effect of a range of organic compounds on HDPE,LLDPE, VLDPE and PP geomembranes (57, 58,59, 60)

• Chemical tests on HDPE (77)

• Chemical resistivity of VLDPE (84)

• Durability of polyethylene based geomembranesto aggressive liquids (86)

• Permeation of organic compounds through HDPE(115)

• Diffusion of aromatic liquids through HDPE,LLDPE, VLDPE, and PP geomembranes (121)

• A review of durability considerations for PVC ingeosynthetics applications (244)

4.4.2.3 UV Radiation

The general comments on UV/weathering testing ofgeotextiles apply equally to geomembranes. Carbon

Geosynthetics

25

black is again added to the polymer to absorb UVradiation. Horrocks and co-workers have writtenauthoritative articles on the effect of carbon black onthe thermal and photo-oxidative degradation ofpolyolefins (54, 227). Other compounds like hinderedamine light stabilisers (HALS) are also very effectiveUV and thermal stabilisers (96).

5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCLs)


Geosynthetic clay liners (GCLs) are members of thegeosynthetic family of products. They are essentiallyprefabricated bentonite clay blankets used as waterbarriers. The first GCL was invented by James Clemin 1980 and later manufactured by Clem EnvironmentalCorp. in Fairmont, Georgia. There are two basic typesof GCL:

• Bentonite sandwiched between two geotextiles(Type A)

• Bentonite glued to a geomembrane (Type B)

The main Type A product consists of bentonitesandwiched between a woven and a non-woven needlepunched geotextile. The bentonite is mechanicallybonded by needle punching fibres from the non-wovengeotextile, through the bentonite to the other wovengeotextile. Commercial GCLs made by this methodinclude Bentofix and Bentomat.

In other Type A products, bentonite is mixed withadhesive and held between two woven geotextiles.Additional support for the clay component is providedby stitch bonding in which the structure is held togetherby stitches sewn at intervals across the width or alongthe length of the GCL.

5.2 Polymers and Constituent Materials

As explained in Section 5.1, The main constituent ofGCLs is not a polymer (synthetic or natural) but a claymineral called bentonite. Bentonite is the name of theclay material originally mined in the Fort Bentonformation of Rock Creek, Wyoming. Bentonite is amixture of minerals composed mainly (60 to 90%) ofmontmorillonite, the least permeable of all the clay

minerals. It is a highly colloidal smectic material formedfrom volcanic ash originally deposited in ancient lakes,estuaries or ocean basins. Chemically, montmorilloniteis a hydrous aluminium silicate with a structuralsandwich of one ionic sheet of aluminium and hydroxylbetween two silicate (Si4 O10)4 sheets, i.e., sandwichespiled on top of each other with water between andnothing but weak bonds to hold them together. As a resultof this structure, additional water can readily enter thelattice and cause the mineral to swell appreciably, thusfurther weakening the attraction between the layers.

Chemicals are often added to the bentonite (e.g., sodaash or polymers) to improve its swelling and waterabsorbency.

Bentonite absorbs very large amounts of water andswells to many times its original volume whenhydrated. When bentonite is confined and hydrated,this property creates a uniform, low permeability(hydraulic conductivity, 10-12 to 10–10 m/s) clay sealwith self healing characteristics.

Sodium and calcium bentonite are the two common formsof this material. Sodium bentonite has a higher waterabsorbency, swells more and thus has a lower hydraulicconductivity than the calcium form. For example, the freeswell values of these materials (a.27) are:

sodium bentonite 1400-1600%calcium bentonite 125%

The other components of GCLs are, as indicated earlier,the covering geotextiles; woven and non-woven. Theconstituent polymer of these geotextile layers is nearlyalways polypropylene (see Section 3.2.2).

5.3 End Uses

GCLs, like geomembranes, have but one functionwhich is to act as a barrier to fluids, notably water.They are often used either as a substitute forgeomembranes or as an additional layer in conjunctionwith geomembranes, i.e., a second line of defence.

GCLs are suitable for various lining applications:

• Landfill liners (their most common outlet)

• Landfill covers

• Liquid containment; reservoirs, canals, fly ashlagoons, lakes and ponds

Geosynthetics

26

• Secondary containment, e.g., around fuel storagetanks

• Animal waste containment

• Lining heap leach mining facilities

• Earthen dam cores

5.4 Testing and Properties of GCLs

In some GCL standard methods, the whole compositesandwich is tested. In others, tests are performed onthe bentonite component only.

Table 10 lists the most commonly specified GCLstandard test methods (composite and bentonite).

A useful book is available called ‘Testing and AcceptanceCriteria for Geosynthetic Clay Liners’ which summarisesavailable products, provides guidance on many vitalGCL tests, gives insight into applications and makessuggestions for specifications (a.26).

5.4.1 Hydraulic Conductivity

As the primary function of GCLs is to prevent, orgreatly reduce the passage of water, it is no surprisethat the most important test for these materials is waterpermeability or hydraulic conductivity. This test iscarried out in a flexible wall permeameter of the typeused for soil permeability determination. The rate offlow of deaired and deionised water, through hydratedGCL, is measured at constant confining pressure andpressure gradient. The two tests, listed in Table 10,operate at different pressure conditions and reportdifferent quantities. ASTM D5084 calculates hydraulicconductivity (a specific unit) from the flow value. Thisterm takes into account thickness and hydraulicgradient across the sample. The much simpler ASTMD5887 test determines only the flux which is simplythe volume flow through the sample in m3/m2/s. Theflux, then, is dependent on the thickness, and hydraulicgradient across, the GCL specimen.

Hydraulic conductivity depends on leachatecomposition as well as bentonite type and quality.

5.4.2 Friction

Hydrated bentonite has a very low shear strength(effective cohesion of 4-8 kPa, internal friction angle

8-9 degrees) and could fail if laid on slopes unlessreinforced by needle punched fibres or some otherstrengthening method. Needle punching improves thecohesion to 30 kPa and the internal friction angle toabout 25 degrees. Work on the shear behaviour ofreinforced (130) and unreinforced (106) GCLs has beenperformed by Eid and Stark. Apart from measuringfriction by direct shear, some indication of the internalstrength of the GCL can be obtained from peel tests.

6 Geogrids


According to ASTM (committee D35 geosynthetics) ageogrid is defined as follows:

A geosynthetic used for reinforcement which is formedby a regular network of tensile elements which hasapertures of sufficient size to allow strike-through ofsurrounding soil, rock or other geotechnical material.

A simpler descriptive definition is provided by theGeosynthetic Research Institute (GRI):

Stiff or flexible polymer grid-like sheets with largeapertures used primarily as reinforcement of unstablesoils and waste masses.

As the definitions infer, the key feature of a geogrid isthe openings between the longitudinal and transverseribs, known as the apertures, which are typically 1 to10 cm between the ribs.

Geogrids can be either uniaxial or biaxial. Uniaxialgeogrids are designed to be stressed in one direction.The ribs of uniaxial grids tend to be thick and havelong, narrow slit like apertures. Biaxial grids can takestresses in both directions. The apertures of biaxial gridsare near square or oblong rather than slit shaped. Thisform of geogrid is manufactured in the followingmanner.

Holes are punched, in a regular pattern, into a sheet ofheavy duty polyethylene or polypropylene. The sheetis then drawn or stretched uniaxially or biaxially.Drawing is carried out under controlled temperatureand strain rate, or draw ratio, to allow free flow of themolecules into an elongated or oriented state.Companies manufacturing this type of geogrid includeTensar Corp. and Tenax Corp.

Geosynthetics

27

sLCGrofstsetdradnatS01elbaT


lareneG gnitsetecnatpeccAstnemeriuqer

5946DMTSA ediuG

lortnocytilauQ 9885DMTSA ecitcarpdradnatS

gnildnahdnaegarotS 8885DMTSA ediuG

gnilpmaS 2706DMTSA ediuG

noitallatsnI 2016DMTSA ediuG

etinotneB xednillewseerF 0985DMTSA ytilibaemrepotdetalertsetxednI

xednillewseerF IIVXFN-PSU nietinotnebfog2foemulovllewSretawfolm001

xednillewsdenifnoC 1-LCGIRG daolrednullewsfoeergeD

tnetnocerutsioM 6122DMTSA dohtemnevO

noitartiteulbenelyhteM 131PRIPA fotnuomasetacidniegnahcxenoitaCetinotnebevitca

tnetnocetinolliromtnoM noitcarffidyar-X

noitprosbaretaW 649EMTSA aivetinotnebfonoitprosbaretaWetalpsuoropdetarutas

tnetnocetinotneB dohtemdradnatsoN neewtebgnicaps;noitcarffidyar-Xsmotafosenalp

ecnatsiserlacimehC 1416DMTSA

ssoldiulF 1985DMTSA

noitasiretcarahC aeratinurepssaM 3995DMTSA

aeratinurepssaM 1625DMTSA

ssenkcihT 9915DMTSA

lacinahceM )htdiwediw(htgnertselisneT 5954DMTSA tsetelitxetoegotralimiS

)htdiwediw(htgnertselisneT 91301OSINESB tsetelitxetoegotralimiS

)barg(htgnertselisneT 2364DMTSA tsetelitxetoegotralimiS

)RBC(htgnertserutcnuP 63221OSINESB tsetelitxetoegotralimiS

delleveb(htgnertserutcnuP)eborp

3384DMTSA

htgnertsleeP 314DMTSA)deifidoM(

htgnertsraehslanretniforotacidnI

noitcirF 3426DMTSA raehsecafretnidnalanretnIecnatsiser

noitcirF 1-75921OSINErp

gnihcaelotecnatsiseR 51441NEtfarD dnasdiuqilenilakla,retawtoHslohoclacinagro

Geosynthetics

28

Other forms of geogrid are:

• High tenacity polyester strips ultrasonically bondedat their junctions (Signode Geogrids)

• Polyester filaments bundled together and enclosedwithin a polyethylene sheath. Junctions are formedby melt bonding the polypropylene at the ribintersections (Paragrids, Linear Composites Ltd.)

• Polyester yarns, woven in an open structure, withthe junctions knitted together to link the transverseand longitudinal ribs and coated with latex (Mirafiand Nicolon).

6.2 Polymers

The constituent polymers, of those geogrids made fromprecursor sheets, are polypropylene for biaxial andpolyethylene (HDPE) for uniaxial grids. Orientationof the molecular chains by careful drawing of thepunctured sheet produces a very strong, high modulus,low creep material ideal for reinforcement applications.Properties of the geogrid can be varied by altering thedraw ratio or by changing the molecular weight anddegree of crosslinking of the polymer. Information ondescription, specification data and design techniquesfor commercially available oriented geogrids (Tensar)is given in references (397, 398, 399).

Bicomponent grids employ high tenacity polyester asthe load bearing element, either in the form of a bundleof continuous filaments enclosed within apolypropylene sheath or a woven/knitted structure

coated, usually, with PVC. The sheath or coating has asuperior chemical resistance to the polyester core andthus protects it from aggressive environmentalconditions. For example, polyester is susceptible tohydrolysis in an alkaline (high pH) environment andthus requires outer layer protection in such conditions.

Duvall has studied four coated polyester geogrids withrespect to the effect of coating type, thickness, etc.,and fibre diameter and distribution (241).

6.3 End Uses

Geogrids, with their properties of strength, stiffnessand low creep are almost invariably involved in someform of reinforcement. Some examples (a.9) of theirreinforcing applications are:

• Beneath aggregate in unpaved roads

• Beneath ballast in railway construction

• Reinforcement of embankments and earth dams

• Repairing slopes and landslides

• As gabions for wall construction, erosion controland bridge abutments

• Construction of mattresses over soft soil, peat andtundra

• As sheet anchors for retaining wall panels

)deunitnoC(sLCGrofstsetdradnatS01elbaT


lacinahceMdeunitnoc

stoorotecnatsiseR 61441NEtfarD

selcycgniyrd/gnitteW 71441NEtfarD

selcycwaht/ezeerF 81441NEtfarD

ytilibaemreP ytivitcudnocciluardyH -IRG(4805DMTSA)2LCG-MT

aPk43tneidargerusserP

)xulf(ytivitcudnocciluardyH 7885MTSA aPk51tneidargerusserP

ytilibaemrepsaG )doM(3tP4731NE

ytilibaemrepruopavretaW 73M43tP4243SB

Geosynthetics

29

• Asphalt reinforcement in roads

• As inserts between geotextiles and geomembranes

• Bridging mining voids (127)

A detailed description of design methods for geogridsin several of these applications, is given in the book titled‘Designing for Geosynthetics’ by R.M. Koerner (a.9).

Another useful general review of the uses of highstrength oriented HDPE and PP geogrids is by Carterand Dixon (197).

6.4 Testing and Properties of Geogrids

Many of the tests for other geosynthetics are also usefulfor geogrids. These tests are included, along with thosedirectly relevant to geogrids, in Table 11.

The chemistry and structure of the geogrid polymersprofoundly influences their properties. As explainedearlier, the high strength and stiffness of the single

component uniaxial and biaxial grids result from theoriented state of the polyolefin molecules, generatedduring manufacture.

Molecular orientation also results in a much lower long-term deformation under load (creep) than would be thecase with unoriented polyolefin molecules, e.g., as ingeomembranes.

Alignment of, and absence of low modulus crimp in,the bundle of polyester strands gives the bicomponentcoated grids their excellent tensile characteristics.

The two common types of geogrid, being made ofHDPE or protected polyester, have very good chemicaland biological resistance in typical ground conditions(a.27).

In common with other geosynthetics, geogrids(especially made from polyolefins) can be degradedby UV exposure. As usual, the addition of 2 to 2.5%carbon black effectively retards the decompositionprocess (a.27). However, to be safe, geogrids are notusually exposed for more than two weeks before burialby soil.

sdirgoegrofstsetdradnatS11elbaT

yrogetaC ytreporP dohtemtseT secnerefeR/stnemmoC

noitacifitnedI eziserutrepA tsetdradnatsoN

epytnoitcnuJ tsetdradnatsoN

aeranepO tsetdradnatsoN

lacinahceM ytidigirlaruxelF 8831DMTSA

htgnertselisneT 91301OSINE

)noitcirf(htgnertsraehS 1-75921OSINE

htgnertstuolluP tsetdradnatsoN

htgnerts)edon(noitcnuJ 2GGMTIRG

ytilibaruD peercelisneT 13431OSINE )401,56,62,9(

egamadnoitallatsnI 1-22701OSIVNE

ssertslatnemnorivnE)CSE(gnikcarc

7935DMTSA )72.a,363(

noitadixO 83431OSINE

slacimehC 03041NESB ilakladnadicafotceffE

)gnirehtaew(VU 42221NE

Geosynthetics

30

7 Geocomposites

The term ‘geocomposites’ refers to those synthetic sheetlike materials (geosynthetics) which consist of morethan one component. The most common subcategoriesof geocomposites are geonets and other drainageproducts.

7.1 Geonets

Geonets are grid like materials but used for their inplane drainage capability, whereas geogrids have onlya reinforcing function. Geonets, and other in planedrainage composites, consist of a core with a geotextile,or more rarely a geomembrane, fixed to its upper andlower surfaces. The thin, low flow cores (5-7 mm thick)often have diamond shaped apertures; typically 12 mmlong by 8 mm wide.

Almost all geonets are made of medium to high densitypolyethylene (0.935-0.942 g/cm3). Carbon black (1-2%)is added for protection against UV radiation and 0.5 to1.0% of other additives as processing aids.

The grid like cores of geonets are made by meltingand extruding the mixed ingredients into a die withslotted counter-rotating segments where the melt flowsat angles forming discrete ribs in two planes. Aspressure forces the mass forward, it is pushed over anincreasing diameter mandrel, which forces the ribs apartand opens the net, forming the diamond shaped holes.When the net has cooled completely, it achieves itsfull diameter (60 to 90 cm). It is then cut along its axisand formed into rolls. One way of increasing thethickness, and hence drainage capacity, of the core isto add a foaming agent to the ingredients. which, onheating, forms microspheres in the solidified polymer.Net cores, up to 13 mm thick, can be made by thismethod.

Apart from the net configuration, drainage cores canhave other structures and shapes. Thicker cores (up to40 mm) are formed from plastic sheets which can beextruded and deformed in such a way as to allow verylarge quantities of water to flow within the plane ofthe structure. The supporting elements of this corestructure can be pillars or cusps, similar to those in anegg box. As with the thinner geonets, the cores of thesedrainage geocomposites are covered, on one or bothsides, by geotextiles acting as filters. These thicker,high capacity, cores are usually made of polyethyleneor polystyrene.

Other drainage variants include strip and wick drainswhere the polymer is often fluted, for ease ofconducting water, formed about 100 mm wide andcovered with a geotextile stocking.

Other forms of core consist of stiff nylon filament mats(like a pan scrubber) and Styrofoam balls gluedtogether.

7.1.1 End Uses of Geonets

Geonets are a single function geosynthetic. They areused, almost exclusively, for their in plane drainage(transmissivity) capability.

Examples (a.9) of end use applications for geonets andgeocomposite drains are:

• Replacing sand drains for consolidating finegrained, saturated soils

• Water drainage behind retaining walls

• Water drainage beneath sports fields

• Water drainage beneath building foundations

• Leachate drainage of landfill side slopes

• Leachate drainage above landfill liners

• Surface water drainage of landfill caps

7.1.2 Testing and Properties of Geonets

Table 12 shows the most important tests for geonetsand other drainage geocomposites.

7.1.2.1 In Plane Flow

Clearly the paramount property of these drainagegeocomposites is their capacity to conduct water in theplane, i.e., between the core elements: net ribs, cusps,pillars etc. This property is determined by measuringthe water flow, in the plane of the core, under specifiedconditions of hydraulic gradient and normal pressure(at right angles to the plane).

The geotextile, on either side of the core, can intrudebetween the core elements and, in some cases,

Geosynthetics

31

dramatically reduce the flow. It is, therefore, importantto select stiff, creep resistant geotextiles. This coreintrusion propensity is taken into account in the test byinserting soft foam rubber layers, to simulate soil, oneither side of the geonet. With low modulus or creepprone geotextiles, the foam will push between the coreelements, under pressure, and cause a flow reduction.

Reference a.28 contains an article for designers ongeotextiles in drainage systems.

7.1.2.2 Compressive Strength

There is a strong interaction between in plane flow andcompressive strength; the more the core compressesthe lower the resultant flow will be. This reduction inthickness is influenced by both the core structure and

stenoegrofstsetdradnatS21elbaT

yrogetaC ytreporP rebmuN secnerefeR/stnemmoC

noitasiretcarahC ssenkcihT 1-469NE setacidni,aPk002dna02,2tAytilibisserpmoc

ssenkcihT 9915DMTSA

aeratinurepssaM 569NE

lacinahceM seitreporpelisneT 91301OSINE tadehcterts)mc02(elpmashtdiwediWeruliafotnim/%02

)raehstcerid(noitcirF 1-75921OSINErp

egamadnoitallatsnI 1-22701OSIVNE

htgnertsevisserpmoC 1261DMTSA %01ybssenkcihtecuderotecroF

ciluardyH )enalpni(wolfretaW 85921OSINE )28(ytivissimsnarT

)enalpni(wolfretaW 7tP:6096SB

ytilibaruD tsetairetircytilibaruD 62221NESB roetisopmocfohtgnertselisneTstnenopmoc

peercevisserpmoC 7981NE retfaniartsraehsdnaevisserpmoCserusserpdeificepsrednurh0001

noisarbA 72431OSINE tsetelitxetoegdradnatS

)gnirehtaew(thgilVU 42221VNE tsetelitxetoegdradnatS

noitadixO 83431OSIVNE tsetelitxetoegdradnatS

sdiuqiL 06921OSIVNE tsetelitxetoegdradnatS

sisylordyH 72221VNE ylnostnenopmocretseyloP

smsinagroorciM 52221NESB tsetlairublioS

the polymer properties. Crystalline polyethylene, ofmedium to high density, is used to provide goodcompression yielding resistance compared with otherpolymers. The standard European test for compressivestrength measures the stress required to compress a 10 x10 cm specimen of core, at a strain rate of 2% perminute, by 10% or to cause collapse of the corecomponents, if appropriate.

7.1.2.3 Compressive Creep

The major endurance property of concern with drainagecores is the long-term sustained deformation of thestructure, under pressure which would gradually causedecreasing flow rates. This phenomenon is known ascompressive creep and is affected by the design of thecore elements and polymer composition.

Geosynthetics

32

7.1.2.4 Other Tests

The above three tests (water flow, compression andcreep) are those specific to drainage composite. Otherphysical properties (e.g., tensile strength, friction) anddurability characteristics (chemical and UV resistanceetc.) are performed using the standard tests forgeotextiles shown in Table 4.

7.2 Other Geocomposites

Apart from the drainage geocomposites, describedabove, there are other composite, multi-componentproducts which can carry the prefix ‘geo’ (a.9).

7.2.1 Geotextile-Geomembrane Composites

Geotextiles can be laminated on one or both sides of ageomembrane for a number of reasons. As a reinforcer,where the geotextile gives increased resistance topuncture, tear propagation and friction as well asproviding additional tensile strength. When thelaminated geotextile is a needle punched non-woventype, it can act as a drainage route, conducting wateror leachate away from the geomembrane.

7.2.2 Geomembrane-Geogrid Composites

Geomembranes and geogrids made from the samematerial, e.g., HDPE, can be welded together to forman impermeable barrier with enhanced strength andfriction properties.

Geogrids can also be combined with geotextiles toproduce a material with the handling and installationbenefits of a geotextile and the strength of a geogrid(186).

7.2.3 Geocells

Rigid polymer strips can be arranged vertically in abox like fashion and filled with soil. The product, thus,forms a cellular structure and, acting with thecontained soil, can make a strong and stable mattress.Geocells have been used to make large earthembankments and to repair crumbling bridge deckingand abutments (a.29).

7.2.4 Geotextile-Steel Composites

Steel strands can be woven within a geotextile matrixto give a very high strength product which can sustain,when used as a substrate, extremely large loads, e.g.,to support buildings.

7.2.5 Geotextile-Bead Composites

Styrofoam beads can be sandwiched betweengeotextiles (as filters) and geomembranes (as vapourbarriers) for drainage products behind basement walls.The Styrofoam acts as a drain and an insulator.

7.2.6 Polymeric Fibres

Staple polymeric fibres, mixed with soil, is a form ofin situ composite which can reinforce soilembankments (125, 279).

7.2.7 Geofoam

Geofoam is made of expanded polystyrene (EPS). Ithas been used in civil engineering as a light weight fillunder a road sub-grade, built over a low load bearingsoil. Geofoam has also found application for vibrationdamping, gas venting and soil stabilisation (173, 191,236, a.30).

7.2.8 Polyurethane/Geotextile Composites

A polyurethane/geotextile composite has been developedwhich has been used to line deteriorated concrete andearthen ditches (a.31). This liner consists of two layersof geotextile embedded in a solid, flexible matrix ofpolyurethane. This composite has the advantages ofliners made from other polymers of good adhesion, easyrepair and high resistance to mechanical damage.

Additional References

a.1 J.P. Giroud, Geotechnical Fabrics Report,2002, 20, 5, 10.

a.2 G. Richardson, Geotechnical Fabrics Report,2002, 20, 6, 10.

Geosynthetics

33

a.3 I. Peggs, Geotechnical Fabrics Report, 2002,20, 7, 10.

a.4 R.M. Koerner, Geotechnical Fabrics Report,2002, 20, 8, 8.

a.5 Specifier’s Guide, Geotechnical FabricsReport, 2002, 20, 9.

a.6 ASTM D4439-02, Standard terminology forgeosynthetics, 2002.

a.7 R. Smith, The Potential Market for Sisal andHenequen Geotextiles, Elwood ConsultantsLtd., Wolverhampton, UK, 1998.

a.8 Geosynthetics, Freedonia Group Inc., WestHartford, USA, December 2002.

a.9 R.M. Koerner, Designing with Geosynthetics,4th Edition, Prentice Hall, 1997.

a.10 M.J. Denton and P.N. Daniels (Eds.), TextileTerms and Definitions, Textile Institute,Manchester, 11th Edition, 2002.

a.11 E.R. Kaswell, Handbook of Industrial Textiles,New York, West Point Pepperall, 1963.

a.12 D. Narejo and L. Collins, Geotechnical FabricsReport, 2002, 20, 5, 24.

a.13 N.W.M John, Geotextiles, 1987.

a.14 A. McGown, K.Z. Andrawes and M.H. Kabir,Proceedings of the 2nd InternationalConference on Geotextiles, Las Vegas, NV,USA, 1982, IFAI, 793.

a.15 A. Ionescu et al., Proceedings of the 2ndInternational Conference on Geotextiles, LasVegas, NV, USA, 1982, IFAI, 547.

a.16 T.A. Haliburton and P.D. Wood, Proceedingsof the 2nd International Conference onGeotextiles, Las Vegas, NV, USA, 1982, IFAI,97.

a.17 R.M. Koerner and K.F. Ko, Proceedings of the2nd International Conference on Geotextiles,Las Vegas, NV, USA, 1982, IFAI, 91.

a.18 G. Rauman, Proceedings of the 2ndInternational Conference on Geotextiles, LasVegas, NV, USA, 1982, IFAI, 541.

a.19 J. Luellen, J.E. Dove and R.H. Swan,Geotechnical Fabrics Report, 1999, 17, 1, 24.

a.20 T. Stark, A. Williams and T. Eid, Journal ofGeotechnical Engineering, 1996, 122, 197.

a.21 M. Sadlier and R.K. Frobel, GeomembraneProperties – A Comparative Prospective,GeoEnvironment 97 Conference, Melbourne,1997.

a.22 R.M. Woodley, Milit. Eng., 1978, 70, 458, 392.

a.23 N. Ivy, Geotechnical Fabrics Report, 2002, 20,5, 32.

a.24 Y.G. Yuan, R.M. Koerner and A.E. Lord,Geotech. Test Jnl., 1993, 16, 450.

a.25 Y.G. Yuan, R.M. Koerner and A.E. Lord, Amer.Soc. Civil. Engin., 1993, 119, 1840.

a.26 Testing and Acceptance Criteria forGeosynthetic Clay Liners, ASTM SpecialTechnical Publication 1308, 1997.

a.27 N.E. Wrigley, Materials Science andTechnology, 1987, 3, 161.

a.28 G.N. Richardson and B. Christopher,Geotechnical Fabrics Report, April 1997, p.19-23.

a.29 Geotechnical Fabrics Report, 2002, 20, 8, 32.

a.30 J.S. Horvath, Geotechnical Fabrics Report,August 1995, 22.

a.31 R. Guether et al., Geotechnical Fabrics Report,2001, 19, 4, 30.

Geosynthetics

34

Abbreviations and Acronyms

ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials

BS British Standards

CBR California bearing ratio

CP chloroprene

CPD Construction Products Directive

CPE chlorinated polyethylene

CSPE chlorosulfonated polyethylene

DSC differential scanning calorimetry

EDPM ethylene-propylene-diene terpolymer

EIA ethylene interpolymer alloy

EN euronorm

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

EPS expanded polystyrene

EPT ethylene-propylene terpolymer

ESC environmental stress cracking

EVA ethylene-vinyl acetate

FPP flexible polypropylene

GCL geosynthetic clay liner

GFR Geotechnical Fabrics Report

GRI Geosynthetic Research Institute

HALS hindered amine light stabilisers

HDPE high density polyethylene

IFAI Industrial Fabrics Association International

IGS International Geosynthetics Society

IIR isoprene-isobutylene or butyl rubber

ISO International Standards Organization

LDPE low density polyethylene

LLDPE linear low density polyethylene

MDPE medium density polyethylene

OIT oxidative induction time

PA polyamide

PE polyethylene

PET polyethylene terephthalate

PP polypropylene

prEN provisional euronorm, i.e., draft EuropeanStandard

PVC polyvinyl chloride

-R reinforced

RH relative humidity

UV ultraviolet

VLDPE very low density polyethylene

References and Abstracts

© Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited 35

Abstracts from the Polymer Library Database

Item 1Advanced Materials & Processes160, No.11, Nov.2002, p.6POLYMERIC PRODUCTS PERFORMHERCULEAN TASKS

In August, Eastman Chemical signed an agreement withGeocell Systems to be the exclusive supplier ofcopolyester materials used in Geocell’s RapidDeployment Flood Wall (RDFW). RDFW is said to be afaster, less expensive and less labour intensive alternativeto sandbags. It is based on an expandable, stackable,modular wall made of an ‘environmentally responsible’plastic that can be filled with sand or other locallyavailable fill material. In addition to flood control, thetechnology also has military applications. RDFW is theresult of cooperative R&D between Geocell and the USArmy Corps of Engineers. Details are given.

EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO.; GEOCELL SYSTEMSINC.USA

Accession no.877527

Item 2Polymer Degradation and Stability79, No.1, 2003, p.161-72OXIDATIVE RESISTANCE OF HIGH-DENSITYPOLYETHYLENE GEOMEMBRANESMueller W; Jakob IBAM

The results are reported of long-term oven ageing andwater immersion tests carried out on various HDPEgeomembranes for use as landfill liners. All the resinswere stabilised with phenolic and phosphite antioxidants.The mechanical properties and oxidative induction timesof the liners were monitored during testing and ageingbehaviour in hot air was compared with that in hot water.The data obtained indicated that the service life of theliners was dependent upon migration of stabilisers fromthe liners. 19 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.875392

Item 3Nonwovens Industry33, No.11, Nov.2002, p.26GEOTEXTILE MARKET IN JAPANOhmura KOsaka Chemical Marketing Center

The demand for non-wovens in the Japanese geotextilesmarket was estimated at 55 million square metres last

year. Demand increased significantly during the secondhalf of the 1990s due primarily to a change in the seepagecontrol method in final disposal. Before 1995, only a sheetof geomembrane was required to prevent seepage, butsince then, this single sheet has been replaced by a doubleliner geomembrane. This method comprises threeprotection sheets and two sheets of geomembrane in analternately layered five-layer structure. Spunbonded non-wovens are used in many areas because of their highstrength, with the largest end use area being civilengineering.JAPAN

Accession no.871672

Item 4Plastics News(USA)14, No.30, 23rd Sept.2002, p.13FLOOD WALL NO SANDBAGGERLauzon M

Copolyester sheet can cut costs and installation timeassociated with flood containment compared to sandbags,according to the developer of the Rapid Deployment floodwall. Geocell Systems says that using the wall makes thetime-consuming task of filling and stacking sandbagsunnecessary. Other uses include military and civilianprotection according to Eastman Chemical, a supplier ofcopolyester resin used to make sheet for the flood wall.The flood wall is an expandable, stackable, modular wallfilled with sand or other locally available materials.Eastman says that it can be constructed in 5% of the timeand with 20% of the labour of a comparable sandbag wall.The flood wall also has a range of potential military uses.Very brief details are noted.

GEOCELL SYTEMS INC.USA

Accession no.869677

Item 5Plastics Technology48, No.7, July 2002, p.21HDPE FOR TEXTURED GEOMEMBRANESHEET

“Fortiflex G36-10-150” is a new fractional-melt HDPEgeomembrane resin designed specifically for the texturedblown sheet process. It is a hexene copolymer and it comesfrom Houston-based Solvay Polyethylene North America.Brief details are presented in this small item.

SOLVAY POLYETHYLENE NORTH AMERICA;NORTH AMERICA; USA

Accession no.864690


36 © Copyright 2003 Rapra Technology Limited

Item 6(Waltham, Ma.), 2001, pp.8. 30cms. 25/4/02MASTERBATCHES FOR GEOMEMBRANESAND GEOTEXTILESCabot Plastics

This paper presents an overview of the use ofgeomembranes and geotextiles in environmentalengineering, geotechnical applications and watercontainment. These polymeric materials can performmany functions, such as sealing, filtration, drainage,reinforcement and protection. Definitions are supplied forthe terms geotextile, geogrid, geomembrane and landfillliner, and descriptions given of their typical features andapplications. Information is also presented on the use ofCabot masterbatches in such materials, where their roleis to provide optimum UV and thermal protection. Aselection guide lists suitable geosynthetic applications forseveral Cabot grades and notes their key characteristics.Properties data are also tabulated for the Plasblakmasterbatch range.USA

Accession no.863796

Item 7Geosynthetics International9, No.1, 2002, p.21-40STRAIN INDUCED CHANGES INGEOMEMBRANE SURFACE TOPOGRAPHYFrost J D; Zettler T E; DeJong J T; Lee S W; Kagbo SGeorgia,Institute of Technology; GeoSyntecConsultants; Massachusetts,University; Korea,Instituteof Construction Technology

A brief review is presented of geomembranemanufacturing, texturing techniques and characterisationof geomembrane surface topography followed by adiscussion on the expected changes in surface topographyof the geomembranes in terms of surface roughnessparameters measured in the testing programme. Finally,the findings of tests carried out to determine the effect ofstrain on the surface topography of several geomembranes(smooth, coextruded, impingement and laminatedgeomembranes) subjected to increasing uniaxial strainlevels ranging from 1 to 25% are presented and discussed.18 refs.KOREA; USA

Accession no.862478

Item 8Geosynthetics International9, No.1, 2002, p.1-19INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE ON THE LOAD-STRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OFGEOSYNTHETICSSawicki A; Kazimierowicz-Frankowska KPoland,Institute of Hydro-Engineering

The results are reported of a study of the effect of strainrate on the load-strain characteristics of variousgeosynthetics subjected, in particular, to complex loadinghistories. Geosynthetics tested were a PP, needle-punchedgeotextile reinforced with a PE geonet, non-woven,stitched or needle-punched PP/polyester geotextiles, awoven polyamide geotextile and a PE geogrid. The isotachproperties of geosynthetics and the modelling thereof arediscussed and a simple method of describing theseproperties is proposed. 12 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.862477

Item 9Polymer Testing21, No.5, 2002, p.489-95ASSESSMENT OF LONG-TERMPERFORMANCES OF POLYESTER GEOGRIDSBY ACCELERATED CREEP TESTJeon H Y; Kim S H; Yo H KChonnam,National University; Hanyang,University

Details are given of the use of accelerated creep tests ofpolyester fabric geogrids to predict long-term creepbehaviour. The tests used to time-temperaturesuperposition principle. Creep tests were performed tocalculate the partial factor of safety during the servicetime of the polyester geogrids. The tests were performedat various temperatures and loading levels. 11 refs.KOREA

Accession no.856865

Item 10Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 2002, pp.vii, 180,25 cm, 95TPRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE ASSESSMENT OFTHE USEFUL LIFE OF PLASTICSBrown R P; GreenwoodRapra Technology Ltd.; ERA Technology Ltd.

This publication aims to provide practical guidance onassessing the useful service life of plastics. It covers testprocedures and extrapolation techniques together with theinherent limitations and problems. It is particularlyconcerned with applications where a numerical predictionof lifetime is attempted. Durability is examined in itsbroadest sense, covering all aspects of irreversibleproperty change with time and use, concentrating on themost common environmental effects and the mostimportant mechanical properties. 38 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.856079

Item 11Geosynthetics International8, No.6, 2001, p.577-97



MICROSCALE STUDY OF GEOMEMBRANE-GEOTEXTILE INTERACTIONSFrost J D; Lee S WGeorgia,Institute of Technology; Korea,Institute ofConstruction Technology

Quantitative measures of surface roughness were used asthe basis for investigating the effect of topography on theinterface shear mechanism of HDPE geomembrane/non-woven geotextile interfaces. The results showed that theinterface strength and mechanisms could be quantitativelyrelated to the surface roughness of the geomembrane. Thepeak and residual interface strengths increased markedlythrough the use of textured geomembranes. For texturedgeomembranes, the peak interface strength was due tothe micro-texture of the geomembrane, but the residualinterface strength was primarily attributed to macro-scalesurface roughness that pulled and broke the filaments ofthe geotextile. The effect of geomembrane wear on thestress-strain response was quantified. The results obtainedprovided a quantitative framework that could lead to asignificantly improved basis for the selection ofgeotextiles and geomembranes in direct contact. 15 refs.KOREA; USA

Accession no.854696

Item 12Geosynthetics International8, No.6, 2001, p.471-99EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF THEINTERACTION MECHANISM AT THE EPSGEOFOAM-SAND INTERFACE BY DIRECTSHEAR TESTINGXenaki V C; Athanasopoulos G APatras,University

The interaction mechanism at the expanded PS(EPS)geofoam-sand interface was investigated by direct sheartesting. The aim was to study the interface behaviour andexamine its dependence on the EPS geofoam density, voidratio of sand, mean particle size of sand and particle shape.The interface behaviour was described by interface shearversus normal stress envelopes from which apparent(tangent) values of interface friction angle and adhesioncould be estimated. The experimental results are presentedand then analysed in order to draw conclusions regardingthe type of interface behaviour and its dependence on theseparameters. The experimental results were also interpretedby using a proposed conceptual framework that wasbelieved satisfactorily to describe the role of the basicparameters involved in the problem. 27 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GREECE;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.854695

Item 13Reuse/Recycle32, No.1, Jan.2002, p.4-5

GEOPOLYMERIC PRODUCTS FROM WASTEMATERIALS

Siloxo is active in the licensing of a geopolymer processthat fuses aluminium and silicon based waste materialsinto solid concrete-like products. Siloxo uses as materialsfly ash, blast furnace slag, waste concrete, plastic, glassand paper, transforming them into geopolymers, whichare a type of artificial rock that is stronger and moredurable than concrete. Siloxo claims these materials canbe produced cheaper than conventional concrete/cement,using either virgin or waste materials. The inorganicpolymer mix can be poured at ambient temperatures likeordinary concrete, but it sets to full strength much morerapidly than concrete and attains higher strength thanconcrete.

SILOXO PTY.LTD.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.853140

Item 14Geosynthetics International8, No.5, 2001, p.393-444EFFECTS OF PRELOADING ANDPRESTRESSING ON THE STRENGTH ANDSTIFFNESS OF GEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCEDCLAY IN PLANE STRAIN COMPRESSIONRoh H S; Tatsuoka FKorea,Highway Research Centre; Tokyo,University

The influence of preloading and prestressing on the stress-strain properties of saturated relatively soft clay reinforcedwith a composite consisting of a woven polyestergeotextile sandwiched between two layers of spun-bondednon-woven PP geotextile was investigated. The effectsof reinforcement on undrained and drained plane straincompression behaviour without preloading, of drainedpreloading on undrained plane strain compressionbehaviour of reinforced clay and of prestress level onundrained behaviour of reinforced clay were examinedand the engineering implications of the data obtainedevaluated. 35 refs.JAPAN; KOREA

Accession no.850388

Item 15Scrap Tire News16, No.4, April 2002, p.10TYRES ARE A GREAT DEAL FOR SUPERTARGET STORE

A Super Target Store, under construction in 2001, wasanticipating up to 6,000 shoppers each day during theapproaching holiday season and 10 to 15 freight trucksof merchandise arriving every day of the year. But theycouldn’t reach the doors. Access over soft soils was theproblem facing engineers on the Minnetonka, MNconstruction site of the large upscale retailer. The solution



turned out to be Recycled-Tire Engineered Aggregate (R-TEA). With only a few months to go before the October14, 2001 opening of the store, soil engineers had a realdesign challenge. The soil was so soft behind the storethat it couldn’t support construction of a driveway,receiving area or underground utilities. Braun Intertecknew that they had to remove the heavy organic soils anduse some kind of lightweight fill. Bel Air Excavatingselected R-TEA, manufactured by First State TireRecycling. Details are given.

FIRST STATE TIRE RECYCLINGUSA

Accession no.850169

Item 16British Plastics and RubberJan.2002, p.12MASTERBATCHES TURN BASE POLYMERSINTO GEOMEMBRANES

Cabot has introduced a range of masterbatches for theproduction of geomembranes and geotextiles used in civilengineering. Geosynthetic masterbatches are added tobase polymers by geomembrane manufacturers to meetperformance requirements for different situations such aslandfill sites, lagoons, retaining walls, embankments andhighways. They are compatible with most grades of PE,PP and PVC. Products incorporate different grades ofcarbon black to provide effective protection againstdeterioration as a result of heat or exposure to UV light.Most masterbatches contain antioxidant packages for longterm protection against heat ageing as well as safety duringprocessing.

CABOT CORP.USA

Accession no.845332

Item 17Plastiques & Elastomeres Magazine53, No.5, June/July 2001, p.34-7FrenchTEXTILE SOLUTIONS UNDERGROUNDGouin F

The use of plastics geotextiles in soil reinforcement,stabilisation and drainage and other civil engineeringapplications is discussed, and materials developments bya number of companies are reviewed.

TERRAM FRANCE; GRILTEX; TERAGEOS; DUPONT DE NEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; HUESKERFRANCE; BIDIM GEOSYNTHETICS SAEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.842612

Item 18Scrap Tire News

16, No.1, Jan.2002, p.3STANDARD FOR TYRE CHIPS USED ASAGGREGATE IN SEPTIC TANK ABSORPTIONSYSTEMS

Chips produced from recycled tyres may be used as courseaggregate in septic tank absorption systems and may besubstituted for mineral aggregate on a one-for-onevolumetric basis. The specifications that the chips mustconform to for this application are outlined.USA

Accession no.842252

Item 19Geosynthetics International8, No.4, 2001, p.327-42SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF GEOSYNTHETICS INTHE INCLINED PLANE TEST - INFLUENCE OFSOIL PARTICLE SIZE AND GEOSYNTHETICSTRUCTURELopes P C; Lopes M L; Lopes M PPorto,Universidade; Santiago,University

The results are reported of a study of the shear behaviourof several geosynthetics carried out using inclined planeshear tests to characterise the interaction mechanism atthe soil-geosynthetic interface. Geosynthetics examinedwere a HDPE uniaxial geogrid, PP biaxial grid, PP non-woven, spunbonded geotextile, PP woven geotextile,HDPE smooth geomembrane and HDPE roughgeomembrane. The effects of soil particle size,geosynthetic structure and test method on the behaviourof the geosynthetics are discussed. 9 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.841825

Item 20Geosynthetics International8, No.4, 2001, p.283-301CONSOLIDATION EFFICIENCY OF NATURALAND PLASTIC GEOSYNTHETIC BAND DRAINSJang Y S; Kim Y W; Park J YDongguk,University; DaeWoo Engineering Inc.

The consolidation efficiency of coir/jute and plasticgeosynthetic band drains was investigated usinglaboratory tests and a three-dimensional numerical flowmodel. The model was validated by comparing thepredictions with laboratory consolidation data and theefficiency of the drains evaluated by changing theinstallation depth. 7 refs.KOREA

Accession no.841823




INFLUENCE OF CREEP AND STRESS-RELAXATION OF GEOSYNTHETICREINFORCEMENT ON EMBANKMENTBEHAVIOURLi A L; Rowe R KKingston,Queen’s University

The results are reported of an in depth investigation intothe effects of viscous behaviour of geosyntheticreinforcement made from HDPE, PP or PETP on the short-term and long-term performance of basally reinforcedembankments constructed over soft inviscousfoundations. The magnitude of creep and stress relaxationof the reinforcement under limit-state and working stressconditions and the effects on stability and deformationsof the system were examined by numerically simulatingthe construction of the embankments reinforced with theviscous reinforcement and with inviscous reinforcement.62 refs.CANADA

Accession no.833125

Item 22Geosynthetics International8, No.3, 2001, p.221-32CANOPY FLOW EQUATION FOR EROSIONCONTROL GEOSYNTHETICSHytiris N; McKay D J; Addison P SGlasgow,Caledonian University; Napier,University

The flow field for four commercially available erosioncontrol geomats made from PE, PP and polyamide 6, wasinvestigated during initial geomat placement wherevegetation did not have time to grow within the matstructure. Tests were carried out in an experimental flumelined with each geomat in turn and a one-dimensionallaser Doppler anemometer utilised to determine thevelocities within the flow field at the fluid-geomatinterface. Using the data obtained, a modified log-lawequation having the same form as canopy flow equationsused in meteorology was developed for predicting thedownstream flow velocities above the geomat. 21 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.833124

Item 23Advanced Materials & Composites News23, No.19, 1st Oct.2001, p.1-2BLAST MITIGATION WITH COMPOSITES, INTHE WORKS, “BIG TIME”

The manager of the Pentagon’s ongoing renovationprogramme has said that the hijacked aircraft, whichcrashed into the Pentagon on September 11, hit a portionof the building that had been renovated and reinforcedwith blast resistant windows, a special reinforced steelconstruction and fragment- and fibre-resistant “Kevlar”

fibre fabric placed between vertical wall studs just belowthe windows. It is understood that the material used belowthe windows in the first part of the renovation is not Kevlarfrom DuPont, but rather a “geogrid mesh material”(probably polyester fibre).

US,ARMY CORPS OF ENGINEERSUSA

Accession no.829815

Item 24Geosynthetics International8, No.2, 2001, p.135-62SHEAR STRENGTH CHARACTERISTICS OFPVC GEOMEMBRANE-GEOSYNTHETICINTERFACESHillman R P; Stark T DGolder Associates Inc.; Illinois,University

The shear strength of PVC geomembrane-geosyntheticinterfaces was investigated by means of torsional ringshear and large-scale direct shear testing. The smooth andfaille-finished sides of the geomembrane were subjectedto shear testing against several non-woven geotextiles, ageonet, a drainage composite and geosynthetic clay liner.The interfacial shear behaviour of the PVC geomembraneis compared with that of a HDPE geomembrane and twoflexible PE geomembranes and the effects of the type ofnon-woven geotextile fibre, mass per unit area andcalendering on the interfacial shear strength of the PVCgeomembrane assessed. 19 refs.USA

Accession no.828150

Item 25Geosynthetics International8, No.2, 2001, p.97-112INVESTIGATION AND MODELLING OF TWOCOMPOSITE LANDFILL COVERSFinley C A; Holtz R DTexas,University; Washington,University

The results are reported of a field investigation of finalcovers at two municipal solid waste landfills in the USAand an evaluation of differential settlements occurring atboth these locations after several years of service. Thefinal covers included a HDPE geomembrane barrier, anon-woven geotextile filter and soil layers for drainageand vegetative growth. The differential settlements of thecovers were modelled using a finite difference computerprogram and the results obtained were employed to relategeomembrane strain to surface settlement characteristics.A general design method for composite landfill coversspanning voids was also developed using the finitedifference model. 12 refs.USA

Accession no.828149



Item 26Geosynthetics International8, No.1, 2001, p.81-96LONG-TERM VARIATIONS OF FORCE ANDSTRAIN IN A STEEP GEOGRID-REINFORCEDSOIL SLOPEFannin R JBritish Columbia,University

Measurements were made of the soil temperature and theforce and strain in a steep soil slope uniaxially reinforcedwith a HDPE geogrid over a 10 year period. It was foundthat a non-linear increase of force occurred with time,which was attributed to deformation of the structure as aresult of creep of the backfill sand. Strain in thereinforcement exhibited a complex variation with time,which was considered to be due mainly to the non-linearincrease of force and creep of the geogrid reinforcement.27 refs.CANADA

Accession no.828148

Item 27Geosynthetics International8, No.1, 2001, p.49-80COMPARISON OF THE DURABILITY OFGEOTEXTILES IN AN ALKALINE MINETAILINGS ENVIRONMENTGrubb D G; Diesing W E; Cheng S C J; Sabanas R MApex International Inc.; Drexel,University; NTHConsultants Ltd.

The results are reported of outdoor exposure tests carriedout on a woven multi-filament PETP geotextile and ontwo non-woven needle-punched PP geotextiles withcarbon black in Peru and the USA. Also reported are theresults of tests carried out on five geotextiles, includingthe above geotextiles and two non-woven needle-punchedPETP geotextiles) embedded in freshly deposited alkalinetailings having a pH of 11.3 and 178 mg/L total cyanide.The geotextiles were subjected to grab tensile, trapezoidaltear and index puncture testing and the retained strengthsof the geotextiles compared. 16 refs.USA

Accession no.828147

Item 28Plasticulture2, No.120, 2001, p.146-7English; Spanish; FrenchCROP PROTECTION AND FORCING

The use of geotextiles, which allow a protective wallpermeable to air and light to be formed around crops, isbriefly discussed.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.826475

Item 29Proceedings of the National Science Council Republicof China25, No.4, July 2001, p.211-7TENSION OF GEOSYNTHETIC MATERIALREGARDING SOILS ON LANDFILL LINERSLOPESLiu C-NTaiwan,National Chi-Nan University

A simple procedure for analysing tensile loading ingeosynthetic materials caused by soils on landfill linerslopes is proposed. Predictions obtained using thisprocedure, which takes into account force equilibrium anddisplacement compatibility, are compared withconventional analytical methods and with the results ofexperiments conducted on a liner system with a 2-mmthick HDPE geomembrane, which validate the newapproach. 12 refs.TAIWAN

Accession no.826342

Item 30Scrap Tire News15, No.7, July 2001, p.1/3I-880 INTERCHANGE SHOWCASES TIRERECYCLING POTENTIAL

A brief report is presented on the use of shredded scraptyres as lightweight fill in the reconstruction of aninterchange ramp for one of the California Bay Area’sbusiest freeways. The tyres are shredded down to 2 to 12inch chips and wrapped in a liner of geotextile fabric andsoil. The use of tyre chips is said to cause less settlementthan soil, allowing paving and construction to start muchsooner.

CALIFORNIA,DEPT.OF TRANSPORTATION;CALIFORNIA INTEGRATED WASTEMANAGEMENT BOARDUSA

Accession no.825057

Item 31Revista de Plasticos Modernos80, No.531, Sept.2000, p.280-5SpanishPVC SHEETS IN AGRICULTURE AND THECONSTRUCTION OF IRRIGATIONRESERVOIRSAlcina APYN SA de CV

The use of PVC geomembranes in combination with othergeosynthetic materials in the construction of reservoirsfor agricultural irrigation is discussed. 3 refs.MEXICO

Accession no.818394



Item 32Revista de Plasticos Modernos80, No.531, Sept.2000, p.252/6SpanishSTANDARDISATION OF PLASTICS INAGRICULTURERuiz J MANAIP

Standardisation in Spain and the European Union relatingto plastics and rubber products for use in agriculture andhorticulture is examined. Spanish standards coveringpipes, geomembranes and greenhouse covering films arereviewed.

IRANOR; AENOR; CEN; COFACO;INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS ORGANISATIONEU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL; WORLD

Accession no.818390

Item 33Plastics News InternationalJuly 2001, p.20FIBRE-GRADE MASTERBATCHES LAUNCHED

Hubron has introduced two new black fibre-grademasterbatches. Loaded at 30% and 40% respectively, thePP-based grades PPFB 6175 and PPFB 6180 possessexcellent dispersion qualities, high opacity and optimumUV properties. Said to be ideal for fibre extrusion forcarpets and geotextiles, they facilitate rapid extrusion andminimise downtime from fibre breakages and filterblockages. Other features include an antioxidant packageand flexibility of use for other extrusion processes. Thisabstract includes all the information contained in theoriginal article.

HUBRON LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.816923

Item 34Patent Number: US 6139955 A1 20001031COATED FIBER STRANDS REINFORCEDCOMPOSITES AND GEOSYNTHETICMATERIALSGirgis M MPPG Industries Ohio Inc.

Disclosed is a fibre strand useful in composites andgeosynthetics. The fibres have applied to at least a portionof their surfaces a base layer of a base coating compositionand a principal layer of an aqueous coating compositiondifferent from the base coating composition. The aqueouscoating composition includes a blend of (1) a halogenatedvinyl polymer and (2) an elastomeric polymer, the blendbeing essentially free of a monoolefinic material.USA

Accession no.806673

Item 35West Conshohocken, Pa., 1999, pp.3. NALOANASTM D 4545-. PRACTICE FOR DETERMININGTHE INTEGRITY OF FACTORY SEAMS USEDIN JOINING MANUFACTURED FLEXIBLESHEET GEOMEMBRANESAmerican Society for Testing & MaterialsASTM D 4545-

Version 86 (R1999). Photocopies and loans of thisdocument are not available from Rapra.USA

Accession no.801067

Item 36Plastics News(USA)12, No.41, 11th Dec.2000, p.15GSE LINING TEAMS UP WITH STEVENS

GSE Lining Technology, headquartered in Holyoke,Mass., and Houston-based Stevens Geomembranes havesigned a joint manufacturing agreement for the productionof reinforced and unreinforced PP geomembranes.Stevens Geomembranes is a worldwide producer ofreinforced PP geomembranes and GSE makesunreinforced geosynthetic liners. Under the agreement,the two companies will cross-utilise manufacturingcapabilities to supply PP products the other does notcurrently manufacture. This abstract includes all theinformation contained in the original article.

GSE LINING TECHNOLOGY INC.; STEVENSGEOMEMBRANESUSA

Accession no.799111

Item 37Polyurethanes Conference 2000. Conferenceproceedings.Boston, Ma., 8th-11th Oct.2000, p.522G-HPOLYURETHANE COMPOSITE LININGSYSTEM - LINING OF DIRT AND CONCRETEDITCHESPayne L; Guether R; Markusch P HInnovative Process Corp.; Bayer Corp.(American Plastics Council,Alliance for thePolyurethanes Industry)

As the demands placed on the nation’s finite water supplycontinue to grow, conservation efforts become critical inhigh-consumption uses such as irrigation. Efforts tocontrol this water loss have included lining the ditcheswith concrete, geomembranes or clay. But these liningsolutions can take too long to install, be very expensive,and experience tears, cracks and other failures that limiteffectiveness. The PU composite liner describedovercomes many of these disadvantages and is a validsolution for the lining of deteriorated concrete or dirtditches. The key difference between this new composite



liner and other geomembranes is that the geotextilessoaked with the PU resin are applied wet. This meansthat the composite liner can anchor itself to the concreteand adheres to itself in the overlapping portions, resultingin a seamless, permanent flexible liner that will retainwater, and neither crack nor tear. This cost-effective andeasy-to-install PU composite liner has been successfullyused for lining of numerous dirt and concrete ditches.Brief details are given.USA

Accession no.794328

Item 38Plastics, Rubber and Composites29, No.1, 2000, p.51-8FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION OF GEOGRIDMANUFACTURE USING LARGEDEFORMATION ELASTIC FORMULATIONCaton Rose P; Sweeney J; Collins T L D; Coates P DBradford,University

An elastic model of large solid polymer deformations isused as a basis for numerical predictions of the shapes ofPE geogrids. These netlike products are made by solidphase deformation at elevated temperatures of extrudedsheet containing arrays of suitably shaped holes. Theelastic constitutive model is based on a theory ofinteracting polymer chains and is implemented within thefinite element package ABAQUS in both two and threedimensions. Deformations correspond to extension ratiosof up to eight. Good predictions of the final shapes of thegeogrid products are obtained. It is concluded that themethods used are a valuable product development tool.10 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.789910

Item 39IRC 2000. Conference proceedings.Helsinki, Finland, 13th-15th June 2000, paper 16RECYCLING USED TYRES IN PE NATURALGAS PIPE CONSTRUCTION SITESTulokas THaminan Energia Oy(Nordic Council of Rubber Technology)

A method is introduced in which a PE natural gas pipe isplaced on used tyres in an excavated channel. The methoddiffers from traditional forms of gas pipe placement inthat the initial filling of the channel takes place after thepipe has been placed in the channel. In the traditionalmethod of gas pipe placement, the channel is firstexcavated, the geotextile is then installed, a sandbedprepared, the gas pipe placed on the sandbed and thechannel finally filled with the remaining soil layers. Theadvantage of the method presented is that the gas pipecan be placed in the channel immediately after installation

of the geotextile. The method using tyres is a variation ofone presented earlier in which sand-filled sacks were used.EUROPEAN UNION; FINLAND; SCANDINAVIA; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.787055

Item 40Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research39, No.8, Aug. 2000, p.2925-34MECHANISM OF POLYSIALATION IN THEINCORPORATION OF ZIRCONIA INTO FLYASH-BASED GEOPOLYMERSPhair J W; Van Deventer J S J; Smith J DMelbourne,University

Zirconia was used as an inert reference to examine theeffects of a non-aluminosilicate source on the chemicaland physical properties of a geopolymer matrix. FTIR,X-ray diffraction and compressive strength analyses wereused to characterise the matrix. 33 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.786449

Item 41Surrey, ERA Technology Ltd., 1998, 7 papers. 60.00.30cms. 14/9/00INSTALLATION DAMAGE INGEOSYNTHETICS. PROCEEDINGS OF ACONFERENCE HELD SURREY, UK, 10TH NOV.1998

This conference examines site evidence of how damageoccurs in geosynthetics and how it is assessed. Simulatedsite testing and laboratory index testing are correlated withon-site experience. Papers highlight the procedures beingadopted by various countries and debate the way forwardtowards a universal method of testing and specification.Three main sessions - installation damage - thephenomenon, test methods, and improvements in theresistance of geosynthetics of non-woven materials areincluded, with a final discussion session focusing onspecification of resistance to damage.

Accession no.784998

Item 42Plastics News InternationalAug.2000, p.6FLUOROPOLYMER TANK LINERS DO MORETHAN JUST CONTAIN CHEMICALS

By acting as the primary method of containment, loose-fit impervious fluoropolymer tank liners meet stringentenvironmental storage regulations and extend tank life.With its unique combination of characteristics, DyneonHTE, comprised of hexafluoropropylene,tetrafluoroethylene and ethylene monomers, operates insevere chemical and temperature environments. Inaddition, it is weldable to itself, allowing ease of



installation and design flexibility. It has been the materialof choice for Interline Plastics, an international leader inthe manufacture of impervious, loose-fit internal linersusing chemical-resistant materials.

DYNEON CORP.; INTERLINE PLASTICSNORTH AMERICA

Accession no.782526

Item 43Surrey, ERA Technology Ltd., pp. 92. 60.00.CREEP AND ASSESSMENT OFGEOSYNTHETICS FOR SOILREINFORCEMENT. SEMINAR PROCEEDINGS(ERA Technology Ltd.,International GeosyntheticsSociety)

This seminar deals with the measurement of creep andhow the results are applied in the assessment of soilreinforcements. Aspects studied include design lifetimeof geosynthetics, and their safety margins. As design loadcalculations vary from country to country presentationsfrom Europe and the US are included. Papers includepracticalities of measurement of creep and stress-rupture,the stepped isothermal method (SIM) for time-temperature superposition, derivation of designparameters and partial safety factors from laboratory data,the manufacturer’s views on durability and certification,approval procedures for geosynthetics for soilreinforcement applications - UK practice, and creep andassessment practices for geosynthetics reinforcements inthe USA.

Accession no.781471

Item 44ACS, Polymeric Materials Science & Engineering FallMeeting 1999. Volume 81. Conference proceedings.New Orleans, La., 22nd-26th Aug.1999, p.378-9ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CRACK INPOLYETHYLENEPrasad AEquistar Chemicals LP(ACS,Div.of Polymeric Materials Science & Engng.)

When PE is exposed to an aggressive environment underlow stresses, small cracks may initiate and propagatethrough the material and can lead to catastrophic failure.The environmental stress-cracking (ESC) failuremechanism involves a macroscopic brittle-type fracturein materials. ESCR is the time that a material underspecific conditions takes to fail in the ESC-type mode. Alab ESCR test called the 3-PB test, which is based on thetheory of linear-elastic fracture mechanics, has earlierbeen proposed. The theory requires that the stress intensityfactor (KI) be constant and have a certain minimum valuefor crack propagation to occur. Work with the 3-PB testhas shown that this test yields ESCR values of betterprecision than the bottle tests. Another test, the NCTLtest, is used to evaluate ESCR of polyolefin geomembrane

sheets. This is essentially a simple uni-axial tensile test,in a temperature-controlled bath of some aggressiveenvironmental agent. The specimens are small tensilebars, with a notch in one face of the specimen. A load isapplied along the tensile axis of the sample by means of alever arm, inducing a tensile stress, which, in combinationwith the aggressive agent, results in the ESC fracture ofthe sample at the notch. Resin manufacturers andprocessors have given little attention to the NCTL testmethod in terms of their ESCR-measuring capabilitiesfor the blow-moulding resins. The primary objective isto evaluate the effects of thickness and morphology onESCR properties of various blow moulding resins andblown bottles using the 3-PB and NCTL tests. 16 refs.USA

Accession no.780555

Item 45Plasticulture1, No.119, 2000, p.145-60English; French; SpanishRESERVOIRS FOR AGRICULTURALIRRIGATION WITH PLASTIC SHEETS OF(PVC-P)Carlos K; Palacin GAlkor Draka Iberica SA

Water storage for agricultural needs is not new. Forhundreds of years there have been attempts to break thedependence on seasonal cycles, storing natural resourcesin times of abundance and keeping them for times ofshortage. Water shortages for agricultural use is growingbecause of the increasing population, cities and industrialdemand, a greater amount of agricultural land open toirrigation, climatic changes caused by deforestation, and/or global warming. The use of PVC sheeting foragricultural reservoirs is described.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778111

Item 46Plasticulture1, No.119, 2000, p.124-42English; Spanish; FrenchUSE OF PLASTIC MATERIALS FOR THEMANAGEMENT OF IRRIGATION WATERLosada AMadrid,Universidad Politecnica

The water cycle shows that this natural resource isrenewable, but its availability is limited. Social andeconomic growth generates a higher water demand.Alternative uses for these resources keep us constantlyunder pressure. Irrigation water is particularly scarcebecause of the great amount of water that an irrigatedcrop demands, sometimes as much as 15,000 cub.m/ha/year. Rational management of irrigation water, therefore,



has a great importance and the control and reduction ofwater use deserves special attention. The use of plasticmaterials has contributed to a real technological revolutionin irrigation and it has sometimes helped scientificadvances that have an enormous potential to improve theuse of water. On the one hand, irrigation networks havebeen improved by plastic irrigation equipment; on theother, water has been brought under control by mulchingtechniques and plastic greenhouses. Plastics also play animportant role in the manufacture of ancillary equipment,accessories and communication systems, which areessential elements to regulate and automate crop tasksand, particularly, irrigation. The development experiencedby water management techniques in irrigation networksis described. It is suggested what current irrigationtechnology would be like without the support of plasticmaterials for the last fifty years. The importance of plasticsfor a better use of water in crops is underlined.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.778110

Item 47Thermal and Mechanical Analysis of Plastics inIndustry and Research. Conference proceedings.Newark, De., 2nd Nov.1999, p.125-31EVALUATION OF THE DURABILITY OFPOLYPROPYLENE GEOTEXTILE USING HIGHPRESSURE OXIDATIVE INDUCTION TIMETESTHsuan Y G; Konrath LDrexel,University(SPE,Philadelphia Section; SPE,Polymer Analysis Div.;ASTM)

The high-pressure oxidative induction time (HP-OIT) testwas adopted by the ASTM D 35 geosynthetic committeein 1996, as ASTM D 5885. The test is designed to evaluatethe stabilisation of polyolefin geosynthetics, such as PEand PP products. A series of HP-IT tests is utilised to assessthe effects of isothermal temperature and pressure on theoxidation rate. A single type of non-stabilised PP fibre isused. The isothermal temperature varies from 120 to 150deg.C at pressures ranging from 2.8 to 4.8 MPa. Therelationship between oxidation rate and isothermaltemperature can be modelled by the Arrhenius equationat all pressures. However, the increase in pressure doesnot enhance the rate of reaction at these elevatedtemperatures. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.775946

Item 48Vinyltec 99. Conference proceedings.Ontario, 12th-14th Oct.1999, p.38-41UTILISING PVC GEOMEMBRANES FORLANDFILL AND POND LINERSRohe F P

Environmental Protection Inc.(SPE,Vinyl Div.)

Flexible PVC liners have been successfully used forcontainment applications since the 1960s. The fabricationand installation of a typical PVC geomembrane forcontainment applications are described. The benefits ofusing PVC versus some of the alternative geomembranesare also discussed. 10 refs.USA

Accession no.769494

Item 49Journal of the Textile Institute - Part 1: Fibre Scienceand Textile Technology90, No.4, 1999, p.580-5INSTRUMENTAL MEASUREMENT OF STRAININ NONWOVEN GEOTEXTILE FABRICSRussell S J; Dobb M GLeeds,University

Geotextile fabrics and geomembranes are subjected toconsiderable compressive forces in situ, which may affecttheir functional performance or lead to premature failure.The measurement of strain developed in such fabrics istherefore of considerable practical importance. A novelapproach using a quantitative image analysis techniqueis described, which permits rapid and accuratemeasurement of the localised strains developed in non-woven geotextile fabrics when subjected to compressionby stones, gravel or other hard materials. The techniqueis intended to be used in conjunction with the cylinderperformance test, previously developed to simulate thestrains imposed on geotextile fabrics in the ground. 4 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.761127

Item 50Journal of Polymer Engineering19, No.5, 1999, p.315-32CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY TESTING OFLINEAR LOW DENSITY POLYETHYLENEGEOMEMBRANE - SORPTION/DESORPTION,DIFFUSION AND SWELLING STUDIES IN THEPRESENCE OF ORGANIC LIQUIDSAminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University

Chemical compatibility of LLDPE geomembrane wasstudied by measurement of sorption/desorption anddiffusion for 14 organic liquids at 25, 50 and 70C. Sorptionresults were obtained by a gravimetric method anddiffusion coefficients were calculated from Fick’sequation for the initial linear data points of the time-dependent sorption/desorption curves. Permeabilitycoefficients were calculated from the desorption andsorption values. Swelling was studied by measuring the



increase in thickness and diameter and thereby calculatingthe volume dilation of the geomembrane. From the temp.dependence of sorption and diffusion coefficients, theArrhenius activation parameters were calculated. Liquidconcentration profiles were also calculated theoreticallyfrom a solution of the Fick’s equation under appropriateinitial and boundary conditions. The results are discussedin relation to the possible application of the LLDPE for aspecific hazardous site involving exposure to the chosenliquids. 27 refs.INDIA

Accession no.760803

Item 51High Performance TextilesJan.2000, p.7-8STRONGER SACK FOR CONTROLLINGEROSION OF SHORELINES

A method of producing bags used in controlling theerosion of shorelines is covered by US Patent 5 902 070by Bradley Industrial Textiles. The invention claims tohave an improved structure reinforcing the seams, andthat this form of seaming enhances the overall strengthof the entire structure. Production of the elongated tubulargeotextile bag which can be made from woven syntheticfibres such as nylon or PP, is described, together with themethod of joining the two sheets.

BRADLEY INDUSTRIAL TEXTILES INC.USA

Accession no.759651

Item 52Plastics News(USA)11, No.35, 18th Oct.1999, p.4PLASTIC POTHOLE REPAIR PAVING WAY TOSAVINGSLedson S

Using components made predominantly from recycledplastic waste, Parsec has introduced a pothole androadway repair system for asphalt and concrete roads. Across-laminated PE liner covers the bottom of the pothole,while a PP geogrid mesh interwoven with PVC rebar tubesis laid on top. The rebar tubes act as reinforcement rodsthat will allow the pothole filler to withstand vehicleimpact, provide stability and prevent deterioration. Thefiller is then covered by traditional asphalt.

PARSEC INC.USA

Accession no.751187

Item 53Patent Number: US 5934990 A 19990810MINE STOPPINGSteffenino J E; Shean T J; Holstein C D; Zelanko J CTensar Corp.; Sandvik Rock Tools Inc.

A mine tunnel ventilation control device and method forconstructing same quickly with an easily transportablematrix material is disclosed which provides a rigid flameretardant barrier wall. The air flow stopping includes aperipheral frame extending about and across a tunnelopening to which is secured a matrix material, preferablyin the form of a composite including a sheet of very stronggrid material, such as a biaxially oriented integral geogridor the like, bonded to a sheet of a textile material, such asa non-woven, needle-punched, geofabric or the like whichspans the apertures of the geogrid. At least one side ofthe matrix material, and preferably both sides, are coveredwith a sealant composition to prevent passage of airthrough the mine stopping and to develop structuralrigidity.USA

Accession no.749770

Item 54Polymer Degradation and Stability65, No.1, July 1999, p.25-36INFLUENCE OF CARBON BLACK ONPROPERTIES OF ORIENTATEDPOLYPROPYLENE. II. THERMAL ANDPHOTODEGRADATIONHorrocks A R; Mwila J; Miraftab M; Liu M; Chohan S SBolton,Institute of Higher Education

The effect of carbon black on thermal and photooxidativedegradation of oriented PP geotextile tapes was studied.PP tapes containing carbon black with different particlesizes, structures (or aggregate shape), specific surfacevolatile content and concentrations were exposedseparately to circulatory air ovens at 130C and UVB lampsat 60C, respectively. The exposed tapes were studied usingtensile tensiometric, IR spectrophotometric and thermalanalytical (DSC) techniques. The results obtained arepresented and discussed. The overall evidence suggestedthat carbon blacks having the smallest particle size,possibly high structure and low volatile contents, wouldyield PP tapes having optimum thermal and UVstabilisation behaviours. 28 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.744058

Item 55Revista de Plasticos Modernos77, No.512, Feb.1999, p.201-7SpanishGEOMEMBRANES IN THE WATERPROOFINGOF SMALL RESERVOIRSMartinez F JValencia,Polytechnical University

The use of plastics and rubber geomembranes in waterinsulation for small reservoirs is discussed. Particularattention is paid to PVC and HDPE, and other materials



examined include LDPE, chlorinated andchlorosulphonated PE, EPDM and butyl rubber. Aspectsof reservoir construction and geomembrane installationare considered, and Spanish standards relating to testmethods for PVC, HDPE and EPDM membranes arereviewed.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.742570

Item 56High Performance TextilesJuly 1999, p.7-8TEMPORARY ROAD SURFACES

A woven structure that can be laid much like carpet acrosssoft, sandy and swampy ground will help all types ofvehicle to traverse such areas safety, according to USPatent 5,946,890. The fabric is portable and has a weightof about 725 gsm. When laid, the fabric will have athickness of about 1 cm.

SOCIETE A RESPONSABILITE LIMITEEDESCHAMPSEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.739197

Item 57Journal of Applied Polymer Science72, No.10, 6th June 1999, p.1291-8SORPTION/DESORPTION STUDIES ONPOLYPROPYLENE GEOMEMBRANE IN THEPRESENCE OF HAZARDOUS ORGANICLIQUIDSAminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University

Experimental results of sorption/desorption obtained froma gravimetric method are presented for a PP geomembranewith various organic liquids at 25, 50 and 70 deg.C. Thesorption data are fitted to an Arrhenius relationship toobtain the heat of sorption. The sorption/desorption dataare analysed using an empirical equation. The swellingof the PP geomembrane is also studied for the chosenliquids. Experimental results and the derived quantitiesare discussed to study the chemical resistivity of thegeomembrane. 18 refs.INDIA

Accession no.734791

Item 58Journal of Applied Polymer Science72, No.3, 18th April 1999, p.349-59SORPTION/DESORPTION, DIFFUSION, ANDSWELLING CHARACTERISTICS OFGEOMEMBRANES IN THE PRESENCE OFHALO-ORGANIC LIQUIDS

Aminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University

Sorption/desorption results of halogen-containing liquidsinto HDPE, LLDPE, and PP geomembranes are presentedat 25, 50 and 70 C. Sorption results were obtained by agravimetric method, and diffusion coefficients werecalculated by using Fick’s equation from the initial linearportions of the sorption/desorption curves. Swelling ofthe geomembranes was studied by measurement of theincrease in volume, thickness, and diameter. From atemperature dependence of sorption and diffusioncoefficients, the Arrhenius parameters were calculated.Liquid concentration profiles were computed using Fick’sequation for the appropriate initial and boundaryconditions. The results were relevant to selection ofgeomembranes for specific applications in hazardouswaste chemical ponds and other similar situations. 20 refs.INDIA

Accession no.733504

Item 59Polymer International48, No.5, May 1999, p.373-81MOLECULAR MIGRATION OF LOW SORBINGORGANIC LIQUIDS INTO POLYMERICGEOMEMBRANESAminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University

Laboratory test results of sorption/desorption fortetrahydrofuran, tetralin, 1,4-dioxan, methyl acetate, ethylacetate and butyl acetate into HDPE, LLDPE, very lowdensity PE and PP geomembranes at 25, 50 and 70 deg.Care presented. Partition coefficients are calculated fromthe measured increase in the mass of geomembranesimmersed in the liquid of interest, from the initial valueuntil the mass becomes constant. From the initial linearportions of the sorption curves, the diffusion coefficientsof liquids into the geomembranes are calculated usingthe Fick equation. From a temperature dependence ofsorption, diffusion and permeation coefficients, theArrhenius parameters are calculated for each of theseprocesses. Results of the preliminary findings reportedmight be useful in the applications of geomembranes incontainment facilities. 41 refs.INDIA

Accession no.732349

Item 60Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting15, No.1, Jan.1999, p.47-56CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY OFGEOMEMBRANES - SORPTION, DIFFUSIONAND SWELLING PHENOMENAAminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University



The chemical compatibility results studied by measurementof sorption, diffusion and swelling of seven aromatic liquidsinto four geomembranes viz. HDPE, LLDPE, very lowdensity PE and PP are presented at 25, 50 and 70 deg.C.Diffusion coefficients are calculated using Fick’s equation.The swelling of geomembranes is measured by monitoringthe dimensional response of the membranes and therebycalculating the increase in volume. The results of thisresearch could be useful in the proper selection of a suitablegeomembrane for a specific application involving exposureto organic liquids. 7 refs.INDIA

Accession no.732340

Item 61Geosynthetics International6, No.1, 1999, p.53-68COMPARATIVE MODEL STUDY OFGEOSYNTHETIC PULL-OUT RESPONSEGurung N; Iwao YSaga,University

The analysis is described of reinforcement pull-out testsusing a shear model that incorporates a hyperbolic shearstress-displacement relation for the soil-reinforcementinterface. Numerical studies of pull-out tests wereperformed for small to large strains in inextensible andextensible reinforcements. Predictions based on ahyperbolic model of shear mobilisation were comparedwith a theoretical bilinear model presented by Madhav etal. Comparative parametric studies using both modelswere carried out for ranges of relative stiffness and bondresistance values. 18 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.731468

Item 62Geosynthetics International6, No.1, 1999, p.19-40COMPARISON OF THE RESPONSE OFGEOSYNTHETICS IN THE MULTI-AXIAL ANDUNIAXIAL TEST DEVICESBray J D; Merry S MCalifornia,University; Utah,University

To evaluate the influence of the stress state induced duringtesting on the stress-strain response of geomembranes,strain-controlled multi-axial and wide strip tests wereperformed on specimens of elastic latex, PVC and HDPE.29 refs.USA

Accession no.731467

Item 63West Drayton, 1998, pp.2. 12 ins. 30/4/99.RALLITAPE 410Astor Ltd.

Technical product information is presented for Rallitape410, a single strand extruded tape based on syntheticrubber for building applications and vehicle and tankconstruction. The tape is claimed to offer a high degreeof recovery after compression, and can be used inapplications such as lap jointing of roof sheets and gutters,glazing, and bonding geomembranes.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.729212

Item 64Revue Generale des Caoutchoucs et PlastiquesNo.768, May 1998, p.30-3FrenchSTADE DE FRANCE: PLASTICS IN THE FINALDelannoy G

An examination is made of applications of plastics in theStade de France, a football stadium constructed for the1998 World Cup in France. An underground PVCgeomembrane produced by Alkor Draka was installed asa barrier to gases permeating from the site, which waspreviously occupied by a factory operated by Gaz deFrance. PVC sheeting produced by Braas was used inconstruction of the roofing, and the stadium seating wasinjection moulded by Grosfillex in a UV stabilisedpropylene copolymer.

ALKOR DRAKA; FILLON; SMAC ACIEROID SA;GROSFILLEX; BRAAS GMBHEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.721774

Item 65Geosynthetics International5, No.6, 1998, p.637-45BASIS FOR MODELLING CREEP AND STRESSRELAXATION BEHAVIOUR OF GEOGRIDSSawicki APoland,Institute of Hydro-Engineering

Based on the test data published in 1997 by Leschinskyet al., analytical models of the creep and stress relaxationof some geogrids are presented. It is shown that in thecase of Geogrid C2 (HDPE) a standard rheological modeldescribed the experimental data in the low stress levelrange. In other cases, new rheological models can bedeveloped, such as the new model proposed for GeogridA1 (polyester). The models are defined by differentialconstitutive equations whose solutions are presented forcreep at constant stress and stress relaxation at constantstrain. Model parameters are also determined. 2 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.715896



Item 66Polymer40, No.9, April 1999, p.2281-8EFFECT OF APPLIED STRESS ON THEALKALINE HYDROLYSIS OF GEOTEXTILEPETP. I. ROOM TEMPERATUREEast G C; Rahman MLeeds,University

Details are given of the effect of tensile stress on the rateof hydrolysis of geotextile grade PETP in aqueous sodiumhydroxide solution at room temperature. Surfaceproperties were examined using SEM. An empiricalequation was obtained which showed that the breakingload of the filaments decreased proportionally with timeand with the square of the imposed stress. 25 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.714312

Item 67Plastics and Rubber Asia13, No.83, Nov./Dec.1998, p.14GEOMEMBRANE SEALS MONTELL AWARD

A PP geomembrane used on a major Australianconstruction project is one of the Worldwide AwardWinners in the Montell Polyolefins Worldwide InnovationAwards Program. The awards recognise innovations basedon Montell’s new grades of PP resins. The geomembranewas used on the Domain tunnel, part of a 22 km motorwayaround Melbourne. The 1.6 km tunnel passes below thelevel of the water table, and near a river, making itessential to use a geomembrane to ensure it is watertight.The geomembrane was made by Nylex Polymer Productsof Mentone. It was 2mm thick and made of Montell’sAstryn PP CA-721. Astryn can incorporate a high levelof ethylene-propylene rubber, giving it good flexibilityand tear resistance without using plasticisers. Details aregiven.

MONTELL POLYOLEFINS; NYLEX POLYMERPRODUCTSAUSTRALIA

Accession no.714097

Item 68Geosynthetics International5, No.5, 1998, p.459-90EFFECT OF PH, RESIN PROPERTIES, ANDMANUFACTURING PROCESS ONLABORATORY DEGRADATION OFPOLYESTER GEOSYNTHETICSElias V; Salman A; Goulias DElias V.,& Associates; Brooklyn,Polytechnic University

An accelerated testing protocol was developed and a testprogramme implemented to assess the durability of PETPgeosynthetics. The test results indicated that low-tenacityPETP commercial geosynthetic products were more

susceptible to hydrolytic degradation than high-tenacitygeosynthetics due to lower molec.wt. and a high numberof carboxyl end groups. Tests conducted in acidic, neutraland alkaline solutions exhibited the same trends. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.713694

Item 69Revista de Plasticos Modernos75, No.500, Feb.1998, p.187-95SpanishSYNTHETIC GEOMEMBRANES IN THEWATERPROOFING OF RESERVOIRSBlanco M; Cuevas A; Aguiar E; Zaragoza GTenerife,Consejo Insular de Aguas; Spain,Ministry ofthe Environment

Applications of geomembranes in water insulation forreservoirs are examined, with particular reference toexperience in Spain and the Canary Islands. A review ismade of types of plastics and rubbers used, propertyrequirements and developments in European Union andSpanish standards relating to waterproofing membranes.28 refs.

BALTEN; CEDEX; ANFALAS; COMITE ESPANOLDE PLASTICOS EN AGRICULTURAEU; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.710656

Item 70Revista de Plasticos Modernos75, No.499, Jan.1998, p.72-5SpanishMAINTENANCE AND REPAIR OF RESERVOIRSRomero D CComite Espanol de Plasticos en Agricultura

The performance characteristics, installation, repair andmaintenance of plastics and rubber linings for reservoirsare discussed.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.710603

Item 71Polimery Tworzywa Wielkoczasteczkowe41, No.5, May 1996, p.307-10PolishECOLOGICAL POLYETHYLENE PRODUCTS.PART 1. POLYETHYLENE GEOMEMBRANESPlock,R&D Centre of the Refinery Industry

Geomembrane applications are reviewed, with particularreference to those used as insulating materials forprotecting underground and surface water and soil fromcontamination by refuse and leaching from waste disposalsites. The requirements to be met by such geomembranes



are summarised. The essential technical specifications andchemical resistance of the geomembranes made from low-density polyethylene at the Refinery R&D Centre at Plockare presented. Advantages and drawbacks of thegeomembranes made from low-density and high-densitypolyethylene are compared. 3 refs. Articles from thisjournal can be requested for translation by subscribers tothe Rapra produced International Polymer Science andTechnology.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.706688

Item 72Geosynthetics International5, No.4, 1998, p.425-34CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION OFGEOTEXTILE-REINFORCED SOILSHelwany S M B; Shih SWisconsin,University; Texas,University

Creep and stress relaxation occur simultaneously in ageosynthetic-reinforced soil structure. A new testapparatus is described which measures creep and stressrelaxation simultaneously in a soil-geosyntheticcomposites. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.706423

Item 73Geosynthetics International5, No.4, 1998, p.399-424THEORETICAL MODEL FOR THE PULL-OUTRESPONSE OF GEOSYNTHETICREINFORCEMENTMadhav M R; Gurung N; Iwao YSaga,University

A new pull-out test model that calculates the soil-geosynthetic reinforcement interface shear stress forhighly extensible geosynthetic reinforcement is proposed.Based on a new bilinear interface shear model, thegeosynthetic pull-out test results are calculated with regardto the variation of the mobilised geosynthetic tension withdistance, geosynthetic pre-yield and post-yield behaviour,and the effective and extended length of the geosyntheticreinforcement. The resulting non-linear equation for thesoil-geosynthetic interface shear stress pull-outmechanism is nondimensionalised, expressed in a finitedifference form, and solved numerically using the Gauss-Siedel technique. A parametric study is carried out for arange of relative stiffness values and interface shearstresses. Normalised load-displacement relationship andthe variation of the pull-out force and reinforcementdisplacements, with distance along the reinforcement, arepresented. 33 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.706422

Item 74Geosynthetics International5, No.4, 1998, p.361-82PULL-OUT RESISTANCE OF POLYESTERSTRAPS AT LOW OVERBURDEN STRESSLo S C RNew South Wales,University

High tenacity polyester straps have been successfully usedas the reinforcing elements for geosynthetic-reinforcedsoil walls. The pull-out resistance of a high tenacitypolyester strap at low overburden stress of less than 100kPa was studied with a large-scale pull-out box. Threedifferent types of soil hauled from active construction siteswere used. The friction factor, as defined by the ratio ofthe average failure shear stress to average normal stress,increased with a reduction in the overburden stress. Thisincrease was more significant for the soil with a highdilatancy. 18 refs.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.706421

Item 75Journal of Testing & Evaluation26, No.5, Sept.1998, p.472-80DURABILITY OF GEOSYNTHETICS BASED ONACCELERATED THERMO-OXIDATIONTESTINGSalman A; Goulias D; Elias VBrooklyn,Polytechnic University; Earth Engineering &Science Inc.

A basic autooxidation scheme was adapted to develop akinetic model for evaluating the mechanical degradationof geosynthetic materials. Based on experimental dataobtained for polyolefin geotextiles (P-3, a needle-punchedcontinuous filament non-woven textile, and P-9, a slit filmwoven textile), the model provided estimates of strengthloss with time caused by thermo-oxidation. The study wasrestricted to severe conditions of treatment as comparedwith in-service conditions, to accelerate degradation andto achieve measurable chemical and mechanical changesduring two to three years of laboratory incubation time.16 refs.USA

Accession no.704895

Item 76Plastics Extrusion Technology. 2nd edition.Munich, Hanser Publications, 1997, p.317-40. 82EXTRUSION OF FILM TAPEHensen F; Stausberg GBarmag Barmer Maschinenfabrik AGEdited by: Hensen F

Film tapes are uniaxially oriented thermoplastic semi-finished products with a high width-to-thickness ratio,which can be converted into twines, ropes, and knitted or



woven fabrics. Ever since industrial extrusion of film tapesbegan in 1965, their production has been steadilyincreasing. Production of the natural fibres jute, sisal andhemp has decreased during the same period; and they havealmost completely been replaced by film tapes in somefields of application. This fast growth is explained by thefact that the techniques and production lines in use aremore cost-effective than those used with natural products,and are, furthermore, ecologically harmless and energysaving; the raw materials employed are PP and PE - incomparison with the natural products used for the sameapplications, they have better properties, more stableprices, and are freely available; and applications inpackaging, carpets and geotextiles are growing. Aspectscovered include development and market significance offilm tape extrusion, methods of manufacture, tapecharacteristics, production methods, design variations oftape lines and automation. 40 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.704007

Item 77Journal of Applied Polymer Science70, No.11, 12th Dec.1998, p.2097-110COMPARISON OF THE EFFECTS OF TESTINGCONDITIONS AND CHEMICAL EXPOSURE ONGEOMEMBRANES USING THECOMPREHENSIVE TESTING SYSTEM(CTS)Stessel R I; Barrett W M; Xiaojun LiSouth Florida,University

Chemical compatibility tests were conducted on HDPEgeomembrane samples using the CTS under low- andhigh-displacement conditions. CTS development betweenthe two sets of data (low- and high-displacement) wasfound significantly to reduce the friction within the testingcell. This friction reduction was apparent from thedecrease in delta modulus from the larger values obtainedduring low-displacement testing to the smaller valuesobtained during high-displacement testing. The results ofthe high-displacement testing showed statisticallyinsignificant differences between delta modulus resultsat the 95% confidence interval, which was not possiblewith the low-displacement test configuration. The high-displacement testing showed that the more soluble thetest chemical was in PE, the lower was the resulting deltamodulus. 25 refs.USA

Accession no.702772

Item 78Geosynthetics International5, No.3, 1998, p.347-57METHODOLOGY FOR THE EVALUATION OFGEOTEXTILE PORE OPENING SIZES UNDERCONFINING PRESSURE

Palmeira E M; Fannin R JBrasilia,University; British Columbia,University

A methodology used to evaluate the pore opening sizesof a needle-punched, non-woven polyester geotextileunder pressure, using a permeameter subject to vibration,was presented. Particles passing through the geotextileswere collected and analysed to establish a particle sizedistribution curve. 12 refs.BRAZIL; CANADA

Accession no.702231

Item 79Geosynthetics International5, No.3, 1998, p.327-45MODELLING OF GEOSYNTHETICREINFORCEMENT IN SOIL RETAININGWALLSSawicki APolish Academy of Sciences

The behaviour of geosynthetic reinforcement layers inthe active and anchorage zones of soil retaining walls wasstudied. Differential equations that describe thereinforcement layer force/stress distribution, whileembedded in soil, were derived for both the elastic andviscoelastic reinforcement layers. The solutions to thesedifferential equations provide a simple method ofanalysing reinforcement pull-out, the influence of wallfacing flexibility on the distribution of forces in thereinforcement, and stress relaxation in reinforcementlayers that exhibit creep behaviour. Practical exampleswere used to illustrate the influence of parameter valueson model predictions. 20 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.702230

Item 80Geosynthetics International5, No.3, 1998, p.309-25CLOGGING OF NON-WOVEN GEOTEXTILESWITH CATTLE MANURE SLURRIESBarrington S F; El Moueddeb K; Jazestani J; Dussault MMcGill University; Canada,Ministry ofAgriculture,Fisheries & Food

Three different types of heat-bonded, needle-punched,non-woven polyester geotextile specimens with similarhydraulic conductivities, but with different O90 valuesand average pore opening sizes, were exposed to a 3.6 mhead of cattle manure slurry containing 7.5% total solidsin laboratory columns to test the effect of pore openingsize on geotextile specimen clogging. 12 refs.CANADA

Accession no.702229



Item 81Geosynthetics International5, No.3, 1998, p.287-307PERFORMANCE OF PROTECTIVE COVERSYSTEMS FOR LANDFILL GEOMEMBRANELINERS UNDER LONG-TERM MSW LOADINGReddy K R; Saichek R EIllinois,University

Results are presented of large-scale laboratory simulationtests to evaluate the relative performance of different coversystems, consisting of a granular soil layer, i.e. a drainagelayer, both with and without the presence of a needle-punched non-woven geotextile, to protect a 1.5 mm thicksmooth HDPE geomembrane liner under long-termmunicipal solid waste loading conditions. Five differentgranular soils, ranging from a coarse gravel to a mediumsand were used in testing. The protective cover systemand the geomembrane liner were subjected to incrementalloading to a maximum pressure of 1.4 MPa. The effect oflong-term loading on the characteristics of the cover soilswas assessed by performing particle size analyses, andthe physical damage that occurred to the geomembraneliner was visually assessed in addition to performingmulti-axial tension, wide strip tension, and water vapourtransmission tests. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.702228

Item 82Geosynthetics International5, No.3, 1998, p.265-85INTERPRETATION OF TRANSMISSIVITY TESTDATA FOR GEONETSFannin R J; Choy H W; Atwater J WBritish Columbia,University

A series of tests were performed on a geonet confinedbetween a pair of geomembranes to examine therelationship between flow rate per unit width andhydraulic gradient at low gradients, i.e. less than 0.10,specifically the equivalence to granular media and therole of relative permeability. Four geonets and sevengeomembranes were examined. The geomembranethickness and type of polymer were chosen so as tomaximise the potential for intrusion of these adjacentmaterials in the pore space of the geonet. The apparatus,specimen preparation, and test procedure are described.Flow data are reported, and the influence of boundaryconditions and imposed test parameters on the availableflow capacity is discussed. The implications for designpractice are assessed, with emphasis on an approach forquantifying non-Darcian flow through the geonets and acomparison of flow behaviour with that reported forgravels. 21 refs.CANADA

Accession no.702227

Item 83Rubber and Plastics News28, No.5, 5th Oct.1998, p.11DISTRICT USES SYNTHETIC RUBBER TO LINELEAKY RESERVOIRMcNulty M

The use is described of Hypalon synthetic rubber fromDu Pont in a lining for the Garvey Reservoir in MontereyPark. The existing structure was leaking due to earthquakedamage. The reservoir is said to be the world’s first majorinstallation to use a 90 mil, five ply primary liner madefrom synthetic rubber. A secondary 36 mil liner was alsoinstalled.

DUPONT DOW ELASTOMERS LLC; BURKEENVIRONMENTAL PRODUCTS; SERROT CORP.;NEAL C.W.,CORP.USA

Accession no.701352

Item 84Polymers & Polymer Composites6, No.4, 1998, p.205-13CHEMICAL RESISTIVITY OF VERY LOWDENSITY PE GEOMEMBRANES. SORPTION/DESORPTION, DIFFUSION AND SWELLINGAminabhavi T M; Naik H GKarnatak University

Data are presented for the sorption, desorption, diffusionand swelling of very low density PE with 14 organicliquids. Sorption results were obtained by a gravimetricmethod and diffusion coefficients were calculated usingFick’s equation from the initial linear portions of of thesorption/desorption curves. 25 refs.INDIA

Accession no.697316

Item 85Patent Number: US 5736237 A 19980407GEOMEMBRANESRhee A S-J; Nicholas AUnion Carbide Chemicals & Plastics Technology Corp.

A sheet, such as a geomembrane, consists essentially ofan extruded in situ blend of two copolymers of ethyleneand one or more alpha-olefins having 3 to 8 carbon atoms.The blend has a flow index in the range of about 3 to 100grams per 10 min., a melt flow ratio in the range of about50 to 200, a density in the range of 0.905 to 0.943 g/cu.cm., an Mw/Mn ratio in the range of about 10 to 50and a weight-average molec.wt. in the range of about180,000 to 465,000.USA

Accession no.695149



Item 86Polymer Testing 97. Day 1: Durability of Plastics.Conference proceedings.Shawbury, 7th-11th April 1997, Paper 4. 9TDURABILITY OF POLYETHYLENE-BASEDGEOMEMBRANES IN AGGRESSIVE LIQUIDMEDIAJakubowicz I; Johansson USweden,National Testing & Research Institute(Rapra Technology Ltd.; Plastics & Rubber Weekly;European Plastics News)

Ground water is a very valuable resource that must beprotected from all kinds of’ contamination. The risk ofcontamination is greatest in connection with transportation(roads, railways and airports), industry handling chemicalsand waste deposits. A way to protect ground water is byusing membranes as impermeable barriers in the ground.One problem that remains is that materials with attractiveinstallation properties can be adopted by the industry onthe basis of a quality specification that has little correlationto long-term performance in the field. To avoid thisproblem, it is important to have appropriate test methodsfor a reliable prediction of service life. At present, thereare only standards available which describe methods fortesting of short-term compatibility of materials with somechemicals. An attempt is made to investigate the influenceof some frequently-occurring liquid agents on thedurability of PE-based geomembranes. An accelerated testmethod for prediction of lifetime of geomembranes issuggested. Also, various methods for evaluation ofdegradation and failure are used, as the role of suchmethods is critical in the effectiveness of a durabilitytesting programme. 6 refs.

POLYSHEET ASSCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.694696

Item 87BioCycle Journal of Composting & Recycling39, No.3, March 1998, p.45-7MARKETING TYRE SHREDS AS PLAYGROUNDCOVER

Recycled Rubber Resources was formed to produce a colouredrubber surfacing product. Boing! comprises of shredded tyrescoloured with a non-toxic coating. While playgrounds are aprimary market for the product, other applications includehorse arenas, golf courses and athletic fields.

RECYCLED RUBBER RESOURCES INC.USA

Accession no.692839

Item 88Geosynthetics International5, Nos.1-2, 1998, p.203-35SIMPLIFIED SEISMIC DESIGN PROCEDUREFOR GEOSYNTHETIC-LINED, SOLID-WASTE

LANDFILLSBray J D; Rathje E M; Augello A J; Merry S MCalifornia,University; Texas,University; Haley &Aldrich; Utah,University

A critical review is presented of seismic design practicesin light of the observed performance of landfills duringrecent earthquakes. Developments in these areas aresummarised: earthquake ground motions, dynamic wastefill properties, dynamic responses of geomembranes andtheir interfaces, non-linear dynamic response analysis, andseismic stability evaluation. A newly developed simplifiedseismic analysis procedure that requires the most criticalfactors to be addressed during a seismic performanceevaluation is presented. The underlying seismic analysisprocedure was validated against observed performanceof landfills shaken by the 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994Northridge, California earthquakes. 65 refs.USA

Accession no.689483

Item 89Geosynthetics International5, Nos.1-2, 1998, p.17-39ESTIMATION OF DYNAMIC INTERFACIALPROPERTIES OF GEOSYNTHETICSDe A; Zimmie T FGeoSyntec Consultants; Rensselaer PolytechnicInstitute

Laboratory test results on eight different interfaces,formed through various combinations of threegeosynthetics (a geotextile, a smooth geomembrane, anda geonet), are presented and discussed. The dynamicfrictional properties were estimated using cyclic directshear tests, shaking table tests conducted at a normal g-level of 1g as well as high g-levels, and on a 100 g-tongeotechnical centrifuge. The centrifuge simulated highnormal stress levels, commonly encountered bygeosynthetics comprising base liners of landfills or baseisolators for large structures. 17 refs.USA

Accession no.689482

Item 90Geosynthetics International5, Nos.1-2, 1998, p.1-16GEOSYNTHETIC INTERFACE BEHAVIOURUNDER DYNAMIC LOADINGYegian M K; Kadakal UNortheastern University

An overview is presented of research including: adescription of the shaking table facility and theexperimental set-up developed; typical test results anddiscussions; and a description of a constitutive model fora geosynthetic-geosynthetic interface that can be used inwave propagation analysis of soil and landfill linersystems that incorporate geosynthetics. 9 refs.



USA

Accession no.689481

Item 91Tire Business16, No.4, 25th May 1998, p.15REPORT FOCUS: HEAT IN TYRE CHIPEMBANKMENTS

A recently released report provides new information onconditions that may contribute to heating in tyre chipembankments. Entitled Tire Chip Embankment Heating:Comparison of Four Projects in Oregon and Washington,the report analyses heat flows and heat concentrationswithin chip fill. Authored by Gunnar Schleider, aconsulting engineer and principal of GeoScience, thestudy examines two tyre chip road embankment fills inOregon that experienced heat rise and fall within the chipsbut continued to perform satisfactorily. One wasmonitored over a two-year period with a specially-installed array of temperature probes. Two similar tyrechip road projects from Washington state were alsoprobed. They experienced catastrophic heating in late1995 and early 1996, erupted in flames and eventuallyhad to be removed. Brief details are noted.

GEOSCIENCE INC.USA

Accession no.687640

Item 92Shawbury, Rapra Technology Ltd., 1996, pp.150.95.00. 30cms. 9511ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS CRACKING OFPLASTICSWright D CRapra Technology Ltd.

This book reviews the factors which influenceenvironmental stress cracking, and examines the currentstate of knowledge regarding specific categories of plastics.The book is divided into three main sections focusing onthe prediction of ESC and assessment by testing, factorsthat influence ESC and data on specific plastics. Methodsfor the experimental evaluation of environmental stress aredescribed. This book is available for purchase fromPublication Sales, Rapra Technology Ltd.

Accession no.683806

Item 93Shawbury, 1997, 8 papers. 50.00. 29cms. 9TPOLYMER TESTING ’97. DAY 1: DURABILITYOF PLASTICS. PROCEEDINGS OF ACONFERENCE HELD SHAWBURY, 7TH-11THAPRIL 1997Rapra Technology Ltd.; Plastics & Rubber Weekly;European Plastics News

Eight papers presented on day one of the Polymer Testing’97 conference. Topics covered include a novel methodfor rapid determination of microbial growth on plastics,durability of polyethylene based geomembranes inaggressive liquid media, measurement of environmentalstress cracking of plastics and the influence of acidprecipitations on weathering results.

Accession no.682037

Item 94Patent Number: US 5696174 A 19971209STABLE AND WATER-RESISTANT AQUEOUSFOAM COMPOSITIONChao Y-Y H; Chao K-JAllied Foam Tech Corp.

This contains a long chain cationic organic compoundand a long-chain anionic organic compound in a weightratio of from 0.05:1 to 15:1. It may be mixed with variouswater-soluble or water-dispersible organic, polymeric orinorganic substances and used in applications wherelightweight, heat, sound or other insulative, barrierproperties or homogeneous material distribution arerequired. Such applications include cementitious orgypsum containing substances, adhesives, binders, papertreating materials, coatings, ceramics, landfills, geofillsand firefighting and fireproofing materials.USA

Accession no.680364

Item 95New Plastics 98. Conference proceedings.London, 21st-22nd Jan.1998, paper 9. 6BIOMAX HYDRO/BIODEGRADABLEPOLYESTER RESINFerretti DDu Pont de Nemours E.I.,& Co.Inc.(European Plastics News)

DuPont has created a new family of highly versatilepolymers, called Biomax hydro/biodegradable polyesterresin, that decomposes without harm to the soil orenvironment. Based on PETP technology, Biomax canbe made into film, fibre and non-wovens, as well as beingthermoformed and injection moulded. Potentialapplications range from geotextiles to agriculturalmaterials and packaging. Biomax can be recycled,incinerated or landfilled, but is intended mainly fordisposal by composting and in-soil degradation. In alltests, Biomax proves harmless to the environment at everystage of the decomposition process and virtuallyundetectable to the unaided eye in about eight weeks. Ithas a high melting point for a degradable material, whichopens up a wide range of processing options. Productproperties are diverse and customisable.USA

Accession no.679263



Item 96Polyolefins X. Conference proceedings.Houston, Tx., 23rd-26th Feb.1997, p.217-25. 42C1INTERACTIONS OF HINDERED AMINESTABILISERS - IN ACIDIC AND ALKALINEENVIRONMENTSKeck-Antoine K; Koch H; Scharf DHoechst Celanese Corp.; Hoechst AG(SPE,South Texas Section; SPE,ThermoplasticMaterials & Foams Div.)

Hindered amine stabilisers (HAS) are very effective UVand thermal stabilisers. As a result of their chemicalstructure the alkalinity of HAS varies significantly,causing antagonistic interactions in the presence of acids.These interactions can result not only in reduced lightstability performance, but also in inferior long-termthermal stability and severe processing problems. In anon-acid environment, the alkalinity of HAS itself cancreate a sufficiently alkaline environment resulting inperformance diminishing side reactions. The higher thealkalinity of the HAS structure the more pronounced theseinteractions. 10 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.674877

Item 97Journal of Applied Polymer Science67, No.11, 14th March 1998, p.1885-9MODELLING DIFFUSION THROUGHGEOMEMBRANESChan Man Fong C F; Moresoli C; Xiao S; Li Y;Bovenkamp J; de Kee DTulane,University; Sherbrooke,University; Oriclor Inc.;Canada,Defence Research Establishment Suffield

A phenomenological model that incorporates swelling wasadopted and used to solve the one-dimensional sorptionproblem. The model predictions were in good agreementwith experimental data, involving the transport ofdichloromethane, trichloroethylene, and benzene throughHDPE and PVC geomembranes. The theoretical curvespredicted weight gain and flux time profiles, includingthe case where the flux went through a maximum. 7 refs.CANADA; USA

Accession no.671238

Item 98Journal of Testing & Evaluation25, No.6, Nov.1997, p.576-83LOCAL VERSUS GLOBAL STRAINMEASUREMENT OF POLYMERIC GEOGRIDPerkins S W; Schultz J L; Lapeyre J AMontana,State University; Bridge Diagnostics Inc.

Polymeric geogrids consisting of a planar polymericmaterial with a grid-like configuration have become

increasingly popular as a reinforcement inclusion in soilstructures. As the use of geogrid materials has increased,so has the need to quantify both the in-air and in-soilmechanical behaviour. Bonded resistance strain gaugeshave been used to quantify the strain response of geogrids.Problems associated with gauge mounting, bonding, andenvironmental protection must be addressed. Therelationship between the local measured strain and theglobal strain must be established. These issues areaddressed by conducting in-air tension tests on a particulargeogrid. In general, it has been found that strain gaugescan be successfully bonded to the ribs of geogrids suchthat strains up to 7% can be recorded. These gauges aresuccessfully protected and used in a field application fora period of five months. Strains measured along the ribsof the geogrids are seen to be 1.25 to 1.6 times the averagestrain applied across the specimen for monotonic loading,The two strains correspond nearly one-for-one for cyclicloading. The presence of the strain gauge andaccompanying cement appears to have little effect on thestrain response. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.670421

Item 99Scrap Tire News12, No.2, Feb.1998, p.1/12WORKING ON THE MARKETS

Ethan Grove started his involvement with crumb rubberfifteen years ago mixing roofing formulations in aBaltimore warehouse. Today, he’s mixing on a largerscale. As a joint venture partner in Enviro-Flex, aBaltimore-based manufacturer of rubber roofing, Groveis getting his products into markets worldwide, and, as aprincipal of Elastomeric Technologies - a product designand development company in Clinton, MD, he isintroducing a mini paver that can introduce recycledrubber to more applications. While crumb rubberproducers fret over processing and sizing, Grove isbenefiting from a decision years ago to concentrate onfinding ways to use the ground rubber. Just a few monthsago, the state of Maryland approved EnviroFlex’s coatingproducts for landfill liner use opening the door for newapplications for the company’s products. Enviro-Flex’slandfill liner mats consist of a geotextile membraneoverlaid with an impermeable rubber coating that contains30% crumb rubber. More recently, Grove perfected apolyester joint seal compound for the liners making them100% waterproof. Details are given.

ELASTOMERIC TECHNOLOGIES; ENVIRO-FLEXUSA

Accession no.670360

Item 100Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, No.12, Dec.1996, p.647-726



FIRST GERMANY/USA GEOMEMBRANEWORKSHOPCorbet S P; Peters MMaunsell G.,& Partners Ltd.

The first Germany/USA Geomembrane Workshop washeld at the BAM, Berlin in June 1996. The main objectswere to advance the understanding of geomembraneperformance, to provide guidance for regulators writinglandfill liner regulations and to provide guidance fordesign engineers new to the industry. Details are given.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.670353

Item 101Geosynthetics International4, No.5, 1997, p.542-6DISCUSSIONS AND CLOSURE. FIELDEVALUATION OF PROTECTIVE COVERS FORLANDFILL GEOMEMBRANE LINERS UNDERCONSTRUCTION LOADINGThiel R S; Babu-Tweneboah K; Giroud J P; Carlson DS; Schmertmann G R; Reddy K R; Bandi S R; Rohr J J;Finy M; Siebken JGeoSyntec Consultants; Thiel Engineering

Discussions are presented of the technical note on ‘FieldEvaluation of Protective Covers for Landfill GeomembraneLiners under Construction Loading’ by Reddy, Bani, Rohr,Finy and Siebken (ibid, 3, No.6, 1996, p.679-700). Aresponse by Reddy et al. is also given. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.666782

Item 102Geosynthetics International4, No.5, 1997, p.509-21LOAD TRANSFER MECHANISM IN PULL-OUTTESTSAlobaidi I M; Hoare D J; Ghataora G SBirmingham,University

A numerical method for prediction of soil-geotextileinterface friction parameters was developed. A strainsoftening model was used to simulate the relationshipbetween shear stress and horizontal displacement at thesoil-geotextile interface. Pull-out tests were performed ontwo types of geotextile (polyester and PP), with differenttensile stiffnesses, embedded in a granular soil. For eachgeotextile, pull-out tests were performed at confiningpressures of 20, 50, 100 and 200 kPa. It was found that,unless breakage of the geotextile occurred, the peak pull-out force occurred after a small displacement of the freeend of the geotextile. At the peak pull-out force, themaximum shear stress occurred near the free end of thegeotextile, while the shear stress at the loaded end was ator near a residual value. The use of an average frictionangle overestimated pull-out resistance. The numerical

technique developed provided more accurate values forsoil-geotextile interface friction parameters. 11 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.666781

Item 103Geosynthetics International4, No.5, 1997, p.481-508MECHANICAL BEHAVIOR OF SANDREINFORCED WITH MESH ELEMENTSMorel J C; Gourc J PEcole Nationale des Travaux Publics de l’Etat;Grenoble,Joseph Fourier University

The shear strength of sand reinforced with randomly-oriented and vertically-aligned PP mesh elements wasstudied. A biaxial apparatus was designed to loadspecimens under plane strain conditions andphotogrammetry was used to measure the strain fieldwithin the specimens during loading. The biaxial testresults obtained for sand specimens reinforced withrandomly-oriented mesh elements illustrated the effectof reinforcement content on specimen strength. Strainlocalisation was observed for both reinforced andunreinforced sand specimens but, for the reinforced sandspecimens, the strain localisation phenomenon was notaccompanied by a drop in strength. Further testing wasperformed using a large shear box to impose a fixed shearplane in the reinforced specimens. Sand specimens withrandomly-oriented mesh elements, as well as sandreinforced with vertically-aligned mesh elements, weretested in the large shear box. 28 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.666780

Item 104Geosynthetics International4, No.5, 1997, p.463-79CREEP AND STRESS RELAXATION OFGEOGRIDSLeshchinsky D; Dechasakulsom M; Kaliakin V N; Ling H IDelaware,University

Results of a preliminary experimental attempt to identifythe stress relaxation behaviour of nine typical geogridsused to reinforce soil structures are presented. A simpletest method that directly measured the stress relaxationof geogrids was developed. The geogrids were subjectedto initial loads of 40, 60 and 80% of their ultimate short-term strengths. Each test was carried out for a period ofone month, or until creep rupture occurred, whicheverwas shortest. The maximum potential stress relaxationwas approximately 30% of the initial load for PETPgeogrids and 50% for HDPE geogrids. 20 refs.USA

Accession no.666779



Item 105Geosynthetics International4, No.6, 1997, p.661-72WATER RETENTION FUNCTIONS OF FOURNONWOVEN PP GEOTEXTILESStormont J C; Henry K S; Evans T MNew Mexico,University; US,Army; GeoSyntecConsultants

The water retention functions of four nonwoven PPgeotextiles were measured. Water retention functions werefound to be hysteretic. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.666589

Item 106Geosynthetics International4, No.6, 1997, p.645-59SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF AN UNREINFORCEDGEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINEREid H T; Stark T DIllinois,University

Dry and hydrated specimens of an unreinforced HDPEgeomembrane-backed geosynthetic clay liner were shearedagainst a textured geomembrane using a torsional ring shearapparatus to study the shear behaviour of geomembraneencapsulated bentonite. The effects of hydration and normalstress application on unreinforced geomembrane-backedgeosynthetic clay liner/textured geomembrane interfaceshear strength are discussed. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.666588

Item 107Geosynthetics International4, No.6, 1997, p.623-43INTERACTION BETWEEN TYRE SHREDS,RUBBER-SAND AND GEOSYNTHETICSBernal A; Salgado R; Swan R H; Lovell C WGeoHidra; Purdue University; GeoSyntec Consultants

Details are given of a test programme consisting of directshear tests, interface direct shear tests, and geosyntheticpull-out tests to determine the interaction properties oftyre shreds and rubber-sand fills with three differentflexible geogrids and a woven geotextile. Data on thetesting programme, test results, and conclusions basedon the results are discussed. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.666587

Item 108Geosynthetics International4, No.6, 1997, p.605-21SYNTHESIS AND EVALUATION OFGEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCED BASE LAYERS

IN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. II.Perkins S W; Ismeik MMontana,State University

Details are given of the use of geosynthetics to reinforcethe base course layer of flexible pavements. A review ispresented of existing design techniques developed for thisapplication. Analytical studies using finite elementtechniques to predict roadway response and to illustratereinforcement mechanisms are summarised. 33 refs.USA

Accession no.666586

Item 109Geosynthetics International4, No.6, 1997, p.549-604SYNTHESIS AND EVALUATION OFGEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCED BASE LAYERSIN FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS. I.Perkins S W; Ismeik MMontana,State University

Details are given of the use of geosynthetics to reinforcethe base course layer of flexible pavements. Studies aredescribed involving laboratory-scale experiments usingstationary cyclic loads or moving wheel loads and fieldstudies using controlled vehicle loads or random trafficloads. 38 refs.USA

Accession no.666585

Item 110Polymers & Polymer Composites5, No.5, 1997, p.353-8DURABILITY OF POLYETHYLENE-BASEDGEOMEMBRANES IN AGGRESSIVE LIQUIDMEDIAJakubowicz I; Johansson USweden,National Testing & Research Institute

The need for appropriate test methods for the reliableprediction of service life of a geomembrane material forwaste containment has led to a research project toinvestigate the influence of some frequently occurringliquid agents on the durability of PE-basedgeomembranes. An accelerated test method for predictingthe lifetime of geomembranes is also suggested. Testswere carried out as to durability in metal ions solution,chloride ions solution and synthetic diesel oil. 6 refs.SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.664202

Item 111Macplas InternationalMay 1997, p.50-1MARKET PERSPECTIVES FOR POLYOLEFINTEXTILES



Peckstadt JEuropean Association for Textile Polyolefins

The importance of polyolefins in textile applications isdiscussed, with particular reference to polypropylene.Polyolefin textiles represent 28% of the total use ofpolyolefins, and PP accounts for 95% of polyolefinconsumption in textiles. Growth rates and trends areexamined, and include increases of polyolefin textiles inthe manufacture of flexible intermediate bulk containers,clothing, in the hygiene sector, in strapping, and medicalsector twines, and a slow decrease in agrotextiles,geotextiles and construction textiles, together with adecrease in sacks, ropes and floor coverings is noted. Astatistical analysis is included of the industry.EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.662624

Item 112Recycling Textile and Plastic Waste. Conferenceproceedings.Bolton, April 1995, published 1996, p.127-33. 8(13)PRODUCTION OF HIGH TENACITY TAPESFROM WASTE POLYPROPYLENEGhosh S; Horrocks A RCharlottesville,Institute of Textile Technology; BoltonInstituteEdited by: Horrocks A R(Bolton Institute; British Textile Technology Group)

The area of technical textiles, where aesthetics are of lessconsequence than in other textile sectors, offers theopportunity to create fibres and tapes having first gradeproperties if the physics and chemistry of recycledpolymer and its conversion are understood. Of particularinterest is the field of geotextiles (textiles used in civilengineering) where the annual world market forgeotextiles is approaching 1,000 million sq.m., or about250,000 tonnes of raw materials, of which over 70%comprises PP. During the extrusion of component fibresand tapes, up to 10% by weight of process waste polymeris introduced without noticeable affects on quality. Thereis a desire by producers to increase the amount of blendedrecycled PP and even include PE with virgin polymerduring the extrusion process. In this way, they can fullyre-use their own wastes, supplement them by includingwastes from other sources and so replace virgin PP bycheaper, recycled polymer. Sources of non-processorwaste may include PP granules from recycled car batteryhousing and industrial film waste, for example. The effectsthat added polyolefin waste has on the tensile, physicaland chemical properties of orientated PP tapes are studied,analysing the effects that adding large proportions of wastehas on the properties of orientated PP tapes. 10 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.662584

Item 113Plastics News InternationalNov.1997, p.6PP GEOMEMBRANE KEEPS TUNNELWATERTIGHT

A new PP geomembrane is being used in Melbourne’s hugeCity Link project to prevent groundwater from entering aconcrete tunnel. The Millennium geomembrane sheetingis manufactured in Australia by Nylex Corporation andmarketed throughout the Asian region. It was chosen forits superior resistance to punctures, chemicals andenvironmental stress cracking, and for its ability to meetdemanding reliability and long life specifications. The 1.8billion Australian dollars City Link project is one of thelargest infrastructure projects ever undertaken in Australia.It is being designed and constructed by the Transfield-Obayashi Joint Venture. City Link involves constructionof a 22 km multi-lane expressway connecting threefreeways around the city centre, a major new bridge, andtwo tunnels. From the outset, project planners realised theimportance of installing a quality geomembrane with theflexibility and tensile strength to withstand high loadpressures and to resist environmental stress cracking. Otherdesign criteria required a product able to maintain itsdurability below the water table and in close proximity tothe river. Details are given.

NYLEX CORP.AUSTRALIA

Accession no.661762

Item 114European Plastics News24, No.11, Dec.1997, p.28PE LAGOON LINERS HELP TO IMPROVEIRRIGATION AT NURSERY

A large nursery in the UK has recently commissioned anirrigation lagoon that uses a multi-layered membrane fromMonarflex Geomembranes. Blackline 750 is a low densityPE material that is made from three separate films thatcombine to form a 0.75mm membrane, it is brieflyreported.

MONARFLEXEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.661693

Item 115Journal of Applied Polymer Science65, No.9, 29th Aug.1997, p.1833-6SORPTION AND PERMEATION OF ORGANICCONTAMINANTS THROUGH HIGH-DENSITYPOLYETHYLENE GEOMEMBRANESXiao S; Moresoli C; Bovenkamp J; De Kee DSherbrooke,University; Canada,Defence ResearchEstablishment



Geomembranes are used as liners to protect theenvironment from hazardous toxic contaminants. HDPErepresents 40-45% of the raw material used in themanufacture of geomembranes. Although geomembranesare rarely exposed to pure contaminants, surprisingly littleresearch has been conducted using multi-componentsystems in contact with geomembranes. Breakthroughtimes and the associated fluxes have been investigatedpreviously as a result of membrane-mixture contact. Thesubstantial effect of mixture transport through PVCmembranes has also been reported. An experimental studyinvolving the transport of a mixture of penetrants throughHDPE geomembranes is further reported. 14 refs.CANADA

Accession no.652537

Item 116Asian Plastics NewsApril 1997, p.19-20SUCCESSFUL SHEETWong G

The production of PE geomembrane sheet by CTPetrochemical for use in lining ponds, reservoirs, landfills,waste water treatment areas, etc., is described. The companyhas recently commissioned a turnkey blown film line fromBattenfeld Gloucester to make special grade geomembranesheet from HDPE in smooth and textured forms. Theproduction line is described, together with the product andmethods of joining the geomembrane sheets. The activitiesof CT Petrochemical’s sister companies are also indicated.

CP GROUP; CT PETROCHEMICAL; BATTENFELDGLOUCESTER ENGINEERING CO.INC.THAILAND; USA

Accession no.652050

Item 117Scrap Tire News11, No.8, Aug.1997, p.5INDUSTRY-GOVERNMENT PARTNERSHIPISSUES DESIGN GUIDELINES FOR TYRESHRED FILL PROJECTS

A joint industry-government partnership is reported tohave issued technical recommendations in July designedto minimise internal heating of tyre shred fills. Therecommendations, Design Guidelines To MinimizeInternal Heating of Tire Shred Fills, were developed bythe Ad Hoc Civil Engineering Committee, which wasformed in April 1995 to address possible causes of internalheating reactions that occurred at three tyre shred fillprojects in 1995. The guidelines are the result ofinvestigation into more than 70 successful tyre shred fillprojects. The guidelines were developed to incorporatedesign and engineering criteria for two classes of tyreshred fills: Class I, up to 1 m in depth, and Class II, greaterthan 1 m, up to 3 m in depth. Tyre chip size, chipcleanliness, exposed wire, fill access to water and air,

geotextile covering and cover fill material are among thecriteria addressed in the guidelines. Details are given.

AD HOC CIVIL ENGINEERING COMMITTEE;SCRAP TIRE MANAGEMENT COUNCIL; TIRE &RUBBER RECYCLING ADVISORY COUNCILUSA

Accession no.651673

Item 118Geosynthetics International4, No.2, 1997, p.137-63FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OFINELASTIC DEFORMATION OF DUCTILEPOLYMERSZhang C; Moore I DWestern Ontario,University

Two uniaxial constitutive models were extended toprovide a multi-axial formulation which was implementedin a finite element program. Finite element simulationsof a perforated HDPE plate under remote uniaxial loadingwere performed as well as an HDPE pipe section underparallel plate loading. Results were compared withmeasured experimental results. 22 refs.CANADA

Accession no.649559

Item 119Geosynthetics International4, No.2, 1997, p.81-136GEOSYNTHETIC-REINFORCED SOILRETAINING WALLS AS IMPORTANTPERMANENT STRUCTURES. 1996-1997MERCER LECTURETatsuoka F; Tateyama M; Uchimura T; Koseki JTokyo,University

A review is presented of the use of geosynthetic-reinforcedsoil retaining walls for railway embankments, bridgeabutments, and walls to support rail tracks. A new methodof stiffening reinforced soil by vertical preloading andprestressing is also described. 41 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.649558

Item 120Antec 97. Volume III. Conference proceedings.Toronto,27th April-2nd May 1997,p.3366-70. 012CALCULATING THERMAL INDUCEDSTRESSES USING NONLINEARVISCOELASTIC MATERIAL MODELSchloeche N; Schmachtenberg EEssen,University(SPE)

The application of a nonlinear viscoelastic material modelto the calculation of thermal stresses in geomembranes ispresented. The model’s parameters as well as the



temperature depending calibration are described.Comparing measurements with the simulation, it is shownthat the model is capable of a good prediction of the stresscurves. Thermal cycling is applied to a HDPE materialunder two different strains. Both load cases lead tosignificant tensile stress in the material. 7 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.639889

Item 121Antec 97. Volume II. Conference proceedings.Toronto, 27th April-2nd May 1997, p.1649-54. 012CHEMICAL COMPATIBILITY OFGEOMEMBRANES - SORPTION, DIFFUSIONAND SWELLING PHENOMENAAminabhavi T M; Naik H G; Donaldson J; Siebken J RKarnatak University; National Seal Co.(SPE)

Sorption, diffusion and permeation of aromatic liquidsinto HDPE, LLDPE, VLDPE and PP geomembranes arepresented at 25, 50 and 70 deg.C. Diffusion coefficientsare calculated using Fick’s equation and swelling of thegeomembranes is measured by monitoring the increasein volume. Results of this research may be useful in theselection of a suitable geomembrane for a specificapplication. 6 refs.INDIA; USA

Accession no.638263

Item 122Plastics World54, No.3, March 1996, p.35/8SOLID FORM VITAMIN E

The new granular Ronotec 201 from Hoffmann-LaRocheis said to offer all the benefits of the liquid Vitamin Estabiliser system. It is low-dusting, has good flowcharacteristics and disperses easily. BASF has introducedan antioxidant based on its original vitamin E product,but with much greater hydrolysis resistance. A line ofhighly loaded antioxidant formulations from Colortechis aimed at wire and cable, geomembrane and resinrecycling applications. Colortech 10604-11 contains aproprietary blend of high molecular weight hinderedphenolic antioxidant and phosphite process stabiliser.

HOFFMANN-LA ROCHE INC.; BASF CORP.;COLORTECH CORP.CANADA; USA

Accession no.637585

Item 123Canadian Plastics55, No.3, April 1997, p.27-30FILMS FOR THE FUTURELeGault M

The activities of two Canadian producers of geomembranesare reported. Firstly, Columbia Geosystems manufacturesPE sheeting slit and wound into 23 feet rolls for use incontainment applications, such as landfills, mining, pondsand water treatment applications.. The company producessingle layer smooth and three-layered textured sheeting.Secondly, Solmax Geosynthetiques is to make the changefrom being an installer of geomembranes to a manufacturer,and will pursue strategic alliances in order to enhance thecompany’s entry into new markets, it is reported.

COLUMBIA GEOSYSTEMS; SOLMAXGEOSYNTHETIQUES; SOLMAXINTERNATIONAL INC.CANADA

Accession no.636899

Item 124Patent Number: EP 773311 A1 19970514GEOGRID COMPOSED OF POLYETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE AND POLYOLEFINBICOMPONENT FIBRES AND PROCESS FORTHE PREPARATION THEREOFHarford D WHoechst Celanese Corp.

Warp knit, weft inserted geogrid fabric without a topcoatis made by passing PETP having an intrinsic viscosity ofat least 0.89 decilitres per gram, as determined from asolvent base of orthochlorophenol at 25C, in a moltenstate into an apparatus for spinning bicomponent sheath-core filaments to form the core of each filament of abicomponent fibre, passing an adhesive polyolefin in amolten state containing about 0.5 to 2 wt.% carbon blackinto the apparatus to form a sheath about the core of eachfilament of the bicomponent fibre, spinning and drawingthe bicomponent fibre, applying a finish at a level of about0.4 to 0.8 wt.% to the bicomponent fibre, sizing andwarping the bicomponent fibre, weaving or knitting thebicomponent fibre into a fabric and bonding the fabricby fusing the sheath using a heating medium.USA

Accession no.634023

Item 125Geosynthetics International4, No.1, 1997, p.65-79STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION PROPERTIESOF SOILS REINFORCED WITH FIBRILLATEDFIBRESNataraj M S; McManis K LNew Orleans,University

Results of preliminary laboratory tests on a clay and asand reinforced with randomly distributed PP fibrillatedfibres are presented. Results of compaction, direct shear,unconfined compression and California Bearing Ratiotests are described. The influence of normal stress, the



amount of reinforcement, specimen size, and moisturecontent are discussed. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.633585

Item 126Geosynthetics International4, No.1, 1997, p.51-64CRITICAL PARAMETERS FORSPECIFICATION OF PREFABRICATEDVERTICAL DRAINSRawes B CAkzo Nobel Geosynthetics

Details are given of the critical parameters for thespecification of prefabricated vertical drains withreference to the ASTM D 4716 test method for measuringdischarge capacity. A suggested model specification isgiven. 13 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;NETHERLANDS; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.633584

Item 127Geosynthetics International4, No.1, 1997, p.33-50POLYMER GEOGRIDS FOR BRIDGINGMINING VOIDSBridle R J; Jenner C GWales,University

Details are given of full-scale field tests to determine thesupport provided by polymer geogrids in typical roadconstruction over old coal mining areas. A number ofanalytical methods were defined and combined to developan appropriate design approach that matches the measuredfield results as closely as possible. 3 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.633583

Item 128Geosynthetics International4, No.1, 1997, p.11-32IN-ISOLATION STRAIN MEASUREMENT OFGEOSYNTHETICS IN WIDE-WIDTH STRIPTENSION TESTPerkins S W; Lapeyre J AMontana,State University

Details are given of the construction of a large wide-widthstrip tension apparatus to test the differences between theglobal and measured strain for four different types of strainsensors attached to geogrid and geotextile specimens.Calibration factors were developed and applied to theresults to achieve a match between the measured andglobal strains. 17 refs.USA

Accession no.633582

Item 129Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe5, No.1, Jan./March 1997, p.26GEOTEXTILES PRODUCERS ASSOCIATION

A list is given of the twelve members of the PolishGeotextile Producers Association. A table is also givenshowing the applications of geotextile products ingeotextile services offered by Polish producers.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.633562

Item 130Geosynthetics International3, No.6, 1996, p.771-86SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCEDGEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERSStark T D; Eid H TIllinois,University

Ring shear tests were performed to evaluate the effect ofbentonite on the interfacial shear strength between ageomembrane and a reinforced geosynthetic clay liner(GCL) and the internal shear behaviour of reinforcedGCLs. The tests yielded an interfacial shear strength thatis in agreement with the back-calculated shear strengthvalues from two test pads. Recommendations arepresented for the rate of shear that should be used forinternal shear testing of GCLs. 18 refs.USA

Accession no.632425

Item 131Geosynthetics International3, No.6, 1996, p.741-69WATER DIFFUSION THROUGHGEOMEMBRANES UNDER HYDRAULICPRESSUREEloy-Giorni C; Pelte T; Pierson P; Margrita RAGRU Environnement France; GeoSyntec Consultants;Fourier J.,Universite; Grenoble,Centre d’EtudesNucleaires

A theoretical analysis of fluid transport mechanismsthrough geomembranes is presented. Diffusion andpermeation tests that use a volumetric and radioactivetracer method to measure the amount of water flowthrough geomembrane specimens give an understandingof the mechanism of water transport through HDPE, PVCand bituminous membranes. The use of the hydraulicpermeation test and hydraulic conductivity (as definedby Darcy’s law) to characterise geomembranepermeability are discussed. 14 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; FRANCE;USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.632424



Item 132Geosynthetics International3, No.6, 1996, p.701-19ROLE OF SPECIMEN GEOMETRY, SOILHEIGHT AND SLEEVE LENGTH ON THE PULL-OUT BEHAVIOUR OF GEOGRIDSLopes M L; Ladeira MPorto,Universidade

Pull-out test results of geogrid specimens embedded in agranular soil are presented. The influence of specimengeometry, soil height and sleeve length on the pull-outforce of the geogrid specimen was discussed and theresults of nine pull-out tests were analysed. Soil andgeogrid properties were also fully described and the soil-geogrid interaction behaviour was studied. 7 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; PORTUGAL;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.632423

Item 133Geosynthetics International3, No.6, 1996, p.679-700FIELD EVALUATION OF PROTECTIVECOVERS FOR LANDFILL GEOMEMBRANELINER UNDER CONSTRUCTION LOADINGReddy K R; Bandi S R; Rohr J J; Finy M; Siebken JIllinois,University; Great Lakes Soil & EnvironmentalConsultants Inc.; Rust Environment & Infrastructure;Waste Management Inc.; National Seal Co.

The performance of landfill geomembrane liner protectivecover systems with and without a geotextile was evaluatedusing field tests. The physical properties of the protectivecover soils and the geomembrane liner before and afterfield testing were determined using laboratory tests. Thehydraulic properties of the geomembrane field sampleswere measured using water vapour transmission tests, andthe mechanical properties were measured using multi-axial tension tests and wide strip tensile tests. A low massper unit area geotextile was demonstrated to completelyprotect the geomembrane in this study. 12 refs.USA

Accession no.632422

Item 134Rubber and Plastics News 218, No.11, 3rd March 1997, p.4FEW CAN COMPARE WITH ATLANTICWASTE’S SHREDDED TYRE USAGESlaybaugh C

Atlantic Waste Disposal uses shredded tyres for severalcivil engineering applications including “daily” and“alternate daily cover” for landfills. The landfill operationlocated south of Richmond, Va., is a “recirculatinglandfill” in which leachate is captured by a plastic linerat the bottom of the fill, then piped back to the surface

where it is allowed to filter back down through the massof debris. This encourages production of methane orlandfill gas which Atlantic Waste hopes one day to harvestand use for fuel.

ATLANTIC WASTE DISPOSAL INC.USA

Accession no.632165

Item 135Plastics and Rubber Asia12, No.70, April 1997, p.30-1FROM PRAWN FARMER TO FILM STARPilling M

CT Petrochemical is reported to have established acoextrusion geomembrane film production plant to supplythe needs of a prawn farming sister company. The CPGroup diversified into the plastics business several yearsago, forming Charoen Pokphand Petrochemical (CPP).This company in turn set up CT Petrochemical to producegeomembrane film to supply its own needs. Thegeomembrane film production operation, including theblown film line, materials handling, silos and cranes wereall supplied in a turnkey package by BattenfeldGloucester; investment has totalled around six millionUS dollars, with 3.75 million US dollars for the three-layer coextrusion blown film line. Details are given.

CT PETROCHEMICAL CO.LTD.; CHAROENPOKPHAND PETROCHEMICAL CO.LTD.INDONESIA

Accession no.631955

Item 136Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1683, 25th April 1997, p.9FROM LAB TO LECTERN

Durability of plastics was the theme chosen for the firstday of Polymer Testing 97 held at Rapra Technology. It isestimated that in the diagnosis of some 5000 plasticsproduct failures, about 99% were of the brittle fracture type.Subjects covered at the conference included a novel methodfor the rapid determination of microbial growth of plastics,scratch resistance of polymers, durability of PE-basedgeomembranes in aggressive liquid media, the influenceof acid rain on weathering results and chemical analysis.

RAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.631484

Item 137Plastics World55, No.2, Feb.1997, p.8-9STRONG GEOMEMBRANE MARKET’S NOTFOR FAINT OF HEARTCallari J



Companies in the geomembrane market are generally partfilm extruder, part construction company. Mastio targetsgeomembranes as one of the top five fastest-growingmarkets for film and is projecting double-digit averageannual growth for the next five years. SolmaxGeosynthetiques, based in Quebec, recently entered theprocessing end of the business with the purchase of athree-layer blown film line. Most of the very recentinstallations have been of the coex/blown variety.

MASTIO & CO.NORTH AMERICA

Accession no.628620

Item 138Journal of Applied Polymer Science63, No.9, 28th Feb.1997, p.1189-97SORPTION AND PERMEATION OF ORGANICENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTSTHROUGH PVC GEOMEMBRANESXiao S; Moresoli C; Bovenkamp J; De Kee DSherbrooke,University; Canada,Defence ResearchEstablishment

The effect of the diffusion of penetrants (benzene,dichloromethane and trichloroethylene) on the barrierproperties of PVC geomembranes was studied. Themembranes experienced swelling to a degree whichdepended on the type of penetrant used. The diffusioncoefficients and breakthrough times obeyed an Arrhenius-type relation over the temperature range studied. Liquidsorption of the penetrants modified the geomembranestructure. Surface pretreatment of the membranes withdifferent contaminants influenced the subsequenttransport of organic penetrants. The induced swelling asa result of contact with one penetrant was likely to alterthe system free volume, allowing for a different rate ofmass transport for subsequent penetrants. 15 refs.CANADA

Accession no.624407

Item 139Geosynthetics International3, No.5, 1996, p.655-75PUNCTURE PROTECTION OFGEOMEMBRANES. III. EXAMPLESKoerner R M; Wilson-Fahmy R F; Narejo DDrexel,University; Parsons Brinckerhoff;Carleton,University

The design developed in part II (ibid, p.629-53) is usedto provide several numerical examples that highlight thedifferent strategies used in Germany and in the USA forthe selection of protection geotextiles. A number of designcharts for a wide variety of practical situations is included.Puncture resistance results for a geomembrane withdifferent types of protection materials (other than virginpolymer non-woven needle-punched geotextiles) arepresented. The design procedures presented are shown to

result in a site-specific and material-specific factor ofsafety. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.622412

Item 140Geosynthetics International3, No.5, 1996, p.629-53PUNCTURE PROTECTION OFGEOMEMBRANES. II. EXPERIMENTALNarejo D; Koerner R M; Wilson-Fahmy R FCarleton,University; Drexel,University; ParsonsBrinckerhoff

Truncated cone and stone puncture test results forgeomembrane protection materials are presented for bothshort and long term durations. Materials studied are a1.5mm thick HDPE geomembrane and various non-woven needle-punched geotextiles with varying massesper unit area made from virgin polyester and PPcontinuous and staple fibres. Using the results of thistesting programme, a design methodology is developedfor calculating the required mass per unit area of apuncture protection material for a given factor of safety.Conversely, the design can be used to determine theunknown factor of safety for a given type of protectionmaterial. 17 refs. (Pt.I, ibid, p.605-28)USA

Accession no.622411

Item 141Geosynthetics International3, No.5, 1996, p.605-28PUNCTURE PROTECTION OFGEOMEMBRANES. I. THEORYWilson-Fahmy R F; Narejo D; Koerner R MParsons Brinckerhoff; Carleton,University;Drexel,University

A theoretical analysis which examines the puncturebehaviour of geomembranes is presented. The method ofanalysis is applied to unprotected geomembranes as wellas geomembranes protected using relatively thick non-woven geotextiles. The puncturing object is characterisedby its shape and height above a firm subgrade. Thegeomembrane behaviour is considered in terms of itstensile load-extension behaviour and the protectionmaterial is characterised by both its thickness and its load-extension behaviour. A parametric study is presented tohighlight the relative importance of the various factorsaffecting geomembrane puncture. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.622410




AN INTERFACE PULL-OUT FORMULA FOREXTENSIBLE SHEET REINFORCEMENTSobhi S; Wu J T HColorado,Department of Transportation;Colorado,University

An analytical model is presented for predicting andinterpreting pull-out test results, used to evaluate soil-reinforcement interface properties, in a unified andconsistent manner. The model is based on three postulatesthat were deduced from the measured behaviour oflaboratory pull-out tests and numerical results from finiteelement analyses. A number of applications of the interfacepull-out formula for predicting and interpreting the resultsof pull-out tests are presented, including prediction of theactive length at a given applied pull-out force, predictionof the pull-out failure force for reinforcement of a givenlength, determination of the coefficient of friction fromresults of a pull-out test, and prediction of the displacementat any point along the reinforcement for a given appliedpull-out force. Results using the interface pull-out formulaare shown to be in good agreement with the results of aninstrumented pull-out test and finite element analyses.23 refs.USA

Accession no.622409

Item 143Geosynthetics International3, No.4, 1996, p.537-49FULL SCALE HIGHWAY LOAD TEST OFFLEXIBLE PAVEMENT SYSTEMS WITHGEOGRID REINFORCED BASE COURSESCollin J G; Kinney T C; Fu XCollin Group Ltd.; Alaska,University at Fairbanks

The results are discussed of tests carried out on the use ofgeosynthetics to improve the performance of flexible roadsurfaces. A full scale test research program was carried outusing a 20 kN moving wheel load to determine the benefitof using a stiff biaxial geogrid between the base and thesubgrade of a flexible road surface system, with the trafficbenefit ratio (TBR) defined as the ratio of the number ofload cycles of a stiff geogrid reinforced section to thenumber of load cycles of an unreinforced section for a givenlevel of performance. 16 refs.USA

Accession no.614803

Item 144Geosynthetics International3, No.4, 1996, p.517-36GEOMEMBRANE RESPONSE IN THE WIDESTRIP TENSION TESTMerry S M; Bray J DUtah,University; California,University

The results are discussed of strain controlled, uniaxialtension tests performed on a PVC and an HDPE membrane,

from which the stress-strain response of the geomembranecan be calculated. Measurements were taken at specificlocations on the geomembrane specimen, which combinedwith results from photographic analyses, allowed thespecimen width and thickness to be determined during thetests. 12 refs.USA

Accession no.614802

Item 145Geosynthetics International3, No.4, 1996, p.493-515RESPONSE OF A WOVEN AND A NON-WOVENGEOTEXTILE TO MONOTONIC AND CYCLICSIMPLE TENSIONAshmawy A K; Bourdeau P LEdited by: Georgia,Institute of Technology;Purdue,University

Tension tests were performed to investigate the load-elongation behaviour of two geotextiles, a woven polyesterand a non-woven polypropylene, under monotonic and cyclicloading conditions. Creep tests under constant load were alsoperformed in order to examine the time-dependent propertiesof both textiles. A wide difference in behaviour was observedbetween the geotextiles due to different structures,manufacturing processes and polymer types. Visualinspection showed that progressive breakage of bondsbetween the fibres, and reorientation of the fibres were themain mechanisms controlling failure of the nonwovengeotextile, and that the behaviour of the woven geotextilewas mainly affected by polymer characteristics and exhibitednearly linear behaviour under monotonic and cyclic load tothe number of load cycles. The model obtained can be usedto predict the permanent deformation as a function of thecyclic loading level and number of load cycles, or to establishfatigue criteria for design. 19 refs.USA

Accession no.614801

Item 146European Chemical News66, No.1742, 25th Nov.-1st Dec.1996, p.21DUPONT TO RELEASE NEW BIODEGRADABLEPLASTIC

It is briefly reported that DuPont has launched itsbiodegradable plastic, DuPont Biomax. The polymer is amodified form of PETP, which has shorter chain lengths toenhance biodegradability. The properties of the plastic canbe tailored to mimic polyester or PP. DuPont Biomax canbe made into fibres, films and resins. Applications includegeotextiles, agricultural films and plant pots, single-usewaste bags and domestic wipes, and disposable nappies,plates and cups.

DUPONT CO.USA

Accession no.614679



Item 147Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe4, Nos.3/4, July/Dec.1996, p.105-7STUDIES OF RAW MATERIALS AGEING INARTIFICIAL CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FORGEOFABRICS PRODUCTIONChodynski A; Jachniak A; Rygiel MBeskidian Textile Institute

A description is given of the wearing process of syntheticfibres following sunlight absorption. Resistance to UVrays using the Xenotest test apparatus was evaluated forstrips of polypropylene foil and polyester fibre. Thedecrease in strength was determined with reference to theimpact of radiation on the strips and fibres which aredesigned for use in geotextile applications. 9 refs.EASTERN EUROPE; POLAND

Accession no.612395

Item 148Rubber and Plastics News26, No.5, 7th Oct.1996, p.272 GROUPS LOOKING TO COMBAT TYREPILESSisson J

With the number of scrap tyres in California’s stockpilesin the millions, two groups are looking for alternatives tocombat the problem. GeoSyntec Consultants was awardeda two-year contract by the California Integrated WasteManagement Board to investigate several civilengineering uses for waste tyres. The IWMB contract,awarded to the environmental firm in July, grants 245,000US dollars for the proposed projects. With the board stillpreparing the final scope of contract, GeoSyntec expectsto receive its first project in October 1996. The BocaRaton, Florida-based company is anticipating greatsuccess with the contract and is optimistic about its impacton the future of waste tyres.

GEOSYNTEC CONSULTANTS; CALIFORNIAINTEGRATED WASTE MANAGEMENT BOARDUSA

Accession no.610081

Item 149Plastics Technology42, No.10, Oct.1996, p.16/9NEW APPLICATIONS BREED MORE WAYS TOPROCESS TPOSSherman L M

A review is presented of new applications forthermoplastic polyolefins and the new processing methodsused for their manufacture. Having established themselvesin the injection moulded automotive application sector,film and sheet extrusion and thermoforming now appearto be the primary new processing opportunities for TPOs,as well as some calendering, it is reported. Applications

considered with reference to actual developments includegeotextiles, pond and landfill linings, roofing membranes,heavy gauge industrial packaging, wire and cableinsulation extrusion and jacketing, the use of two-shotlow pressure injection moulding, and bottle blowmoulding and rotomoulding.USA

Accession no.609442

Item 150Geosynthetics International3, No.1, 1996, p.145-54DISCUSSION OF ‘HDPE GEOSYNTHETICS:PREMATURE FAILURES AND THEIRPREDICTION’Bright D G; Peggs I D; Kanninen M FTensar Corp.

A discussion by Bright of the above paper by Peggs andKanninen (ibid, 2, No.1, 1995, p.327-39) is presented.The intent of the authors of the paper and the purpose ofextrapolating the phenomenon of stress cracking, whichoccurs in plastic pipe and geomembranes, to geogrids arequestioned. A response by Peggs and Kanninen isincluded. 18 refs.USA

Accession no.608022

Item 151Geosynthetics International3, No.1, 1996, p.107-24PERFORMANCE TEST FOR ASSESSMENT OFLONG-TERM CREEP BEHAVIOUR OF SOIL-GEOSYNTHETIC COMPOSITESWu J T H; Helwany S M BColorado,University; Texas,University

A simple laboratory performance test was devised for theassessment of long-term creep behaviour of geosyntheticreinforcement resulting from soil/geosynthetic interaction.In the test, the geosynthetic reinforcement and theconfining soil deformed in an interactive manner under asustained surcharge that was applied to the soil over along period of time. Two long-term performance testswere conducted with different confining soils, a clean sandand a kaolin clay. The tests clearly indicated that the long-term creep deformation of the geotextile reinforcementwas significantly affected by the time-dependentdeformation characteristics of the confining soils. It couldbe misleading to evaluate the long-term creep potentialof a soil-geosynthetic composite based solely on theresults of geosynthetic element creep test such as constantload strip tensile tests and confined creep tests which didnot account for time-dependent deformation of theconfining soil. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.608021



Item 152Geosynthetics International3, No.1, 1996, p.85-105GEOTEXTILE CHARACTERISATION ANDPORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION. I. A REVIEW OFMANUFACTURING PROCESSESBhatia S K; Smith J LSyracuse,University

A review of the literature on the manufacturing processesfor geotextiles is presented. Geotextile types are described,including polymer types, fibre types, woven geotextilesand non-woven geotextiles (prepared by mechanicalbonding, thermal bonding and chemical bonding). Thetesting of geotextiles is discussed. Pore size distributionof woven geotextiles, non-woven geotextiles, heat-bondedgeotextiles and mechanically-bonded geotextiles isconsidered. 31 refs.USA

Accession no.608020

Item 153Geosynthetics International3, No.1, 1996, p.1-11WALLS REINFORCED WITH FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC GEOGRIDS IN JAPANMiyata KShimizu Corp.

Geosynthetic reinforced soil(GRS) retaining wallsreinforced with high TS and stiffness fibre-reinforcedplastic (glass fibre/vinyl ester resin) geogrids aredescribed. The geogrid properties are discussed and full-scale field tests using three different wall facings arepresented. The performance of the test walls is comparedwith the results of finite element method analyses whichwere used to simulate the construction and loading of thefield tests. The analyses indicate that geosynthetic stiffnessaffects wall face deformation. A case history whichdescribes the construction of a GRS retaining wall is alsopresented. 3 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.608019

Item 154Official Journal of the E.C.: L Series39, No.254, 8th Oct.1996, p.59-61LEGISLATION

This comprehensive report supplies details of aCommission decision, taken on the 24th June 1996, onthe procedure for attesting the conformity of constructionproducts pursuant to Article 20 (2) of Council Directive89/106/EEC as regards geotextiles. The article covers theiruse as fluid or gas barriers, for drainage and filtration, forreinforcement and as protective layers.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; WESTERNEUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.607468

Item 155Geosynthetics International3, No.3, 1996, p.407-39COMBINED ALLOWABLE STRENGTHREDUCTION FACTOR FOR GEOSYNTHETICCREEP AND INSTALLATION DAMAGEAllen T M; Bathurst R JWashington,State Department of Transportation;Ontario,Royal Military College of Canada

The effect of synergism on the combined effect ofpolymeric creep and installation damage is discussed byexamining creep data for undamaged and installation-damaged geosynthetic specimens. A methodology wasdeveloped that uses data from both creep tests and indextests to reconstruct installation-damaged isochronouscreep curves. 35 refs.CANADA; USA

Accession no.606937

Item 156Geosynthetics International3, No.3, 1996, p.369-92METHOD FOR MEASURING GEOMEMBRANESURFACE ROUGHNESSDove J E; Frost J DGeorgia,Institute of Technology

A method is described for quantitatively measuring theroughness of geomembrane surfaces. This method usesstereology concepts together with optical profilometrytechniques to determine the surface roughness parameter.A surface roughness classification is proposed whichdefines four categories of geomembrane texturing. 10 refs.USA

Accession no.606936

Item 157Geosynthetics International3, No.3, 1996, p.349-67NEW UNIT-CELL TO STUDY THEDEFORMATION MECHANISM OF SUPER SOFTCLAY OVERLAID BY GEOGRID AND SANDFakher A; Jones C J F PNewcastle,University

A new form of the shear box unit-cell test for use on supersoft clay is presented. Each test specimen consisted ofsand, one of three types of geogrid reinforcement, andsuper soft clay. 28 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.606935

Item 158Geosynthetics International3, No.3, 1996, p.329-47COMPARISONS OF PREDICTED AND



OBSERVED FAILURE MECHANISMS INMODEL REINFORCED SOIL WALLSPalmeira E M; Gomes R CBrasilia,University; Ouro Preto,Federal University

Comparisons of predicted stability analyses to measuredand observed results of model reinforced soil walls arepresented using theoretical design methods. The modelwalls were failed under a footing surcharge at differentlocations on the fill surface. These surcharges werecompared to results that were predicted using the rigidwall approach for the reinforced soil mass, plane andcircular failure surfaces and the two-wedge failuremechanism analyses. 15 refs.BRAZIL

Accession no.606934

Item 159Geosynthetics International3, No.3, 1996, p.301-28GEOTEXTILE CHARACTERISATION ANDPORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION. III. COMPARISONOF METHODS AND APPLICATION TO DESIGNBhatia S K; Smith J L; Christopher B RSyracuse,University

Performance characteristics of six different test methodsfor evaluating pore size distribution of geotextiles arediscussed. Twenty eight geotextiles were evaluated by drysieving, hydrodynamic sieving, wet sieving, bubble pointmethod, mercury intrusion porosimetry and imageanalysis. 21 refs.USA

Accession no.606933

Item 160Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.277-96OUT-OF-PLANE TENSILE BEHAVIOUR OFGEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINERSKoerner R M; Koerner G R; Eberle M ADrexel,University

The out-of-plane tensile behaviour was studied for variousgeosynthetic clay liners(GCLs), manufactured using avariety of woven and non-woven geotextiles and texturedand smooth HDPE geomembranes, in combination withvarious forms of bentonite, i.e. powdered and granular.The tensile response curves indicated that GCL strengthwas largely dependent on the carrier material types fromwhich the GCL was manufactured. Fibre reinforcementeffects as well as orientation effects were relatively smallfor this type of test. The effects of hydration and seamswere also assessed. The results showed that GCLs couldwithstand considerably greater out-of-plane deformationthan compacted clay liners. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.605753

Item 161Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.247-75INTERFACE SHEAR BEHAVIOUR OFLANDFILL COMPOSITE LINER SYSTEMS: AFINITE ELEMENT ANALYSISReddy K R; Kosgi S; Motan E SIllinois,University; RUST Environment &Infrastructure

The shear displacements of typical landfill composite linersystem interfaces in response to municipal solid wasteloads were evaluated using finite element analysis. Theinterface shear-displacement parameters determined fromavailable laboratory direct shear test data were used forthe analysis. The interfaces were between smooth andtextured HDPE geomembranes and non-wovengeotextiles. A parametric study was performed for soft,intermediate and stiff municipal solid waste conditionsto evaluate the effect of different types of municipal solidwaste on composite liner behaviour. 22 refs.USA

Accession no.605752

Item 162Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.227-45GEOMEMBRANE MICROTOPOGRAPHY BYATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPYDove J E; Frost J D; Dove P MGeorgia,Institute of Technology

A recently-developed method, tapping mode atomic forcemicroscopy, is described for measurement of smoothHDPE geomembrane microtopography. The surfacemorphology and the degree of surface roughness areexamined at a scale comparable with fine-grained soilparticles used in composite landfill liners. The resultsshow that, within a 10 square micrometres scan area,asperity relief ranges from about 0.46 to 2.4 micrometres.Surface roughness is quantified using mean roughness,root mean square roughness, surface roughness parameterand fractal dimension. 22 refs.USA

Accession no.605751

Item 163Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.205-25INFLUENCE OF STRAIN RATE, SPECIMENLENGTH AND CONFINEMENT ON MEASUREDGEOTEXTILE PROPERTIESBoyle S R; Gallagher M; Holtz R DNorwegian Geotechnical Institute;Washington,University

In-isolation and in-soil tests were performed on fourwoven (three PP slit-film geometries and one polyester



multifilament) and two non-woven geotextiles (both PPneedle-punched) in order to investigate the effect of strainrate, specimen length and confinement in soil on themeasured strength characteristics. It was shown thatwoven geotextiles were affected by strain rate but not byconfinement. Non-woven geotextiles were influenced byboth confinement and specimen gauge length. It wasconcluded that different manufacturing techniquesinfluenced measured strength properties and that astandardised wide-width strip tensile test, such as ASTMD 4595, might not be an appropriate method for all typesof geosynthetic reinforcement products. 27 refs.NORWAY; SCANDINAVIA; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.605750

Item 164Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.181-203STRAIN-SOFTENING BEHAVIOUR OF WASTECONTAINMENT SYSTEM INTERFACESGilbert R B; Byrne R JTexas,University; Golder Associates Inc.

The causes and design implications of strain-softeningbehaviour for geosynthetic containment system interfacesare discussed. Mechanisms that contribute to strain-softening include clay particle reorientation, geosyntheticpolishing and geosynthetic failure. Laboratory test resultsare summarised for typical containment system interfacesthat exhibit strain-softening behaviour. Designimplications of strain-softening behaviour are theninvestigated using a one-dimensional analytical model anda two-dimensional numerical model. 29 refs.USA

Accession no.605749

Item 165Geosynthetics International3, No.2, 1996, p.155-80GEOTEXTILE CHARACTERISATION ANDPORE-SIZE DISTRIBUTION. II. A REVIEW OFTEST METHODS AND RESULTSBhatia S K; Smith J LSyracuse,University; O’Brien & Gere Engineers

Six methods commonly used for evaluating the pore-sizedistribution of geotextiles in the U.S. and Europe arereviewed, i.e. dry sieving, hydrodynamic sieving, wetsieving, bubble point method, mercury intrusionporosimetry and image analysis. Results obtained forevaluation of pore-size distribution characteristics of over580 specimens from 28 different geotextiles are presentedand discussed. 25 refs.EUROPE-GENERAL; USA

Accession no.605748

Item 166Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.1099-113EVALUATION OF PVC GEOMEMBRANESHRINKAGE DUE TO PLASTICISER LOSSGiroud J PGeoSyntec Consultants

When a plasticiser migrates out of a PVC geomembrane,the geomembrane shrinks. This paper presents equationsthat give the changes in volume and dimensions of thegeomembrane as a function of the plasticiser contentbefore and after shrinkage. A second series of equationsis presented, which gives the changes in volume anddimensions of the geomembrane as a function of theplasticiser loss ratio. These equations depend on thedensities of constituents of the geomembrane.Approximate equations that do not depend on thosedensities are, however, presented. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.605747

Item 167Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.1049-97ANALYSIS OF STRAIN CONCENTRATIONNEXT TO GEOMEMBRANE SEAMSGiroud J P; Tisseau B; Soderman K L; Beech J FGeoSyntec Consultants

A theoretical analysis of the above shows that themaximum strain concentration occurs next to the seamswhen geomembranes are subjected to tensile strain,regardless of the causes of the tensile strain. Calculationsperformed for typical seams show that the stain in thegeomembrane next to a seam can be more than twice aslarge as the average tensile strain in the geomembrane. Ageomembrane embrittled by low temp., or for otherreasons, may not be able to withstand such a strain. Aparametric study indicates the influence of strain type andgeometry on the magnitude of strain. A comparison ofthe seams typically used for PE geomembranes indicatesthat fusion seams tend to cause fewer strain concentrationsthan extrusion seams. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.605746

Item 168Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.1019-48THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OFGEOMEMBRANE PUNCTUREGiroud J P; Badu-Tweneboah K; Soderman K LGeoSyntec Consultants

A theoretical analysis of the mechanism of geomembranepuncture, based on a simple model, is presented. Theanalysis shows that the geomembrane puncture resistance



depends on the diameter of the contact area between thegeomembrane and the puncturing object, the thicknessof the geomembrane and the tensile properties of thegeomembrane. An equation is established for expressionof the geomembrane puncture resistance measured in aprobe test as a function of the geomembranecharacteristics and the diameter of the probe. Thepredictions made are shown to be consistent with thelimited amount of data in the literature. The analysis isthen used to establish a relationship between ageomembrane resistance to puncture measured in alaboratory probe test and the resistance to puncture of ageomembrane subjected to pressure applied by a liquidwhile resting on a layer of stones of approximatelyuniform size and shape. 4 refs.USA

Accession no.605745

Item 169Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.971-1018DESIGN METHOD TO PREVENTGEOMEMBRANE FAILURE IN TANK CORNERSGiroud J P; Soderman K L; Pelte T; Beech J FGeoSyntec Consultants

The problem of how close to the corner of a concretetank to install a geomembrane, to prevent bursting of themembrane when the tank is being filled, is addressed.The solution developed is based on parameters includingthe allowable tension and strain in the geomembrane, themaximum pressure exerted by the liquid on thegeomembrane, the interface friction between thegeomembrane and the walls of the tank, and the angle ofthe corner. The method presented also makes it possible,when a geomembrane is installed at a certain distancefrom the tank corner, to determine the maximum heightof liquid that the geomembrane can withstand. It is alsopossible to design a rounded corner or chamfer to preventrupture of the geomembrane in cases where the membranecannot be installed close enough to the corner. 1 ref.USA

Accession no.605744

Item 170Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.953-69COMPARISON OF GEOMEMBRANESSUBJECTED TO DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENTGiroud J P; Soderman K LGeoSyntec Consultants

A theoretical analysis is presented of the mechanism ofdeformation of a geomembrane supported by a soil dykeand subjected to differential settlement at its connectionto a rigid structure. The analysis leads to the developmentof a new concept, the ‘co-energy’ of the geomembranetension-strain curve. It is shown that an appropriate

method of evaluating and comparing the abilities ofgeomembranes to withstand differential settlement isthrough the co-energy concept. The use of the co-energyconcept is illustrated with a numerical example comparingthe abilities of several common geomembrane types towithstand differential settlement. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.605743

Item 171Geosynthetics International2, No.6, 1995, p.897-952UPLIFT OF GEOMEMBRANES BY WINDGiroud J P; Pelte T; Bathurst R JGeoSyntec Consultants; Canada,Royal Military College

Experimental data on uplift of geomembranes by wind aresummarised and a method is presented for determining themaximum wind velocity that an exposed geomembrane canwithstand without being uplifted, the required thickness ofa protective layer placed on the geomembrane that wouldprevent it from being uplifted, the tension and strain inducedin the geomembrane to verify that they are below theallowable tension and strain of the geomembrane, and thegeometry of the uplifted geomembrane. Practicalrecommendations are made to prevent the wind fromuplifting geomembranes or to minimise the magnitude ofgeomembrane uplift by the wind. 12 refs.CANADA; USA

Accession no.605742

Item 172Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.5/6, June/July 1996, p.313-25REMEDIATION OF EXISTING CANAL LININGSComer A; Kube M; Sayer KUS,Bureau of Reclamation

Results are reported of the monitoring of a soil-coveredPP geomembrane in South Dakota, an exposed HDPEgeomembrane in Kansas and an exposed ultra-low densityPE geomembrane in Nebraska. The results indicate thatthe geomembranes used as canal liners reduce seepage inthe canals when they are constructed in highly permeableor collapsible types of soils. 8 refs.USA

Accession no.604985

Item 173Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.5/6, June/July 1996, p.301-11GEOTEXTILES USED AS FLEXIBLE FOAMSKoerner R M; Koerner G RDrexel,University

The use of geotextiles as flexible forming systems isdiscussed and it is shown that, in contrast to other



geotextile applications, the geotextile is sacrificial in mostcases, e.g. when grout or concrete is placed within thegeotextile form. Five different infrastructure-relatedapplications are considered, i.e. mine and cavern stability,geotubes and geocontainers, pile jacketing, erosion controlmattresses, and underpinning to reconstitute bearingcapacity. Design considerations are mentioned. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.604984

Item 174Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.5/6, June/July 1996, p.265-75THREE-DIMENSIONAL WOVENGEOTEXTILES FOR CONTAINMENT DIKECONSTRUCTIONAustin D N; Theisen M SSynthetic Industries Inc.

A report is presented on the background, selection,installation and performance of the three-dimensionalwoven geotextile (Pyramat, a PP-based material fromSynthetic Industries) used for erosion protection along122 m of levee on a demonstration project on the HoustonShip Channel in Galveston Bay, Texas. Chronologicaldata, field observations and photographs are included tocomplement the observations and conclusions reached bythe authors and others, from the time of installation tothe present. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.604983

Item 175Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.5/6, June/July 1996, p.253-64GEOMEMBRANE APPLICATION FOR AROLLER COMPACTED CONCRETE(RCC) DAMWhitfield B LATEC Associates Inc.

Specific design details and construction activities relatedto the installation of a PVC geomembrane for a RCC damare presented, particular attention being paid to pre-castingchallenges, panel placement challenges, geomembranewelding challenges, and maintenance of installedgeomembrane materials.USA

Accession no.604982

Item 176Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.409-24THREE END-USES FOR CLOSED LANDFILLSAND THEIR IMPACT ON THE GEOSYNTHETICDESIGNMackey R EPost,Buckley,Schuh & Jernigan Inc.

Three specific examples of landfill closure are presentedwhere their proposed end-use and geosyntheticcomponents had various design impacts on the landfillend-use design. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.603793

Item 177Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.393-408ADVANCES IN HDPE BARRIER WALLSThomas R W; Koerner R MTRI/Environmental Inc.

Details are given of the installation techniques,applications and properties of HDPE barrier walls forlandfill sites. Emphasis is given to diffusive transportthrough HDPE. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.603792

Item 178Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.377-91GEOTEXTILE REINFORCEMENT OF SOFTLANDFILL PROCESS SLUDGE TO FACILITATEFINAL CLOSURE: AN INSTRUMENTED CASESTUDYGuglielmetti J L; Koerner G R; Battino F SDuPont de Nemours E.I.,& Co.Inc.

Results are presented of an instrumented, geotextilereinforced landfill cap for a process sludge landfill. Thegeotextile was instrumented with foil strain gauges andthe sewn seams instrumented with extensometers. Acritique of the analysis of the installation practice as wellas the effectiveness of the geotextile is mentioned. 2 refs.USA

Accession no.603791

Item 179Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.365-76REQUIREMENTS AND TESTING OFPROTECTIVE LAYER SYSTEMS FORGEOMEMBRANESSeeger S; Muller WGermany,Federal Institute for Materials Research &Testing

An overview is presented of existing types of protectivelayer systems for geomembranes. The requirements andselected results of related research programmes arediscussed. 11 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.603790



Item 180Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.341-64USE OF GEOSYNTHETICS IN PIGGYBACKLANDFILLS: A CASE STUDYStulgis R P; Soydemir C; Telgener R J; Hewitt R DHaley & Aldrich Inc.

A case study is presented to demonstrate how geosyntheticmaterials were used to address settlement and stabilityproblems in a piggyback landfill design for a sludgemonofill. 11 refs.USA

Accession no.603789

Item 181Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.7/8, July/Aug.1996, p.331-9OVERVIEW OF CORPS OF ENGINEERS WASTECONTAINMENT ACTIVITIES INVOLVINGGEOSYNTHETICSJaros D LUS,Army Corps of Engineers

Details are given of the US Army Corps of Engineersinvolvement in various environmental restorationprogrammes which use geosynthetics and the activitiesbeing conducted to further advance geosyntheticengineering. Geosynthetic guidance development, designand construction issues, and training are discussed alongwith examples of geosynthetic containment applications.USA

Accession no.603788

Item 182Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting12, No.2, April 1996, p.149-56THERMOPLASTIC ELASTOMERICPOLYOLEFINS(TPO) IN FILM APPLICATIONSShannon ZQuantum Chemical Co.

The performance of the Flexathane TPO TP1300-HC andthe developmental TPO “A” in blown and cast films isdiscussed. The data show that the resins offer a goodbalance of physical properties, such as high heatresistance, superior impact strength and high resistanceto puncture. Other applications are considered, includingmedical materials, geomembrane liners for landfills, andautomotive applications. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.600885

Item 183Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.3/4, March/April 1996, p.223-37GEOSYNTHETIC USE IN TRENCHLESS PIPE

REMEDIATION AND REHABILITATIONKoerner G R; Koerner R MDrexel,University

The currently used trenchless techniques for piperemediation and rehabilitation are described and theirrespective advantages and disadvantages considered.Typical costs and other details are also presented.Particular attention is paid to those systems which usegeosynthetics or other polymeric materials. The mainapplication area is currently underground sewer pipelines,but the material presented can be applied to otherunderground pipeline and tunnel situations. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.599428

Item 184Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.3/4, March/April 1996, p.207-21EVALUATION AND STANDARDISATION OFROLLED EROSION CONTROL PRODUCTSAllen S RTRI/Environmental Inc.

The history of advancements in rolled erosion controltechnology is outlined. A summary is presented of theefforts currently underway by the Erosion ControlTechnology Council to establish erosion control industrystandards for terminology, index tests and performancecriteria. Erosion control products discussed includegeosynthetic nettings, geotextiles and PP blankets. Testingof thickness, resiliency, mass per unit area, waterabsorption, flexibility, swelling, light penetration,smoulder resistance, density and tensile properties isconsidered. 4 refs.USA

Accession no.599427

Item 185Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.3/4, March/April 1996, p.201-5GEOSYNTHETIC CONTAINMENT BENEATHSTOCKHOLM-ARLANDA AIRPORTBystrom J; Overmann L K; Ericsson L OGolder Associates AB; Golder Construction Services;Swedish Civil Aviation Administration

The construction of a third runway at the above airport isdiscussed with particular reference to the lining systemdesigned to protect the water resource under the runwayfrom deicing products and solvents used to remove rubberdeposits from the runway. The system involves use of ageosynthetic clay liner beneath the geomembrane (HDPE)to form a composite liner and/or a geotextile above thegeomembrane as a protective cushion.SCANDINAVIA; SWEDEN; USA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.599426



Item 186Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, Nos.3/4, March/April 1996, p.175-86ENHANCED PERFORMANCE OF ASPHALTPAVEMENTS USING GEOCOMPOSITESAustin R A; Gilchrist A J TNetlon Ltd.

A report is presented on the development and testing of acomposite combining a stiff PP geogrid with a geotextile,thus producing a material with the handling andinstallation benefits of a geotextile, combined with theperformance advantages of a stiff geogrid. A case studydetailing the use of the composite reinforcement is alsopresented. 4 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.599425

Item 187PlasticultureNo.106, 1995, p.40-6English; FrenchPRODUCTION NURSERY AND LANDSCAPEMANAGEMENT USES FOR GEOTEXTILESAppleton B LVirginia,Tech University

Applications of geotextiles in nurseries for tree and shrubcultivation and in landscape management are described.These include containers for tree and shrub growth, trenchlinings, bed coverings, sleeves for holding nursery stock,collars serving as barriers to weed growth and as carriersfor fertilisers and herbicides, covers for providingprotection in winter and shade in summer, guying systemsfor tree staking, protective wrappings for tree trunks, andsystems for root redirection and soil aeration. 8 refs.

ACF ENVIRONMENTAL; DALEN PRODUCTSINC.; REEMAY INC.; DEWITT & CO.INC.USA

Accession no.598426

Item 188Plastics News(USA)8, No.11, 13th May 1996, p.3GUNDLE/SLT ADDS PRODUCT LINE WITH SGSGEOSYSTEMS DEALKing R

The acquisition of British geomembrane manufacturerSGS Geosystems Ltd. by Gundle/SLT Environmental Inc.is briefly discussed. The acquisition will add blown filmgeomembrane to Gundle/SLT’s list of extruded productsmade outside the US. The purchase of SGS gives Gundle/SLT a combined capacity of 250 million pounds in theimpermeable geomembrane market, or around half theworld share, it is reported.

GUNDLE/SLT ENVIRONMENTAL INC.; SGSGEOSYSTEMS LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK; USA;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.592925

Item 189Geotextiles and Geomembranes14, No.1, Jan.1996, p.1-17CENTRIFUGE MODELLING OF ANEMBANKMENT ON SOFT CLAY REINFORCEDWITH A GEOGRIDSharma J S; Bolton M DCambridge,University

The behaviour of reinforced embankments on soft claywas studied using the technique of centrifuge modelling.Controlled in-flight construction of the embankment wascarried out in a geotechnical centrifuge over a soft claylayer reinforced with scaled-down and instrumentedgeogrid reinforcement (PP) and the behaviour of thesubsoil and the response of the geogrid were observed.These observations were compared with those fromanother centrifuge test in which a scaled-down wovengeotextile (polyester) was used instead of the geogrid. Anew technique for measuring the tension induced in thereinforcement was developed and used in the centrifugetests. It was found that a geogrid reinforcement that wasplaced directly on top of the clay layer might notcontribute significantly towards the stability of theembankment because of poor adhesion at the clay-reinforcement interface. 4 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.591329

Item 190Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1639, 7th June 1996, p.11MORE MARKETS FOR MEMBRANES

Blown film membranes are fast winning opportunities forchemical protection and environmental care. SGS hassupplied a 2mm thick HDPE membrane to line a landfillfor a company disposing of titanium waste. SGS filmsare made to a width of 5.7 metres. Meanwhile, St. Albans-based Monarflex has completed a housing project,supplying a 0.8mm multilayer membrane made of tenseparate layers, of which eight are in virgin LDPE. Thisabstract includes all the information contained in theoriginal article.

SGS GEOSYSTEMS; MONARFLEXEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.591197



Item 191Shell Chemicals Europe MagazineNo.4, Nov.1995, p.9-12FOAM FOUNDATIONS WHY ON EARTH NOT?Baker AShell Chemicals Europe

Expanded polystyrene foam as a civil engineering materialis discussed with reference to its use as a geofoam forsolving geotechnical problems. Uses include a lightweightfill under the sub-grade of a road, built over a low load-bearing soil; in soil drainage; vibration damping, as astress release material where ground movement occurs;for gas venting; and soil stabilisation.EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.590998

Item 192Plastics World54, No.5, May 1996, p.55-6POLYUREAS ARE BOOMING INCONSTRUCTION MARKETSSmock D

Jeffamine-based polyurea materials are replacing standardPUR and other thermoset materials in applications rangingfrom transportation body panels to construction-sitecoatings. Due to fast reactivity and cure, these systemsare virtually unaffected by moisture when applied, atremendous factor in their rapid growth in construction-related work. Gusmer Machinery Equipment saysequipment for polyureas now accounts for about one-thirdof its spray equipment sales. Specialty Products will beselling systems for spray coating polyureas on BP pipe inpermafrost applications. One of the fastest growingapplications for the polyurea spray elastomers isreplacement of thermoplastic sheet for geomembranes,such as pond liners.

TEXACO CHEMICAL CO.USA

Accession no.589664

Item 193Plast 21No.40, Jan./Feb.1995, p.16-9SpanishFROM GEOTEXTILES TO LARGE TEXTILECOVERINGSMonjo J

Applications of fabrics and polymer coated fabrics asgeotextiles and structural materials are described. Dataare presented for the costs and properties of the mostcommonly used materials.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; SPAIN;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.588883

Item 1943rd International Conference on Deformation andFracture of Composites. Conference Proceedings.Guildford, 27th-29th March 1995, p.220-8. 627;951STUDY OF THE BONDING BETWEEN FABRICAND BITUMEN EMULSION IN A STRESSABSORBING MEMBRANE INTERLAYERWoodside A R; McIlhagger R; Woodward W D H;Clements H WUlster,University(Institute of Materials)

Mechanical pull-off tests and water absorption andretention measurements were performed on PP, glass,cotton and jute fabrics to assess their bonding withbitumen emulsion in stress absorbing membraneinterlayers for use in road construction. The fabricstructure and the depth of emulsion tack coat were thevariables which most affected the adhesive bond strength.The temperature of tack coat application had no effect.All the fabrics absorbed and retained water to a certainextent, which was considered to affect the bondingprocess. Samples consisting of fabrics sandwichedbetween asphalt cores were sheared by a direct shearmechanism and by a short beam shear test, and the resultswere compared. Emulsion tack coat rate and fabric typeand structure had a considerable effect on shear strength,while fabric orientation had no effect. 6 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; NORTHERNIRELAND; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.586739

Item 195Waste News1, No.23, 5th Feb.1996, p.15I-CORP UNVEILS LANDFILL LEAK FINDER

I-Corp International is making available a Europeancomputer-enhanced electrical method for locating leaksin plastic liners under soil layers. The system can be usedto detect damage to geomembranes caused by drainagestones in landfills or on heap leach pads. Recyclingmachinery available from other US companies include abale processing system, a debagger, compactors, verticalbalers and lifting gear for hydraulic refuse containers onrear-loading packers. Fibrex has designed a drum covermade of recycled HDPE and Biotech has developeddegradable starch-based resins for compostable bags.

I-CORP INTERNATIONAL INC.; HAAHJEMNORTH AMERICA INC.; FIBREX RECYCLINGCONTAINERS; MORBARK SALES CORP.;BIOTECH; KOMAR INDUSTRIES INC.; QWIK-TIPINC.USA

Accession no.584467



Item 196Construction & Building Materials9, No.6, 1995, p.403-11DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF EXPANDEDPS EMBANKMENTS. PRACTICAL DESIGNMETHODS AS USED IN THE UKThompsett D J; Walker A; Radley R J; Grieveson B MVencel Resil Ltd.; Surrey,University

A brief history is given of the use of expanded PS inlightweight fill for road embankments. UK designrequirements and physical properties of the PS foam arediscussed together with two case studies. 17 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.582032

Item 197Construction & Building Materials9, No.6, 1995, p.389-401ORIENTED POLYMER GRIDREINFORCEMENTCarter G R; Dixon J HNetlon Ltd.

A review is given of the use of high strength orientedHDPE or PP grids for various civil engineeringapplications. The major areas of use mentioned includereinforced soil walls and slopes, reinstatement of slopefailure, embankment foundations over soft soil,reinforcement of road bases for paved roads, and asphaltreinforcement. 41 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.582031

Item 198High Performance TextilesFeb.1996, p.5-6CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRIES TO BETARGETED BY NONWOVENS SECTOR

The European Disposables and Nonwovens Association(EDANA) is forecasting a major thrust by internationalnonwoven companies towards developing applications inthe construction industries. Nonwovens are now the mostwidely used base material in high performance, bitumen-treated waterproof roofing sheeting. Thermal and acousticinsulation are provided by a range of different bulkynonwovens. If a flat roof is to provide a roof garden, forexample, then a waterproof nonwoven layer can providea filter and a drainage layer. When used as a protectiveinterlayer during casting of concrete floors on poorsubsoil, a layer of nonwoven will prevent any minglingof the subsoil and the new concrete.

EDANABELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.581626

Item 199British Plastics and RubberFeb.1996, p.22TESTING FOR DAMAGE FROM BURIEDSTONES

It is briefly reported that the long term performance ofgeotextiles and geomembranes is closely allied todegradation from chemical and biological influences, butthe principal cause of degradation appears to be stones.ERA Technology has adapted a French test in which thegeosynthetic is placed in a bed of standard alumina gritand compressed under a dynamic load. The material isexamined optically and tested for tensile strength. Forgeomembranes, a soft metal layer is inserted to recordthe degree of indentation caused by a standard fill.

ERA TECHNOLOGY LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.581529

Item 200Journal of Vinyl and Additive Technology1, No.4, Dec.1995, p.230-2LEAD STABILISERS AND ALTERNATIVES INWIRE AND CABLE AND GEOMEMBRANESBaker P; Grossman R FCookson Specialty Additives

Lead replacement heat stabilisers have made considerableinroads in areas where water resistance is not significant,primarily in wire jackets and insulations not for wetlocations. In areas where short-term moisture resistanceis required, such as with flexible cord insulation andelectrical tapes., non-lead products are either in use orunder development. In those areas where long-term waterresistance is required, as with geomembranes and manywire insulations, despite much experimentation,commercial products are not yet in use as yet in the UnitedStates. The factors involved are discussed. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.581109

Item 201High Performance TextilesNov.1995, p.11GEOTEXTILES TO MEET FORTHCOMINGSTANDARDS

This reports that the British Textile Technology Group,having recognised the increasing use of geotextiles in civilengineering applications, is now involved in the processof harmonising geotextiles standards across Europe. Briefdetails are provided.

BRITISH TEXTILE TECHNOLOGY GROUPEUROPE-GENERAL; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEANUNION; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.575108



Item 202Asian Plastics NewsJuly/Aug.1995, p.16-7SUCCESSFUL GEOMEMBRANE PRODUCTIONCoulson JSGS Geosystems

The use and production of geomembranes is discussed,with particular reference to the operation at SGSGeosystems. The choice of material is considered, specificproperties necessary for the optimum performance of themembrane, and the extrusion process at SGS Geosystemsis described, including methods of thickness control.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.572733

Item 203Macplas InternationalAug.1995, p.94-5EXTRUDED MEMBRANES

Flat die extrusion lines are manufactured by Amut for theproduction of geomembranes for geotechnical engineeringapplications. Brief details are given of the lines.

AMUT SPAEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; ITALY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.571187

Item 204Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting11, No.3, July 1995, p.166-8MARKETING NOTES

Brief details are given of some data published concerningthe market for plastic film and sheet particularly forpackaging, geomembranes, and greenhouses.USA

Accession no.569394

Item 205Property Enhancement with Modifiers and Additives.Retec proceedings.New Brunswick, N.J., 18th-19th Oct.1994, p.155-8. 5LEAD STABILISERS AND ALTERNATIVES INWIRE AND CABLE AND GEOMEMBRANESBaker P; Grossman R FCookson Speciality Additives(SPE,Palisades Section; SPE,Polymer Modifiers &Additives Div.)

There are two distinct reasons for the widespread use oflead stabilisers in compounds based on halogenatedpolymers designed for wire insulation or geomembrane:very good performance/cost characteristics and unusuallygood resistance to water absorption. Recent experienceindicates that the favourable performance characteristics

of lead stabilisers can be met by non-lead systems. Detailsare given. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.563477

Item 206Popular Plastics and PackagingAnnual Special Issue 1994, p.29-36NON-WOVENS: GEOTECHNICALENGINEERING APPLICATIONS: A REVIEWAthalye A S

A review is presented of the geotechnical civil engineeringapplications for which geosynthetic non wovens can beused. Included are details of applications as filters forsubsurface drainage and for erosion control, their use inconjunction with inert armour units to prevent the erosionof foundations, as separation layers, in the production ofboth temporary and permanent road surfaces, reclamationof soft soils, reinforced soil retaining walls andembankments, and as moisture barriers, including thecontainment of toxic wastes. 7 refs.INDIA

Accession no.559788

Item 207Watford, 1994, pp.14. 12ins. 15/3/95. 42C12-62(14)-63BuGEOFIN ROAD FIN DRAINSBritish Board of Agrement; Cooper Clarke Group plcAgrement Board.Certificate 94/82

Details are given of Types 5, 6, and 10 of Geofin road findrains for highway drainage. The products are composedof two layers of PP geotextiles separated by a core ofextruded HDPE. They are designed for use in edge ofpavement drains for the collection of sub-surface water.Details are given of their composition and manufacture,installation, mechanical properties, and durability.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.555781

Item 208Antec 94. Conference Proceedings.San Francisco, Ca., 1st-5th May 1994, Vol.III, p.2689-91. 012WORLD POLYOLEFIN MARKET FORECASTKuhlke W CKuhlke & Associates(SPE)

A survey is made of the world market for PE and PP andof technological and applicational developmentsinfluencing its future growth. Production and consumptionstatistics are presented. 1 ref.USA; WORLD

Accession no.555593



Item 209Plastics News(USA)7, No.11, 15th May 1995, p.8FED OMITS PIPE, GEOTEXTILES FROM LISTKing R

The announcement of the federal government to excludegeotextiles and plastic from its list of recycled contentproducts it encourages its agencies to buy, has been metwith approval, amidst fears regarding the safety anddurability of such items if used in critical applications.Comments on the decision are reported, along with detailsof other recycled content items recommended forgovernment purchase.USA

Accession no.554494

Item 210Materials World3, No.6, June 1995, p.282-5WELDING POLYMERS FOR GEOMEMBRANESAND GEOPIPESMcKendryAtkins W.S.,Environment

The use of geomembranes as liners or capping systemsin landfills is discussed, and problems associated withjoining materials to provide a continuous, homogenousproduct are examined. Types of welding methods areoutlined, and also test methods employed to ensure theintegrity of such systems are described. 3 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.553292

Item 211Plastics News(USA)7, No.4, 27th March 1995, p.14GEORGIA PASSES ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION BILLKing R

Plans to expand the scope of the state of Georgia’s 20year old environmental protection law will, it is reported,have a great impact on the geotextile industry. The billwill allow state environmental inspectors to consider ‘bestmanagement practices’ in preventing pollution atconstruction sites. Depending on the application,geotextiles are growing 5-15% annually, with themaximum growth in anti-corrosion blankets.Consumption of PP and PE in civil engineering andgeotextile applications is indicated.USA

Accession no.550247

Item 212Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.12, 1994, p.807-12

FRICTION CHARACTERISTICS OF A NON-WOVEN GEOTEXTILE AND PEATBouazza A; Djafer-Khodja SGhent,University; Algeria,Ecole Nationale TravauxPublics

The friction characteristics, obtained from shear tests, ofa non-woven geotextile and a peat soil were investigated,the geotextile being a non-woven, spun bonded polyesterfabric whose continuous fibres were mechanicallybonded. The study was part of an on-going researchprogramme on low embankments constructed onreinforced, low compression soils. The results indicatedthat the bond friction angle of peat/reinforcement wassuperior to the bond friction angle of peat alone, that agood contact was achieved between non-woven geotextileand peat, that the friction coefficient decreased withnormal stress, and that the contribution of adhesion shouldbe taken into account in the design. 9 refs.ALGERIA; BELGIUM; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEANUNION; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.545730

Item 213Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.12, 1994, p.781-806GEOTEXTILE STRAIN IN A FULL SCALEREINFORCED TEST EMBANKMENTRowe R K; Gnanendran C TWestern Ontario,University

A geotextile reinforced test embankment was constructedon a soft organic clayey silt deposit at Sackville, NewBrunswick, Canada in September/October 1989. Arelatively high strength polyester woven geotextile(ultimate strength 216 kN/m) was used as reinforcement.The reinforcement was instrumented with a number ofelectrical resistance, electromechanical and mechanicalgauges. The field performance of the geotextilereinforcement during the construction of this testembankment was assessed. 7 refs.CANADA

Accession no.545729

Item 214Plastics Technology41, No.3, March 1995, p.19/23WORLD’S LARGEST SHEET LINE CUTSCOSTS FOR GEOMEMBRANE MAKERKnights M

The design and performance is described of what isdescribed as the world’s largest sheet line. It ismanufactured by HPM Corp., and installed at NationalSeal Co., where it is used to produce geomembranes forlining or covering landfills, ponds, reservoirs and canals.The line is able to produce sheets in high molecular weightHDPE up to 30.5 ft wide, which is twice as wide as any



sheet made at the plant previously, and in thicknesses from0.040 to 0.120 in. Advantages of the extra wide sheetsinclude the elimination or reduction of welds.

HPM CORP.; NATIONAL SEAL CO.USA

Accession no.544953

Item 215Birmingham, c.1994, pp.4. 12ins. 6/12/94. 42C12-62(14)-63AgMACMAT ANTI-EROSION GEOMAT FORPERMANENT REVEGETATIONMaccaferri River & Sea Gabions Ltd.

Typical agricultural and civil engineering applications aredescribed and illustrated for MacMat geomat, a geotextileproduct which provides effective erosion control, soilstabilisation and provides a permanent turf and vegetativeroot reinforcement medium. It consists of a three-dimensional mat, composed of entangled PPmonofilaments that are heat bonded at the contact points.Properties are included.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.544024

Item 216Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting10, No.3, July 1994, p.235-47EXTENSIONAL BEHAVIOUR OF COMMONGEOMEMBRANE MATERIALSHoffman W A; Rhee S J; Nicholas AUnion Carbide Corp.

Extensional behaviour is of major importance in selectionof geomembrane materials for certain applications.Extensional behaviour is not a single attribute, but acollection, requiring a set of tests to assess theperformance of each material. The results of suchassessments are presented for four types of geomembranematerials (medium density PE, LLDPE, ultra-low densityPE, plasticised PVC) and are used to develop a fewfundamental and practical conclusions. 2 refs.USA

Accession no.542825

Item 217European Plastics News22, No.2, Feb.1995, p.20-1SPREADING SHEETS ACROSS THELANDSCAPECoulson JSGS Geosystems

Geomembranes are used for a variety of applicationsincluding liners for lakes, canals and reservoirs, isolatingground contamination and landfill. Research has shownthat MDPE copolymer with a reference density of 0.939g/

cm3 and a wide molecular weight distribution isparticularly suited for use as geomembranes. Whencoloured black, its density becomes 0.949g/cm3. SGSGeosystems uses the radial die extrusion system toproduce a blown film membrane, giving a bubble almost2m in diameter. A gamma backscatter probe is used tomonitor thickness. A recent geomembrane installationproject was the encapsulation of an area of severelycontaminated soil on which a chemical factory had beenoperating for many years. For a large landfill project, acomposite lining system was used. This consisted of aprimary 2mm thick MDPE geomembrane and a specialneedle-punched geotextile with a layer of sodiumbentonite incorporated within its structure.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.540122

Item 218British Plastics and RubberJan.1995, p.13PE MEMBRANES PROTECT THEENVIRONMENT

SGS Geosystems has recently installed a geomembrane toencapsulate an area of severely contaminated soil on whicha chemicals factory had been processing for many years.The vertical and horizontal geomembranes, with theimpermeable clay layer, have permanently encapsulatedthe polluted soil and completely protect the environment,it is claimed. In another project, a special MDPE liningspecification was applied to a waste infill site. The liningsystem consisted of a primary 2mm thick MDPEgeomembrane and a special needle punched geotextile witha layer of sodium bentonite incorporated within its structure.Geomembrane is produced by SGS by the blown filmprocess, which produces a material with high tensilestrength and good puncture and tear resistance.

SGS GEOSYSTEMSEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.540076

Item 219Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.10, 1994, p.657-67STRIP FOUNDATION ON GEOGRID-REINFORCED CLAY: BEHAVIOUR UNDERCYCLIC LOADINGDas B M; Shin E CSouthern Illinois,University

Laboratory model tests to determine the permanentsettlement of a surface strip foundation supported bygeogrid-reinforced saturated clay and subjected to a low-frequency cyclic load are presented. In conducting thetests, the foundation was then superimposed over the staticload. The variation of the maximum permanent settlement



with the intensity of the static load and the intensity ofthe amplitude of the cyclic load are also presented. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.535084

Item 220Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.9, 1994, p.591-626CHEMICAL AGEING EFFECTS ON THEPHYSICO-MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OFPOLYESTER AND POLYPROPYLENEGEOTEXTILESMathur A; Netravali A N; O’Rourke T DCornell University

The influence of groundwater chemistry on the durabilityof geotextiles is important for the design of municipaland hazardous waste landfills, geotextile reinforcementof soils and subgrades, and earth retention systems. Aseries of tests are described which explore the effects ofvarious pH and saline environments on geotextiles, thuscontributing to an improved understanding of durabilityas a basis for design. Accelerated ageing was performedon polyester and PP geotextiles at room temperature andtemperatures elevated to 95 C for six months in saline(pH about 8), strong alkaline (pH 10) and acidic (pH 3)media. Property changes as a result of ageing were studiedusing tensile testing, DSC, TGA and intrinsic viscositymeasurements. SEM was used to study changes in thesurface topography of the fibres on ageing. An Arrheniusmodel was used to extrapolate results of this short termstudy to the actual lifetime of the geotextiles. 29 refs.USA

Accession no.531694

Item 221Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.9, 1994, p.571-90FURTHER STUDY OF GEOMEMBRANE/COHESIVE SOIL INTERFACE SHEARBEHAVIOURFishman K L; Pal SNew York,University

The results presented contribute to an existing database onthe shear strength of geomembrane/cohesive soil interfaces.Three different clay materials are studied, and the interfacesinclude both smooth and textured HDPE geomembranes.Consolidated drained and consolidated undrained directshear tests were performed on samples compacted wet ofoptimum under both partially saturated and saturatedconditions. The effect of shear was studied through a rangefrom 12.7 mm/min to 0.005 mm/min. Deformations duringshear were studied and used to explain the variation in shearstrength due to the rate of shear loading for texturedgeomembrane/clay interfaces. 33 refs.USA

Accession no.531693

Item 222Philadelphia, Pa, 1993. 1/7/93. 9511TASTM D 5397. TEST METHOD FOREVALUATION OF STRESS CRACK RESISTANCEOF POLYOLEFIN GEOMEMBRANES USINGNOTCHED CONSTANT TENSILE LOAD TESTAmerican Society for Testing & MaterialsASTM D 5397

Details are given of the testing of polyolefin geomembranesheeting for stress cracking, under a constant tensile loadcondition, and an accelerated environmental condition.Photocopies and loans of this document are not availablefrom Rapra. It may be purchased from BSI. Please contactRapra for further details.USA

Accession no.529753

Item 223Watford, 1994, pp.14. 12ins. 20/5/94. 62(11)-63BuLINFLEX FIN DRAIN AND GEOTEXTILEBritish Board of Agrement; B & H (Leicester) Ltd.Agrement Board.Certificate 93/78

This certificate relates to the Linflex Fin Drain andgeotextile for use in narrow filter drains for highwaydrainage. The products are for use in edge of pavementdrains for the collection and/or disposal of sub-surfacewater in accordance with the requirements of theDepartment of Transport. Detail sheets are included forLinflex types 6, 8, and 9 Fin Drains, which giveinformation on design and installation of the products.Type 6 is a composite of two layers of geotextile separatedby a plastic core, and incorporating a sleeve toaccommodate the perforated or porous drainage pipe;Linflex 8 consists of a pipe wrapped in a non-woven fabricof heat bonded PP/PE filaments; and Linflex 9 consistsof a nonwoven fabric of heat bonded PP/PE filaments.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.525770

Item 224Plastics News InternationalAug.1994, p.25/8GROWING APPLICATION OF GEOTEXTILESBradley K

The use of geotextiles in a range of civil engineeringapplications is described. In the UK, the market is splitroughly 65:35 between non-woven and woven products,with between 60 and 70 different types of geotextilesfalling into between 5 and 10 broad categories. Their useis examined with respect to road widening projects,landfill containment, and revetment applications. A needfor the establishment of European standards and commontest methods is stressed.EUROPEAN ≤COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.525763



Item 225High Performance TextilesAug.1994, p.11BIODEGRADABLE POLYPROPYLENE

A degradable PP geotextile has been developed by F.Drake(Fibres) Ltd., which overcomes previous problems ofexcessive durability of PP. Brief details are given of thegeotextile into which is incorporated a component whoseaddition can be controlled in order to adjust the rate ofdegradation.

DRAKE F.,(FIBRES) LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.525758

Item 226Polymer35, No.10, 1994, p.2226-8LONG TERM PREDICTION OF CREEP INTEXTILE FIBRESBhuvanesh Y C; Gupta V BIndian Institute of Technology

The axial creep of a textile fibre produced from a blendof fibre-grade PP with 5 wt.% of commercial atactic PSwas measured for 4h over a range of stresses andtemperatures. Using a combined time-temperature-stresssuperposition principle, a master curve was constructed,taking the reference temperature as room temperature.The master curve was found to cover a period of over120 years, which is the lifetime of some geotextiles usedin reinforcing applications. 10 refs.INDIA

Accession no.524337

Item 227Polymer Degradation and Stability44, No.3, 1994, p.351-6EFFECT OF CARBON BLACK ON THEOXIDATION OF POLYOLEFINS; ANOVERVIEWMwila J; Miraftab M; Horrocks A RBolton,Institute of Higher Education

The use of carbon black in polyolefins is widespread. Twoto three percent of finely divided carbon black providesan effective light screen protecting the polymer againstexposure to light. In geotextile applications, use of carbonblack is widespread due to demands for higher durability.Types of carbon black, their usage and interaction withthermal antioxidants are reviewed. Current understandingof the effects of carbon black on the oxidation reactionshows conflicting evidence. Some workers have reportedthat carbon black accelerates oxidation due to surfacecatalysis of peroxide decomposition to form free radicals,adsorption of antioxidants from the polymer and increasedaccessibility of oxygen. Others have produced evidence

of the inhibition of oxidation by carbon black because ofits activity as a radical scavenger and its ability todecompose peroxides to form stable products. The roleof reactive chemical groups on the carbon black surface,particle size and concentration are reviewed. 17 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; UK;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.523533

Item 228Philadelphia, Pa, 1992. 1/12/92. 9511TPRACTICE FOR DETERMINATION OF 2%SECANT MODULUS FOR POLYETHYLENEGEOMEMBRANESAmerican Society for Testing & MaterialsASTM D 5323-

A technique is presented for determining the 2% secantmodulus for PE geomembranes. This helps with moduluscomparisons of similar materials. Photocopies and loansof this document are not available from Rapra. It may bepurchased from BSI. Please contact Rapra for furtherdetails.USA

Accession no.522220

Item 229Gescher, 1993, pp.8. 12ins. 25/3/94. 63ECiPRODUCT PORTFOLIOHuesker Synthetic GmbH & Co.

A review is presented of Huesker’s product range ofgeosynthetics. They consist of synthetic wovens and non-wovens, geogrids and geocomposites, and knitted fabricsfor civil engineering applications. Materials used includePE, PP, polyamides, polyesters and aramid resins.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.521851

Item 230Gerscher, 1993, pp.12. 12ins. 25/3/94. 43C1-63ECi-6R41HATELIT ROADS WITHOUT CRACKSHuesker Synthetic GmbH & Co.

The use is described of HaTelit flexible reinforcementfor use in road construction. The reinforcing grids aremade from high modulus polyester filaments which arecoated with a bituminous material which ensures goodadhesion to the asphalt layers. Installation examples areincluded, and performance data with respect to thereduction in tensile stresses, and the increase in tensilestrength of the asphalt layer.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; GERMANY;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.521849



Item 231Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, Nos.6-7, 1994, p.475-93FAILURE MODES AT MODEL TESTS OF AGEOTEXTILE REINFORCED WALLWong K S; Broms B B; Chandrasekaran BNanyang,Technological University; Bored Piling Pte.Ltd.

A series of model tests was conducted to study the failuremodes of a geotextile reinforced soil wall. Thereinforcement was a woven polyester with a strength of47 kN/m and a stiffness of about 500 kN/m at 2% strain.A uniform surcharge pressure of up to 250 kPa was appliedon top of the model. The observed failure modes are blocksliding and slip failure. Other potential modes of failureare rupture of the reinforcements, bearing capacity andoverall stability. The results do not support the pull-outand the overturning modes of failure. 18 refs.SINGAPORE

Accession no.521566

Item 232Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.5, 1994, p.295-316PULLOUT FORCE/DISPLACEMENTRELATIONSHIP OF EXTENSIBLE GRIDREINFORCEMENTSBergado D T; Chai J-CBangkok,Asian Institute of Technology

A model for predicting the pullout resistance of polymer-grid reinforcement is proposed. The influence of bearingmember rigidity and spacing ratio are expressed in themodel. The displacement along the reinforcement wascalculated by using the proposed pullout bearingresistance model together with the elongation of the gridlongitudinal member. The validity of the method wasconfirmed by comparison of calculated values and actualtest data. 8 refs.THAILAND

Accession no.521168

Item 233Antec 93. Conference Proceedings.New Orleans, La., 9th-13th May 1993, Vol.II, p.2021-5.012HDPE GEOMEMBRANES: TYPICALPROBLEMS AND SOLUTIONSPeggs I DI-Corp International Inc.(SPE)

Failures in HDPE geomembranes caused by stresscracking, environmental stress cracking and delaminationare examined, and resin selection, installation and qualitycontrol procedures aimed at overcoming such problemsare reviewed. 12 refs.USA

Accession no.520554

Item 234Antec 93. Conference Proceedings.New Orleans, La., 9th-13th May 1993, Vol.II, p.2018-20. 012HDPE GEOMEMBRANES: LINERCONSTRUCTION QUALITY ASSURANCEPRACTICESPeggs I D; Steinle E RI-Corp International Inc.(SPE)

Integrated quality programmes for the design andinstallation of HDPE geomembranes are discussed. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.520553

Item 235Antec 93. Conference Proceedings.New Orleans, La., 9th-13th May 1993, Vol.II, p.2005-8.012EVALUATION OF THE OXIDATIVE STABILITYOF POLYETHYLENE GEOMEMBRANES BYTHE HIGH PRESSURE OXIDATIVEINDUCTION TIME TESTThomas R W; Ancelet C R; Brzuskiewicz J ENational Seal Co.; Heraeus Dset Laboratories Inc.(SPE)

The high pressure oxidative induction time test was usedto study the oxidative stability of PE geomembranescontaining different stabilisers and exposed to air ovenageing, fluorescent UV light, xenon arc UV light andwarm water environments. 6 refs.USA

Accession no.520551

Item 236Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.4, 1994, p.263-80EXPANDED POLYSTYRENE (EPS) GEOFOAM:AN INTRODUCTION TO MATERIALBEHAVIOURHorvath J SManhattan College

An overview is presented of the geotechnically relevantengineering properties of a specific geofoam expandedrigid PS. There is about 30 years experience of using it ingeotechnical applications, primarily as thermal insulationand ultralightweight fill (its density is only about 1% ofthe density of soil). 18 refs.USA

Accession no.518834



Item 237Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.4, 1994, p.231-46YIELD OF SCRATCHED GEOMEMBRANESGiroud J P; Beech J F; Soderman K LGeoSyntec Consultants

It is demonstrated that geomembranes that have a stress-strain curve with a yield peak, such as HDPEgeomembranes, yield at a tensile strain that is significantlyinfluenced by scratches on the surface of thegeomembrane. It is shown that scratched HDPEgeomembranes can yield at strains that are one-third toone-half the yield strain of intact geomembranes. Themethod presented makes it possible to quantify thereduction in HDPE geomembrane yield strain due toscratches as a function of the scratch depth and thegeomembrane thickness. Alternatively, the method canbe used to select the thickness of an HDPE geomembranefor a given yield strain when a certain scratch depth isexpected. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.518833

Item 238Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.3, 1994, p.199-206FOUNDATION ON STRONG SAND UNDERLAINBY WEAK CLAY WITH GEOGRID AT THEINTERFACEKhing K H; Das B M; Puri V K; Yen S C; Cook E ESouthern Illinois,University

A number of laboratory model test results for the ultimatebearing capacity of a surface strip foundation supportedby a strong sand layer of limited thickness underlain by aweak clay with a layer of geogrid at the sand-clay interfaceare presented. Data are given for ethylene-propylenecopolymer and PP geogrids. 4 refs.USA

Accession no.517634

Item 239Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.3, 1994, p.181-97MODELLING PERFORMANCE OF A SLOPEDSOIL WALL USING CREEP FUNCTIONLopes M L; Cardoso A S; Yeo K COporto,University; Hong Kong,GeotechnicalEngineering Office

A rheological model based on a series of Kelvin modelsfor analysing creep behaviour is described for analysingpolymer reinforced soil structures. The performance ofthe numerical model and the actual behaviour of thestructure are compared. 7 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; EUROPEAN UNION; HONGKONG; PORTUGAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.517633

Item 240Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.3, 1994, p.165-79MODIFIED DIRECT STUDY OF CLAY LINER-GEOMEMBRANE INTERFACES EXPOSED TOLANDFILL LEACHATEMasada T; Mitchell G F; Sargand S M; Shashikumar BOhio,University

Direct shear tests were used to quantify interface frictionexisting within the multi-layer solid waste landfill system.Modified direct shear tests were performed for interfacesbetween compacted clay and smooth HDPE, texturedHDPE, and smooth PVC geomembranes. 13 refs.USA

Accession no.517632

Item 241Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.3, 1994, p.133-45IMPACT OF PRODUCT STRUCTURE ON THESTABILITY AND DURABILITY OF COATEDPETP GEOGRIDSDuvall D EBroutmann L.J.,& Associates

Four commercial coated PETP geogrids were studied inorder to assess characteristics such as polymer coatingtype, coating thickness and uniformity, fibre diameter, andfibre distribution within the coated bundles. Certainanomalies in the geogrids are discussed with reference todurability. 9 refs.USA

Accession no.517631

Item 242Polymer and Fibre Science: Recent Advances.New York, VCH Publishers, 1992, p.333-58 011FLUID FLOW THROUGH NEEDLE-PUNCHEDGEOTEXTILE FABRICSChahal V; Buchanan D R; Mohamed M HNorth Carolina,State UniversityEdited by: Fornes R E; Gilbert R D; Mark H F(North Carolina,State University)

Needle-punched nonwoven fabrics made from crimpedpolyester staple fibres were studied under high normalpressures, both in the transplanar and the in-plane flowpermeameters using a specially modified apparatus. Fibrediameter was the most important fabric parameter to beconsidered when designing needle-punched nonwovensfor fluid transmission under Darcian flow conditions. Astrong correlation was observed between fibre lineardensity and fabric permeability. The second mostimportant factor was the normal pressure under whichthe fabrics were confined during the flow. This reflectsthe structural changes that occur on external loading andthat alter the internal pore size distribution, and hence



the permeability coefficient. A significant difference wasobserved between fabrics made of fine fibres (6 and 9denier) and those made of coarse fibres (45 denier). Astrong linear correlation was observed between fabricpermeability and thickness under the experimentalstresses. For this reason, the constitutive materialbehaviour of the fabric under load can be a good indicatorof its behaviour toward fluid flow. 23 refs.USA

Accession no.516482

Item 243High Performance TextilesMay 1994, p.8-9‘TREVIRA’ SEA DEFENCES: A CASE STUDY

A revetment was built to replace the sea walls at Rhos-on-Sea, which were below standard and posed a risk offlooding, using rocks, and consisting of a gradual inclineof primary armour and core material. To prevent erosion,a Trevira polyester spunbond geotextile was specified toact as a filter/separation layer which was mechanicallybonded to the boulders. Above this was laid a wovenScotlay and a bedding layer on which the boulders couldbe placed. Further construction details are described.

MCALPINE A.,CONSTRUCTION LTD.; MONOMETLTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.514280

Item 244Polymer Plastics Technology and Engineering33, No.3, April 1994, p.281-93DURABILITY CONSIDERATIONS FOR PVCFORMULATIONS USED IN GEOSYNTHETICS:A REVIEWKamykowski G WBroutman L.J.,& Associates Ltd.

The types of degradation which PVC could experiencein geosynthetic applications (e.g. geogrids,geomembranes) at various stages of its useful life arediscussed, including degradation during storage prior touse, installation and exposure to its surroundings, bothabove ground and underground. Photodegradation,plasticiser loss, short-term physical breakdown and long-term physical breakdown are considered. Summaries aregiven of representative literature articles on generaldurability studies, UV radiation effects and biologicalstudies. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.514146

Item 245Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1526, 11th March 1994, p.12DOLCI PLUGS A GAP WITH NINICAST

Dolci is offering its new Ninicast 1500mm multipurposecast film line for use where blown film lines would betoo complex or conventional cast film equipmentunprofitable. The company is aiming its compact 70KRCextruder at the small to medium sized user. Dolci has beenconcentrating upon the technology of winding, chiefly inrespect of cast film and geomembrane applications. Dolcihas also supplied coextrusion lines for the production ofthick film for geotechnical uses and waterproofing anti-pollution installations.

DOLCI EXTRUSIONSEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.509338

Item 246Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1526, 11th March 1994, p.10SHAPING UP FOR A NEW RESPONSIBILITYCoulson J

Geomembranes are used for a variety of applicationsincluding liners for lakes and reservoirs, as well as effluenttreatment facilities and for isolating ground contaminationor landfill. The radial dye extrusion method of producingwide width sheet provides membranes with the necessarystrength and qualities for these environmentally sensitiveapplications. In 1991, SGS Geosystems installed apurpose-built, state of the art, production process at itsSoham, Cambridgeshire, factory. It was found that amedium density PE copolymer with a reference densityof 0.939 g.cm and a wide molecular weight distributionwas particularly suited for the production ofgeomembranes. Production at the SGS site is outlined.

SGS GEOSYSTEMSEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.509332

Item 247Pontypool, 1991, pp.7. 12ins, 10/1/94. 63ECiTERRAM SOIL REINFORCEMENTExxon Chemical Geopolymers Ltd.

Applications are described of the Exxon Chemical rangeof soil reinforcement geotextiles. The selection of Terramproducts for short-, medium-, and long-term applicationsis discussed. Products include nonwoven thermallybonded sheet materials and high strength compositematerials for structural applications.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.507880

Item 248Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.1, 1994, p.119-26FAILURE CRITERIA FOR TWO-DIMENSIONALORTHOTROPIC FIBROUS COMPOSITES OFLOW BENDING STIFFNESS



Minster JCzech Republic,Academy of Sciences

An analysis is presented of the objective quadratic criteriaof failure of two-dimensional orthotropic fibrouscomposites of low bending stiffness with a secondarycondition excluding compressive strength. The possibleforms of theoretical strength prediction are compared withexperimental results for a PVC coated polyamidegeotextile. 6 refs.CZECH REPUBLIC

Accession no.506438

Item 249Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.1, 1994, p.91-9EFFECTIVENESS OF A REINFORCINGGEOGRID IN A RAILWAY SUBBASE UNDERDYNAMIC LOADSGobel C H; Weisemann U C; Kirschner R ADresden,Technische Universitat; Huesker Synthetic

Details are given of the deformation characteristics of arailway loadbearing system with and without a geogrid.The geogrid was made from a PVC coated saturatedpolyester.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.506437

Item 250Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.1, 1994, p.67-89UPLIFT BEHAVIOUR OF PLATE ANCHORSWITH GEOSYNTHETICSKrishnaswamy N R; Parashar S PIndian Institute of Technology

The uplift behaviour of plate anchors embedded incohesive and cohesion-less soil media, with and withoutgeosynthetics was investigated. Data are given for HDPEgeogrids. 23 refs.INDIA

Accession no.506436

Item 251Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.2, 1994, p.55-64EFFECT OF DYNAMIC LOADING ONCOMPRESSIONAL BEHAVIOUR OFSPUNBONDED NONWOVEN FABRICSKothari V K; Das AIndian Institute of Technology

The change in compressional behaviour with dynamicloading was studied for spunbonded nonwoven geotextiles.The compressibility of thermally bonded spunbondedfabrics was compared with that of several types ofspunbonded needle punched fabrics. 4 refs.

INDIA

Accession no.506435

Item 252Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.2, 1994, p.43-54FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF PULL-OUTTESTS WITH LOAD AND STRAINMEASUREMENTYogarajah I; Yeo K CStrathclyde,University

Details are given of the load and strain distributions along ageogrid reinforcement during a pull-out operation. Loadsand strains along various sections of the geogridreinforcement were measured at different pull-outdisplacements, with respect to different anchorage lengths.Numerical modelling was then carried out to simulate theoperation. Comparisons between the measured and simulatedload and strain distributions are presented. 11 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.506434

Item 253Geotextiles and Geomembranes13, No.2, 1994, p.1-22MATHEMATICAL MODEL OF GEOMEMBRANESTRESS-STRAIN CURVES WITH A YIELDPEAKGiroud J PGeoSyntec Consultants

A mathematical model is proposed to describe the stress-strain curves of geomembranes, such as HDPE, thatexhibit a yield peak in a uniaxial tensile test. The modelwas calibrated with results of uniaxial tensile testsconducted with smooth HDPE geomembranes. 3 refs.USA

Accession no.506433

Item 254High Performance TextilesFeb.1994, p.5PUNCTURE-RESISTANT NEEDLEFELT

Geofabrics has introduced a geotextile designatedProtector 50. The product is a 4mm thick needlefelt of500gsm, designed specifically to offer excellent punctureresistance. The bulk of fabrics made by the company arebased on PP as this is largely chemically inert. If improvedchemical resistance is required as, for instance, withchemical leachates, then fabrics are also made usingHDPE. Details are given.

GEOFABRICS LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.504159



Item 255European Rubber Journal176, No.1, Jan.1994, p.28RUBBER FOR BOREHOLES

It is briefly reported that the cores of miniature boreholepackers used by the British Geological Survey are madefrom high-extension, abrasion-resistant tubes supplied byDunlop Precision Rubber. The tubes are made in a highlyflexible rubber which can be inflated to above theenvironmental pressure inside the borehole for sealingtightly against the sides. A major investigation of howwater and water soluble pollutants travel throughlimestone rock is being carried out and twelve 18-metredeep 4-inch diameter boreholes have been drilled.

DUNLOP PRECISION RUBBEREUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.500421

Item 256Rubber and Plastics News23, No.6, 25th Oct.1993, Environment Suppl., p.T45AGRICULTURAL PROJECT USES SCRAP TYRESMoore M

Shredded scrap tyres are being used in a ‘Hydro-Culture’application by Entire Environmental Systems Inc. Theshredded or cubed tyres are placed under a geotextilelining to form a reservoir for use in an experimentalwaterborne plant nursery at Hutchins, Texas. Details ofthe project are described.

ENTIRE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS INC.USA

Accession no.498873

Item 257Tire Business11, No.15, 1st Nov.1993, p.16SCRAP TYRES IRRIGATION SYSTEM TOCREATE HIGH-YIELD NURSERYMoore M

It is reported that more than 1.2 million scrap tyres aregoing into an experimental, water-borne plant nurserywhich, according to its developer Entire EnvironmentalSystems, can increase agricultural yields by 50 to 120%.The Enclosed Hydraulic Irrigation System, or Hydro-Culture, makes use of shredded or cubed and baled tyreslayered under a geotextile lining to create an undergroundreservoir. Details are given.

ENTIRE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS INC.USA

Accession no.498735

Item 258Asia-Pacific Chemicals4, No.7, Nov.1993, p.14-5

DEALING WITH WASTE BREAKS NEW GROUNDGupta N

Stricter methods required to deal with hazardous wasteare reported from the Asia-Pacific region, where, untilrecently, hazardous waste was dumped directly into thesea. The use of geotextiles, geomembranes, geosyntheticclay liners and geomatrices in landfill applications isdiscussed, with details of the size of the market andopportunities for growth. It is expected, however, that bythe year 2002, incineration will be widely accepted asthe waste processing technology of choice.ASIA-PACIFIC

Accession no.498341

Item 259Phase Interaction in Composite Materials.Wallingford, Omega Scientific, 1992, p.155-64. 627INTERFACIAL FRICTION IN SAND-GEOTEXTILE COMPOSITESAthanasopoulos G A; Bousias P ZPatras,UniversityEdited by: Paipetis S A; Papanicolaou G C(Patras,University)

The results of direct shear tests on dry Ottawa sandreinforced with sheets of geotextiles embedded normallyto the shear plane are used to determine the apparentfriction angle at the sand-geotextile interface. Parametersinvestigated include the interface normal stress and thethickness and type (woven or non-woven) of thegeotextile. 14 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GREECE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.496706

Item 260Plastics World51, No.10, Oct.1993, p.19FABRICATOR BOOSTS QUALITY WITHSPEEDY SEAM TESTCallari J

Environmental Protection Inc., a fabricator of PVCgeomembrane liners, has developed a process that permitsit to test the integrity of a welded seam within 5 minutes.The Wolschon Test directly correlates with the ASTM’sand NSF’s standards for testing weld-seam integrity,which requires that samples be brought from theproduction floor into the lab to acclimate for 40 hours,allowing the seam to cure, before peel-strength tests aredone. The end result of the accelerated test is that EPIcan correct flawed seams about 10 minutes after they aremade, instead of nearly three days later. Samples arepulled from the production process and after 5 minutestested for peel strength in a tensiometer.

ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION INC.USA

Accession no.495202



Item 261Journal of Plastic Film & Sheeting9, No.3, July 1993, p.171NEW GEOMEMBRANE RESIN FROMNOVACOR

This is a medium-density PE, designated HD-2070-A, thatis easily processable on blown and cast extrusion systems.

NOVACOR CHEMICALS INC.USA

Accession no.494096

Item 262Lancaster,Pa., 1992, pp.1. 11ins. 14/4/93. 625-6L6REGUPOL 7513CS. PRODUCT DATADodge-Regupol Inc.

Properties are presented for Regupol 7513CS, one of afamily of products made from recycled rubber fibresmixed with a custom formulated PU binder. Regupol iscompression moulded into sheets or rolls and is designedfor use in geomembrane protection, tank and pipe beddingand for the damping of sound and vibration.USA

Accession no.493762

Item 263Antec 92. Plastics: Shaping the Future. Volume 1.Conference Proceedings.Detroit, Mi., 3rd-7th May 1992, p.128-31. 012CREEP AND STRESS RUPTURE TESTING OFPE SHEET UNDER EQUAL BIAXIAL TENSILESTRESSESDuvall D E; Edwards D BBroutman L.J.,& Associates Ltd.(SPE)

A method for evaluating the creep and stress ruptureresponse of PE sheet under equal biaxial loading ispresented and applied to a study of a MDPE geomembraneliner. Creep data, accumulated at 23C and several stresslevels for nearly 8000h, are presented in the form of a setof isochronous stress-strain curves. Stress rupture testingat 60 and 80C gives data for estimating time for failureunder constant stress at temps. to which the product willbe exposed in service. 14 refs.USA

Accession no.483808

Item 264Plastics World51, No.6, June 1993, p.12NEW CATALLOY LINE OFFERS EXPANDEDPRODUCTIVITY

New Catalloy olefinic polymers from Himont, a familyof 20 resins based on two or three olefin monomers, canbe processed via air-quenched blown film, cast film,

extrusion coating, injection moulding, blow moulding,sheet extrusion, coextrusion and calendering. Over sixmillion square feet of calendered Catalloy polymer havealready been installed as geomembrane liners for landfillsor at other sites where moisture containment is required.Another target market for Catalloy materials is packaging.One early application is the heat seal layer for BOPP film.Other applications include heavy-duty industrial bags andblow moulded bottles.

HIMONT INC.USA

Accession no.480108

Item 265High Performance TextilesMay 1993, p.14DEPRESSION US GEOTEXTILES

It is briefly reported that consumption of geotextile fabricsin the USA and Canada will be much the same in 1992 asin 1991. In 1991 consumption was some 295 millionsquare metres, rising to only 312 million square metresin 1992. According to a report by the Industrial FabricsAssociation International, growth of geotextiles ispredicted to be only about 5% between 1992 and 1993.Consumption of geomembranes in 1992 was estimatedto be 54 million square metres, rising in 1993 to 68 millionsquare metres.

US,INDUSTRIAL FABRICSASSN.INTERNATIONALUSA

Accession no.479897

Item 266British Plastics and RubberApril 1993, p.36FILM BLOWING ON A HUGE SCALE

It is reported that one of the biggest blown PE film linesin Europe is up and running at Satellite Geosystems ofSoham, Cambridgeshire. Using a 25m high bubble, it isproducing a 5.7m wide black PE sheeting, for lininglagoons and reservoirs, landfills and isolating groundcontamination. Very brief details are noted.

SATELLITE GEOSYSTEMSEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.475258

Item 267Polymers in Extreme Environments. ConferenceProceedings.Nottingham, 9th-10th July 1991, Paper 10. 93GEOTEXTILES IN AGGRESSIVE SOILSGreenwood J H; Brady K CERA Technology Ltd.; UK,Transport & Road ResearchLaboratory(PRI)



Potential causes of degradation of polymers in the soil arebriefly discussed and the results of tests performed usinggeotextiles based on PP fabric and various backfills toestablish the extent of damage caused during compaction ofthe surrounding soil are presented. Partial factors of safetyfor installation damage that could be used in the design ofreinforced soil structures are also considered. 8 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.474113

Item 268Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1473,20th Feb.1993,p.7POLYMER GEOTEXTILES DEGRADATIONPROOF

According to the latest research from the TransportResearch Laboratory, polymer geotextiles are resistant todegradation in most sub-soil environments. The lateststudies are claimed to show that in general, geotextileshave excellent resistance to the conditions found in mostUK soils, except in cases of extreme acidity or alkalinity,sometimes found with very ‘green’ concrete or landfillsites. Brief details are noted.

UK,TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORYEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.472254

Item 269Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1473,20th Feb.1993,p.7BREAKTHROUGH IN FORMALDEHYDE-FREEBUILDING MATERIAL

Rohm & Haas is reported to have claimed a majorbreakthrough in the move to remove formaldehyde-basedmaterials from flooring, roofing and geotextiles. A newproduct will be unveiled in the spring of 1993 at theinternational Index ’93 exhibition in Geneva; the companyis to launch a range of all-acrylic resins to replaceformaldehyde in the bonding of non-woven glass fibreweb reinforcing. Brief details are noted.

ROHM & HAAS CO.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; SWITZERLAND; UK; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.472251

Item 270Plastics World51,No.2,Feb.1993,p.14BIG BUSINESS IS GETTING WIDERCallari J

SLT Environmental recently installed at its plant inGermany what might be the largest flat-die extrusion systemin operation today, a 24 ft wide geomembrane liner system.The company claims that coextrusion allows it to combinevarious types of PE in a given structure, while permitting

more economical use of colourants and/or stabilisers. Theline is equipped with automatic die bolt adjustments whichhold gauge to within plus/minus 2-3%, it is claimed.

SLT ENVIRONMENTALEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.472004

Item 271High Performance TextilesJan.1993,p.3GEOTEXTILE FOR ROADS FROM DON ANDLOW

A woven PP geotextile called Pavelay has been introducedby specialist textile maker Don & Low Ltd. The fabric islaid over a preliminary tack coating before the normal overlayis applied to a road or pavement. Brief details are given.

DON & LOW LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.469940

Item 272Rubber and Plastics News22,No.10,7th Dec.1992,p.12OLD TYRES FINDING USE UNDER ROADS,BUILDINGSMoore M

Prospect Enterprises Inc. has patented a way to use rubberunder both roads and buildings as a drainage quilt whichconsists of scrap tyre chips or chunks tied between twogeotextile blankets. This provides drainage for buildingsand roads that is both cheaper and environmentally saferthan traditional gravel or crushed stone. Scrap tyres arealso less expensive for construction drainage than gravel.A detailed account is given of the development and useof the drainage quilts.

PROSPECT ENTERPRISES INC.USA

Accession no.467392

Item 273Rubber and Plastics News22,No.9,23rd Nov.1992,p.6RECYCLED RUBBER FINDS NEW USE ATLANDFILLGarrett A

Dodge-Regupol of the USA commenced testing Regupolcushions as a protective layer for the lining of landfills inNovember 1992, with a 100,000 US dollars grant fromPennsylvania’s environmental research fund. If successful, athin layer of Regupol - made from recycled rubber - could beused to cushion a landfill’s geomembrane. Details are given.

DODGE-REGUPOL INC.; DODGE CORK CO.;BERLEBURGER SCHAUMSTOFFWERK GMBHUSA

Accession no.464532



Item 274Modern Plastics International22,No.11,Nov.1992,p.84GEOMEMBRANES TO BE A MAJOR SHEETMARKET IN EUROPE

A new report from Chem Systems assesses the sheetmarket in Europe, created by environmental regulations,for geomembranes - thick sheet with nonwoven fabricbackings, typically laid down to prevent erosion, or tocontain pollution from landfill or other sites. The reportanalyses the market in 16 countries and reviews the costof production for each membrane type. The report alsodescribes business structure and codes of practice.

CHEM SYSTEMS LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE;WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.462947

Item 275European Plastics NewsNov.1992,p.55-6KUHNE MEETS WIDER DEMANDS OFGEOMEMBRANE MARKET

The use of polymer geomembranes is growing inenvironmental protection applications. In particular,consumption of HDPE geomembranes for use in landfillwaste sites is increasing rapidly. The industry is aimingto reduce leakage through the use of wider webs andKuhne, extrusion machinery builder, has constructed a5.8 metre wide geomembrane extrusion line, which itclaims is the largest to be built in Europe. The productionline, which has been used to produce a range of webs inthicknesses ranging from 1.5 to 4mm, is outlined.

KUHNE GMBHGERMANY

Accession no.460916

Item 276Modern Plastics International22,No.10,Oct.1992,p.151VERY-LOW-DENSITY PE

DSM Resins has introduced Teamex which has a densityof 0.9 g/cubic cm. The PE resin is intended for productionof strong flexible sheet and applications include specialpackaging films and geomembranes.This abstract includesall the information contained in the original article.

DSM RESINS BVEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.459464

Item 277New Scandinavian TechnologyNo.2,1992,p.14-5BREAKTHROUGH IN HIGH-STRENGTH FIBRE

Danaklon and Neste have joined together in a Eurekaproject to develop different categories of fibre: soft,hydrophilic, non-fibrillating radiation resistant fibres foruse in the medical industry; geotextiles; and fibres forspinning. The work has resulted in a thermobondable PPfibre called HY-Strength, and a fibre for use in disposablemedical materials. Also, they have developed a processto produce a high strength fibre that is stronger thanconventional fibres.

DANAKLON AS; NESTE OYDENMARK; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FINLAND;SCANDINAVIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.458342

Item 278Plastics News(USA)4,No.1,2nd March 1992,p.2SLT TO MAKE GEONET MATERIALSBregar B

SLT North America, a maker of geomembrane liners, willexpand into production of geonet materials this spring.The SLT product will be made by extruding HDPEthrough counter-rotating dies. Used in lining systems forponds and landfills, geonet acts as a channel to drainleaking liquids to a central collection point

SLT NORTH AMERICA INC.USA

Accession no.453733

Item 279New Materials/JapanJune 1992,p.15FIBRE FOR REINFORCING SOIL FROM ASAHICHEMICAL

Asahi Chemical Industry Co. has developed ‘Power Grid’a reinforcing material based on polyacetal fibre, for usein stabilising soil on slopes and other erosion prone areas.Brief details of the production of the polyacetal fibre aresupplied together with details of its tensile properties.

ASAHI CHEMICAL INDUSTRY CO.LTD.JAPAN

Accession no.451181

Item 280Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1427,21st March 1992,p.16-7EXTRUSION PLANT SPECIALLY BUILT FORMOTAN SYSTEM

A new extrusion plant built for Alois Gruber (Agru) whichhas been purposely designed to accommodate an extensiveMotan materials handling system is described. Agruproduces HDPE sheet for land membranes, and pipes inPE, PP and PVDF. The Motan units were chosen chieflybecause of the ease of use of the touch screenmicroprocessor control system.



GRUBER A.,& SOHN OHGAUSTRIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.444794

Item 281Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1422,15th Feb.1992,p.4BRIGHT ROAD AHEAD FOR GEOSYNTHETICS

According to Chem Systems, geosynthetics offer brightgrowth prospects, as road repairs using geotextiletechniques already established in North America penetratethe European market. Many civil engineering projectsnow use plastic Geogrids for soil stabilisation and riverbank protection; brief details of a survey are presented.

CHEM SYSTEMS INTERNATIONAL LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE;WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL

Accession no.439697

Item 282How Concept Becomes Reality.Book 2.SymposiumProceedings.San Diego,Ca.,15th-18th April 1991,p.1939-49. 012GEOPOLYMER. ULTRA-HIGH TEMPERATURETOOLING MATERIAL FOR THEMANUFACTURE OF ADVANCED COMPOSITESDavidovits J;Davidovics MCORDI-GEOPOLYMERE SAEdited by: Stinson J;Adsit R;Gordaninejad F(SAMPE)

Geopolymers of the poly(sialate-disiloxo) type are verylow viscosity inorganic resins which harden likethermosetting organic resins, but have a useful temp. rangeup to 1000C. Geopolymers provide faithful reproductionof the mould or die surface and allow for precision andfineness. Geopolymer reinforced with glass or carbonfabrics can be used up to 450C, but silicon carbide (Nicalon)or aluminium oxide (Safil) fibres are needed for highertemps. Thermal expansion coefficients are similar to thoseof thermoplastic composites and make the geopolymerssuitable as tooling materials for reinforced thermoplasticprocessing. Examples relate to use of geopolymers(Geopolymite and Geopolyceram) for tools to preparePEEK and PPS composite aircraft parts. 12 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.436001

Item 283High Performance TextilesOct.1991,p.13-4PROTECTING AN INDIAN ESTUARY WITHGEOTEXTILES

The Calcutta Port Trust is building a 2800m long guidewall on the River Hugli, to improve the draught of the river.This complex task is nearing completion and problems

encountered are outlined. The wall is built on a geomattressto protect the river bed. The construction of this is described.Two geotextiles were used in it. A woven fabric was placedbeneath a non-woven fabric and stitched to it, using PPthread, thus combining the high tensile strength of thewoven fabric with the good filtration properties of the non-woven one. Properties of the fabrics are discussed.

INDIA,CALCUTTA PORT TRUSTEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; INDIA; NETHERLANDS;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.435246

Item 284Asian Plastics NewsSept.1991,p.27-8GIANT HDPE SHEETS LINE THE WAY AHEAD

In June, Kuhne ran the first live trials on its giant 5.8mwide extrusion line, believed to be the widest HDPE sheetline in the World. The giant geomembrane sheets are usedto line landfill waste disposal sites. In general, the sheetsused must be physically strong, resistant to chemicals andas wide as possible to cut down on the need for weldedseams which are a natural weak point in the seal.

KUHNE GMBHGERMANY

Accession no.434397

Item 285Composites Plastiques Renforces Fibres de VerreTextile31,No.2,March/April 1991,p.76-89GEOPOLYMER INORGANIC RESINS, THEIRUSES IN THE COMPOSITE INDUSTRYDavidovits J;Davidovics M;Orlinski JFRANCE,GEOPOLYMER INSTITUTE

(In French and English). The properties of geopolymersand their use in the composite industry are described indetail. Geopolymers are synthetic alumino-silicate binderswhich produce ceramic-like objects, either byagglomeration of fillers or by impregnation of fibres orfabrics. The chemical composition of geopolymers isdescribed in detail. The non-toxic and fire resistancefeatures of geopolymer matrix composites are identifiedand the use of geopolymer resins in tooling for fabricationof other advanced composites is outlined.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.434384

Item 286SPI Composites Institute s 46th AnnualConference.Conference Proceedings.Washington,DC,18th-21st Feb.1991,Paper 12-D/1-12-D/7. 627APPLICATION OF FRP GRIDREINFORCEMENT FOR CONCRETE AND SOIL



Hayashi K;Sekine K;Sekijima K;Nakatsuji TDAINIHON GLASS INDUSTRY CO.LTD.; SHIMIZUCORP.(SPI,Composites Institute)

FRP grids have been recently developed. They possesssufficient anchorage to concrete and soil, are non-corrosive, lightweight, and non-magnetic. Themanufacturing process is described along with thematerial properties and the grid’s reinforcing effect onconcrete and soil. Some applications for concrete and soilstructures are described. 7 refs.JAPAN

Accession no.433457

Item 287Plastics Southern Africa21,No.1,June 1991,p.8/14GEOSYNTHETICS IN CIVIL AND MININGENGINEERINGDickson M GINDUSTEX HOLDINGS (PTY.) LTD.

The use of geotextiles (permeable synthetic membranesused in civil engineering works) is growing rapidly. Theycan be woven, non-woven or knitted fabrics; or, in a recentdevelopment, a composite of the three. This technicalreview picks out four general applications: drainage,where composite geotextiles remain effective underpressure in reducing pore-water pressure; ground-waterfiltration, where mesh can be matched to the fines andthus prevent clogging of filters; the keeping apart of twomaterials which would otherwise mix; and thereinforcement of foundation soil to help eliminate anytensile stresses. The author discusses problems regardingtesting of geotextiles in this and an accompanying article.SOUTH AFRICA

Accession no.432468

Item 288Plastics Southern Africa21,No.1,June 1991,p.14/6GEOSYNTHETICS: WHY THE NEED FORACCURATE TESTING?Dickson MINDUSTEX HOLDINGS (PTY.) LTD.

Where geotextiles are used to transport water along theirplanes, for instance in a blanket drain in a dam, thebehaviour between two soil layers was found to be verydifferent from predictions from tests between steel platesunder lateral pressure. This difference in behaviour couldlead to catastrophic failure. The provision of better realperformance data is called for, with closer collaborationbetween civil engineers and manufacturers of geotextiles.17 refs.SOUTH AFRICA

Accession no.432467

Item 289ICI AdvanceNo.7,1991,p.13PAVING THE WAYICI,ADVANCED MATERIALS

A high strength PP mesh has been developed and is beingused in the Yorkshire Dales National Park to strengthenheavily-used footpaths which have become eroded. Themesh is laid directly on the peat soil, without damagingits structure, and building aggregate is then placed on topto create a tough, hard-wearing, free-draining surfacewhich should need no major maintenance forapproximately 20 years.

NETLON LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.431189

Item 290Denver,Co., c.1989, pp.6. 12ins. 11/5/89. 42C11-6L2-93511LEAKAGE MONITORING OF THEGEOMEMBRANE LINER FOR THE PROTONDECAY EXPERIMENT. PAPER PRESENTED ATTHE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ONGEOMEMBRANES,SESSION 5B,P.475-80,HELDDENVER,USAStone J LMICHIGAN,UNIVERSITY

Zero leakage requirement of a reservoir located in a saltmine extending under Lake Erie, necessitates the securelong term containment of pure water in a lined facility,and accurate monitoring and quality control procedures.The main problems encountered with the HDPE liner arediscussed and stress concentration at geomembranethickness discontinuities e.g. seams, are believed to bethe primary cause of observed failures. Protons in thewater are monitored by photomultiplier tubes immersedin the water to observe any decay or spontaneous decayof the proton. Details are given of the liner installationand its performance, quality control procedures andleakage monitoring systems. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.430413

Item 291Construction & Building Materials5,No.2,June 1991,p.63-7GEOTEXTILE/COVERING PAD REINFORCINGSYSTEMPatel N MBARODA,UNIVERSITY

Laboratory studies on glass fibre geotextiles placed at somedepth in a virgin soil deposit with frictional sand placedabove the geotextile are first reported. Results are comparedwith tests conducted without geotextile. A parametric studyis then reported conducted on the geotextile/covering pad



reinforcing system. Different types of virgin sand, coveringpad sands and reinforcing textiles were used. Differentfriction tests were used for various combinations ofcovering sand/geotextile/virgin sand. 8 refs.INDIA

Accession no.430314

Item 292137th Meeting Spring 1990.Conference Preprints.Las Vegas,Nv.,29th May-1st June 1990,Paper 7. 012FLEXOMER POLYOLEFINS: A BRIDGEBETWEEN POLYETHYLENE AND RUBBERRifi M R;Ficker H K;Corwin M AUNION CARBIDE CHEMICALS & PLASTICSCO.INC.(ACS,Rubber Div.)

Flexomer polyolefins are described as having acombination of toughness and flexibility which bridgesthe gap between PE and rubbers. Applications in film,foam, hose, tubing, wire and cable, geomembrane and asmodifiers are cited. Thermoplastic polyolefins based onFlexomer blends with isotactic PP were compared withblends of PP and EPDM and PP/in-situ reactor impactmodifier blends. 7 refs.USA

Accession no.430120

Item 293High Performance TextilesMay 1991,p.8-9GEOTEXTILES REDUCE CONSTRUCTIONCOST

Details are given of Fritz Landolt AG’s Textomur-Systemgeotextile reinforcement, which is used as an alternativeto concrete in the construction of steep embankments.The reinforcement, which is based on a polyester non-woven fabric, provides drainage and permits vegetationto grow over the bank.

LANDOLT F.,AGSWITZERLAND; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.429457

Item 294Sports IndustryNo.85,June/July,1991,p.12PLASTIC GRID CAN SAVE REAL TURF

The inclusion of small plastic grids to a depth of betweenfour and eight inches below a natural turf surface canhalve divot recovery times. The Techturf mesh elementsystem is incorporated within a sand-based mix whichgives three dimensional support to the sand layer, leadingto increased loadbearing capacity and stability.

TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITYUSA

Accession no.428456

Item 295Antec 90.Plastics in the Environment:Yesterday,Today& Tomorrow.Conference Proceedings.Dallas,Tx.,7th-11th May 1990,p.1164-6. 012APPLICATION OF POLYMERIC SYSTEMS TOSUSTAINED-RELEASE TECHNOLOGY FORPROTECTION OF BURIED DRIP IRRIGATIONAND OTHER DEVICES FROM ROOT INTRUSIONVan Voris P;Cataldo D A;Burton F G;Ruskin RAGRIFIM IRRIGATION INTERNATIONAL;BATTELLE MEMORIAL INST.,COLUMBUS LABS.(SPE)

Details are given of two biobarrier-based commercialproducts and data and support information which indicatethat a maximum effective bioactive lifetime in the orderof 10 years can be achieved. Chemical root-growthinhibition were incorporated in geotextile cloth and aburied drip emitter for plant irrigation. 5 refs.USA

Accession no.428368

Item 296Textile Horizons11,No.6,June 1991,p.32-3GEOTEXTILES - AN EXPANDING MARKETJoyce M A

A recent report from Frost and Sullivan and other sourceson the growth in the textiles market in North Americaand Western Europe is summarised. Figures are reportedfor the USA, France and the UK.USA

Accession no.427958

Item 297Florida, 1988, pp.18. 12ins. 11/5/89. 42C11-9511TSTRESS CRACKING OF POLYETHYLENEGEOMEMBRANES: FIELD EXPERIENCEPeggs I D;Carlson D SGEOSYNTEC INC.

This paper discusses the characteristics and typicalappearance of stress cracking, including environmentalstress cracking and brittle cracking due to UV radiationin polyethylene liners of surface impoundments.USA

Accession no.427914

Item 298Philadelphia, 1988, pp.18. 12ins. 11/5/89. 42C11-9511TLABORATORY EVALUATION OF STRESSCRACKING IN HDPE GEOMEMBRANE SEAMSHalse Y H;Koener R M;Lord A EGEOSYNTHETIC RESEARCH INST.

This report tests the sensitivity of HDPE geomembranesheets and seams to stress cracking. The results show that



the sheets can resist stress cracking much better than theseams.USA

Accession no.427913

Item 299Rail Bull.3,No.3,Summer 1991,p.64GEOTEXTILES IN RAILWAY APPLICATIONS

Geotextiles are commonly used in the area of preventingtrack pumping (penetration of the track bed from belowby a slurry of fine particles and water which effectivelyreduces the bearing capacity of the ballast and can causeloss of material from the sub-grade). Lotrack is acomposite PP woven geotextile made from a PP fleece,needle punched onto a woven base. It has beenincorporated to control erosion pumping by British Railin a number of locations. A brief description is given ofits use, including a case history.

DON & LOW PLCEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.427319

Item 300St.Paul,Minnesota, 1988, pp.8. 12ins. 11/5/89. 6L2-8(12)1FAILURE AND REPAIR OF GEOMEMBRANELINING SYSTEMPeggs I DHANSON MATERIALS ENGINEERING

This is a short report discussing the failure of ageomembrane lining system in West Canada and theconsequent repair of the lining.USA

Accession no.425246

Item 301High Performance TextilesMarch 1991,p.7-8GEOTEXTILES USED IN WATER-RETAININGEMBANKMENTS

Results are presenteed of studies of the performance ofgeotextiles used in the construction of temporary andpermanent water-retaining embankments for the JamesBay Hydroelectric Project in Canada. The basicrequirements of geotextiles used as filters in coffer-damsand as separators for upstream dam-shells are considered.

ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE DE MONTREAL;SHAWINIGAN-LAVALINCANADA

Accession no.423283

Item 302Construction & Building Materials

5,No.1,March 1991,p.45-8EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENTANALYSIS ON BEARING CAPACITY OFGEOSYNTHETIC REINFORCED SANDMandal J N;Mhaiskar S Y;Manjunath V RINDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

The effect of the depth of placement on the bearingcapacity ratio of geosynthetic reinforced sand was studied,the geotextile being a needle-punched non-woven materialbased on PP fibres. Experimental and finite elementmethod approaches were used. Close agreement wasfound between the two approaches. A depth of placement/width of foundation ratio of 0.25 was found to beoptimum. 8 refs.INDIA

Accession no.422328

Item 303New Scientist130,No.1770,25th May 1991,p.38-42SAVING MUD MONUMENTSDayton L

A detailed description is given of experiments relating tothe preservation of adobe using additives which includepolymeric materials, e.g. acrylic polymers, and geotextiles,e.g. PP fabric.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.422278

Item 304Polymers and Polymer Composites in Construction.London,Thomas Telford,1990,p.206-45. 63ECiGEOSYNTHETICSLawson C REXXON CHEMICAL GEOPOLYMERS LTD.Edited by: Hollaway L C(Institution of Civil Engineers)

Geotextiles and impermeable polymeric membranes arecategorised. Their material types and characteristics areoutlined, together with some properties of synthetic fibres.Applications in filtration, sub-surface drainage, erosioncontrol, use of geotextiles as forms, separation layers, soilreinforcement, and containment, are given. 46 refs.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.421234

Item 305Journal of Coated Fabrics20,Oct.1990,p.82-7USE OF POLYPROPYLENE NON WOVENGEOTEXTILES IMPREGNATED WITHBITUMENOUS BINDER IN ROAD PAVEMENTSLevy TDU PONT DE NEMOURS (LUXEMBOURG) SA



Non-woven geotextiles impregnated with bitumenousbinder will increase the service life of roads by delayingreflective cracking and providing an impermeablemembrane inside the pavement structure. The use andfunction of a specially designed thermally bonded, non-woven PP geotextile in repairing cracked roads isdescribed.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; LUXEMBOURG; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.420032

Item 306High Performance TextilesFeb.1991,p.6-7GEOTEXTILES AND ROAD MAKING

The reinforcement attributes and applications ofgeosynthetics for road construction are outlined by theIndian Institute of Technology particularly for use onunpaved roads in Third World countries. Their use inasphalt overlays is also noted.

INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGYINDIA

Accession no.419943

Item 307Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1375,2nd March 1991,p.9EXTRUSION SYSTEM FOR LANDFILLLININGS

Kuhne is reported to have developed an extrusion systemfor the production of geomembranes, PVC and PEsheeting for landfill sites used for waste disposal; it saysthat as more useful material is extracted from waste forrecycling, the concentration of potentially dangerouscontents of remaining waste disposed of will increase.Brief details are noted.

KUHNE GMBH; PROCESS MACHINERY LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; GERMANY; UK; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.419376

Item 308High Performance TextilesDec.1990,p.3-5HIGH CAPACITY FILTER DRAINAGE

Saval has developed a laminated composite geotextilewhich is suitable for reinforcing all earthworks and offershigh capacity filter drainage. The geotextile is constructedwith a series of different but interconnected layers andcontains at least two layers with filtering and/or drainagecharacteristics. The composition of the layers andlaminating methods are discussed.

SAVAL SRLEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.415780

Item 309Plastics News(USA)2,No.38,19th Nov.1990,p.1/20NOVA SELLS ITS GEOMEMBRANESPROCESSING UNITLauzon M

The Nova Corp. has sold its geomembrane business, NovaGeotechnical Products Ltd., to a subsidiary of the NationalSeal Co. When the operation was formed, in 1988, themarket was buoyant, with the sheet being used to preventground water contamination in waste disposal.Overcapacity has since arisen which has prompted Nova’smove. The joint venture set up with Nylex Corp. to marketthe membranes has also been dissolved.

NATIONAL SEAL CO.; NOVA CORP.; NOVAGEOTECHNICAL PRODUCTS LTD.; NYLEXCORP.LTD.CANADA; USA

Accession no.415358

Item 310Rubber World203,No.2,Nov.1990,p.54STRESS TESTING GRIP

Curtis ‘Sure-Grip’ has made available the Geo-Grip,which is specially designed for the stress testing ofgeosynthetics, plastics, rubber and other thin materials.Very brief details are given of the unit, which has theability to hold specimens up to 8" wide with controlledpressure over the whole width of the sample.

CURTIS SURE-GRIPUSA

Accession no.413821

Item 311Sports IndustryNo.82,Dec/Jan.1991,p.10CHANGING THE FABRIC OF PITCHPREPARATION

A brief account is given of the latest research anddevelopment into natural turf cricket pitch maintenance,particularly growing grass through a stiff geotextile padinserted under a synthetic wicket, and Vhaf GrassReinforcement for football and rugby pitches.

UK,NATIONAL CRICKET ASSOCIATIONEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.413515

Item 312Barking, Elsevier Applied Science, 1989, pp.x,332.LS.45. 10ins. 30/10/89. 63ECiDURABILITY AND AGEING OFGEOSYNTHETICSKoerner R M



DREXEL,UNIVERSITY,GEOSYNTHETICRESEARCH INST.

This volume contains papers presented at a seminar on‘Durability and Ageing of Geosynthetics’ held at theGeosynthetic Research Institute in December 1988. Fourtechnical sessions give coverage to geosynthetic concernsand focuses, geotextiles and geogrids, geomembranes, andbiological aspects. Consideration is given, in particular,to the durability and long-term performance ofgeosynthetics in waste containment applications.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.413369

Item 313Rail Bull.2,No.4,Autumn 1990,p.6/8GEOTEXTILES PUT WORLD’S RAILWAYS ONFIRMER FOOTING

PCD (UK) has developed Polyfelt TS, a non-woven,needle-punched endless fibre fabric, for railwayapplications. This geotextile is being used either as areplacement for gravel sand as a barrier between ballastand subsoil beneath rail tracks, or as a complimentarybarrier. Tests have shown that Polyfelt TS performs wellas a separation layer and allows the free escape of groundmoisture while preventing fine soil particles penetratingthe upper protective layer of sand. The fabric also resiststhe tearing effect of sharp ballast stones.

PCD UK LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.412352

Item 314Plastics in Building Construction14,No.12,1990,p.3VINYL GEOMEMBRANE PASSES TESTS FORLINING LANDFILLS

Occidental reports that an independent laboratory hasconfirmed that its Oxyflex PVC geomembrane materialis suitable for landfill applications. Test data showed thatall the sheets exceeded the NSF requirements of breakingfactor, elongation, modulus, tear resistance andhydrostatic resistance even after 120 days exposure toleachate at 23C and 50C.

OCCIDENTAL CHEMICAL CORP.USA

Accession no.412333

Item 315High Performance TextilesSept.1990,p.6-7GEOTEXTILE FILTER AIDS ROADSIDEDRAINAGE

A geotextile drainage system, Secodrain, is designed tokeep road surfaces free of water by providing an effective

roadside drainage conduit. A trench is dug at the side ofthe road and lined with a geotextile filter material. A PVCpipe is laid at the bottom of the trench, which is thenbackfilled with porous concrete. The filter is sealed bythe laying machine. The installation procedure andadvantages of the system are outlined.

FOURNIER DRAINAGEEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; FRANCE; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.411221

Item 316High Performance TextilesOct.1990,p.7-8GEOTEXTILES FOR LAND RECLAMATION

The Eastern Schelde adjustable storm-surge barrier in TheNetherlands used woven geotextiles as a majorreinforcement. The construction and structure of thebarrierare discussed and the geotextiles used are described.

ROBUSTA BV; SULZER BROS.LTD.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; NETHERLANDS; SWITZERLAND;WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.411149

Item 317Rubber and Plastics News 211,No.24,10th Sept.1990,p.2JPS RESTRUCTURES DIVISION

New products to be produced at JPS Elastomerics’Environmental Products Div. are briefly described. They arereported to include TerraTuff chlorosulphonated PE syntheticrubber sheet bonded to a textile manufactured from recycledplastic bottles and is used to make caps for landfills or liningareas were the ground is uneven. The EnvironmentalProducts Div. was reported to have been restructured fromthe company’s Containment Membrane Div.

JPS ELASTOMERICS CORP.,ENVIRONMENTALPROD.DIV.USA

Accession no.409367

Item 318Blackburn, 1987, pp.3. 12ins. 2/7/90. 42C11-63ECi-6R41TENSAR SR80 GEOGRIDSNETLON LTD.

A product sample and technical details are given forTensar SR80 geogrids. The product is manufactured fromHDPE and is UV stable, chemically resistant, biologicallyresistant and with a service temperature range from -50Cto +80C. It is designed for use in soil reinforcingapplications, for example in the construction ofembankments and retaining walls. Roll dimensions andphysical properties are included.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.407831



Item 319Materie Plastiche ed ElastomeriNo.12,Dec.1989,p.570-5ItalianINVISIBLE COMFORTMinarelli T

This review of the Bologna Building Exhibition stressesthe use of cellular materials for thermal and acousticinsulation, indicating the environmentally-friendly natureof expanded PS which uses pentane as blowing agent.Attention is drawn to applications of geomembranes indams, trenches, tunnels and motorways, and of geotextileson roads and under the sea. The use of expandedpolystyrene in roof-garden construction is also described.

ASSOCIAZIONE ITALIANA POLISTIRENEESPANSO; DEUTSCHERDACHGARTENERVERBAND INT.GEOTEXTILESOC.; INDUSTRIEVERBAND HARTSCHAUMEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; ITALY; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.406829

Item 320Blackburn, c.1990, pp.3. 12ins. 2/7/90. 42C12-63ECi-6R41TENSAR SS2 GEOGRIDSNETLON LTD.

Brief technical details and a product sample are given forTensar geogrid. It is manufactured from blackpolypropylene which is ultra-violet stable, chemicalresistant and biologically resistant. The geogrid structurehas been developed for the stabilisation of weak, low loadbearing soils, for example in the construction of temporaryand permanent roads. Physical properties and dimensionsare included.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.406675

Item 321Rail Bull.2,No.3,Summer 1990,p.78-80GEOTEXTILES PUT WORLD’S RAILWAYS ONFIRMER FOOTING

The use of PCD’s Polyfelt TS, a non-woven, needlepunched endless fibre geotextile fabric, for theconsolidation of ballast beneath railway tracks isdiscussed. Experience of its ultilisation on Australian,Austrian and German railways is reported.

PCDEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.405585

Item 322Advanced Composites Engineering5,No.3,June 1990,p.18-20BRIDGING THE GAP

Holloway LSURREY,UNIVERSITY

A report is presented on some recent case histories of theuse of fibre reinforced plastics in the construction industry.It discusses their use in load bearing applications, usuallyglass fibre reinforced polyesters; geosynthetic materials(grids, textiles, membranes and composites); and non-corroding reinforcements in concrete including PP, PE,glass and polyester fibres.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.401685

Item 323High Performance TextilesJuly 1990,p.9-10LINING CANALS WITHOUT INTERRUPTINGFLOWRebant D B

Special equipment has been developed in the USA toallow canal repairs to be undertaken without draining.The treatment involved travelling along one side of thecanal and returning in the opposite direction, laying a PVCgeotextile sheet, from a roll, and chemical sealing it withtetrahydrofuran. A specially formulated concrete 76mmthick is then laid on the sheet.USA

Accession no.401553

Item 324High Performance TextilesJune 1990,p.6-7SUPER ABSORBENCY IN AGRICULTURE

The characteristics of superabsorbents in capillary matsfor agricultural purposes are briefly described. Thesuperabsorbent is incorporated into a nonwoven fabric toprovide a base for root formation and stabilisation of thesubsoil. Methods of manufacture and applications arenoted.

CHEMISCHE FABRIK STOCKHAUSEN GMBHEUROPEAN COMMUNITY; WEST GERMANY; WESTERNEUROPE

Accession no.400892

Item 325New Delhi, 1989, pp.iii,16. 11ins. 4/12/89. 42C11-625-63AgGUIDELINES FOR USE OF PLASTICS (LDPEFILM) FOR LINING OF CANALSINDIA,CENTRAL BOARD OF IRRIGATION ANDPOWER

Discusses the design and techniques of use of LDPE filmfor lining of canals.INDIA

Accession no.400035



Item 326World Plastics & Rubber Technology1990,p.227-30UNDERGROUND WORKERSHunt J AEXXON CHEMICAL LTD.

A discussion is presented on one of the most significantand fast-growing applications of polymers today, namelygeotextiles. Methods of production are briely outlined, areasof application (separation of soil structures, drainage,erosion control and reinforcement of soil structures) aredescribed and some recent installations are reviewed.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.399145

Item 327London, c.1986, pp.34. 12ins. 17/11/86. 43C1-63ECiNEW LAYER ON THE EARTH. BIDIMMONOMET LTD.; RHONE-POULENC (UK) LTD.

(Also in French). Bidim 100% polyester spunbondedneedled non-woven geotextile is described. Its functionsand properties are outlined, and its uses in generalearthworks, road works, river works, coastal works, waterworks, drainage and sewerage, protection applications, andparks, gardens and sports grounds are detailed. Brief layingmethods are also given. A product sample is included andtechnical characteristics and properties are tabulated.EUROPEAN COMMUNITY; UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.399144

Item 328Chemical and Engineering News67,No.39,25th Sept.1989,p.39-40ADVANCES MADE IN WAYS TO STABILISEGEOTEXTILESHaggin J

Geotextiles are being used increasingly as a substitute forsand and gravel, in heavy duty ground applications, suchas containment ponds. Polyolefins, mainly polypropylene,are the most frequent choice for geotextiles, but in theseapplications a greater degree of stability is needed. Thermalstabilisation is achieved by incorporating a radicalterminating antioxidant. Ultraviolet stabilisation can beachieved in one of three ways: by screening and heatdissipation; by molecule ‘quenching’; and the use ofhindered amine light stabilisers.

CIBA-GEIGY CORP.USA

Accession no.399055

Item 329St.Albans, c.1989, pp.2. 12ins. 10/5/89. 42C11-6P253MONARFLEX R.A.C. MEMBRANEMONARFLEX LTD.

Monarflex R.A.C. membrane has been specially developedfor use as a tanking membrane for protection againsthydrocarbons and other volatile pollutants. It consists of a9 micron aluminium foil bonded onto Monarflex 500geomembranes. The foil is coated with a layer of 0.2mmpolyethylene film to give physical protection duringinstallation. A sample of the material is included, and itsproperties and chemical resistance are described.UK; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.397535

Item 330Linz, 1988, pp.8. 12ins. 11/10/89. 42C12-62(14)-6R1POLYFELT GEOTEXTILES, THEGEOTECHNICAL SOLUTIONPOLYFELT GMBH

Technical product data and illustrated examples ofapplications are given for Polyfelt geotextiles for use incivil engineering and building construction applications.Examples cited include road construction, embankmentconstruction, drainage, retaining walls and geomembraneprotection, where they fulfil a number of functions such asseparation, filtration, protection and reinforcement.Advantages of its use are described and features of Polyfeltare briefly listed. These include needle-punched filaments,use of continuous filaments, and use of UV stabilised PP.AUSTRIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.397494

Item 331Linz, 1988, pp.4. 12ins. 11/10/89. 42C12-62(14)-6R1POLYFELT PGM 14 PAVING FELTUNDERLINES PAVEMENT PERFORMANCEPOLYFELT GMBH

A description is given of Polyfelt PGM 14 paving felt,designed to improve the long term integrity of bituminousroad surfacing. It is manufactured from continuousfilaments of polypropylene into a strong flexible threedimensional structure. Adhesion of surfacing layers isimproved, interface stresses relieved, reflective crackingis retarded, and moisture and oxygen penetration isprevented. Areas of application and installation methodsare described, and properties are tabulated.AUSTRIA; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.397493

Item 332Journal of Coated Fabrics10,Oct.1989,p.129-31CIVIL ENGINEERING APPLICATIONS FORCOATED FABRICSMarienfield M LPHILLIPS FIBERS CORP.

Each of the major civil engineering coated fabric productsand their end uses are outlined, with particular emphasis



on coated geotextiles. Geotextiles as paving fabrics andsoil separation/stabilisation materials are included,together with geomembranes for roofing products.USA

Accession no.394761

Item 333Plastics in Building Construction13,No.9,1989,p.9-10USE OF GEOMEMBRANES/GEOTEXTILESGROWS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING PROJECTS

Brief extracts are presented from a 236-page study entitledGeosynthetics Market in the US published by Frost &Sullivan Inc. The market study includes analysis of thegeosynthetics marketing and distribution process and theroles of such key players as consulting engineers.Important companies are profiled individually and theircompetitive strategies examined.

FROST & SULLIVAN INC.USA

Accession no.390429

Item 334High Performance Textiles8,No.12,June 1988,p.10-1NON-WOVENS IN GEOTEXTILES

A brief report of the US Industrial Fabrics Associationconvention in Las Vegas is given. Growth of geotextileshas increased at the rate of 8-10% since 1983 and by 20%from 1986/87. Consumption of geotextiles since 1983 hasrisen from 150 million sq.yds. to 240 million sq.yds(1986). It is predicted to increase to 370 million sq.yds.by 1990. Other information is mentioned in a brief article.USA

Accession no.389802

Item 335High Performance Textiles10,No.4,Oct.1989,p.9-10GEOTEXTILE REINFORCES SWISS RIVERBANK

The reinforcement of a Swiss river bank by use of a hybridmaterial comprising PP and ramie (a natural flax-likefibre) is described. The requirements imposed on thegeotextiles are discussed and the Terranet fabric selectedfor the project is considered.

BAECHTOLD AG; SCHWEIZER GESELLSCHAFTFUER TUELLINDUSTRIE AGSWITZERLAND

Accession no.389145

Item 336High Performance Textiles10,No.2,Aug.1989,p.7

COMPOSITE GEOTEXTILE

Geotextile and filtration applications are cited for UnitikaBonded Mat ‘UBM 600’ a woven/non-woven polyesterfabric composite from Unitika Ltd. A polyester binderfibre, Melty, is reported to be used in the construction ofthe fabric to consolidate it.

UNITIKA LTD.,INDUSTRIAL FIBRES & FABRICSDIV.JAPAN

Accession no.389051

Item 337Sarnia,Ont., 1984, pp.5. 11ins. 9/6/87. 63ECiLONGEVITY ASPECTS OF POLYMERICLININGS FOR WATER CONTAINMENTStrong A GPOLYSAR LTD.

The nature and effect of stress as a direct influence on thelongevity of polymeric linings for water containment areexamined. The ability of a geo-membrane to bridge a gapcreated by ground movement with minimum property lossis a major contribution towards the expected longevity.The behaviour of membranes under such conditions isstudied, and the value of thickness and the role of textilesis emphasised. The importance of high strength andelongation is inferred and tests more specific to membraneservice are discussed. These include the effect of stressmeasured at site temperature after ageing in the unstressedand strained states. 8 refs.CANADA

Accession no.387440

Item 338Slough, 1987, pp.10. 12ins. 13/11/88. 43D1-6272REHAU ARMAPAL GEOGRIDREINFORCEMENT FOR PAVEMENTSREHAU PLASTICS LTD.

Rehau Armapal is a range of geogrids made from highmodulus polyester yarn, designed for use in construction,reconstruction, repair or strengthening by overlay ofpavements using bituminous materials. It is available asa glass fibre version (Rehau Armapal G) offering highermodulus properties. Applications and installation methodsare described and technical data are included. A productsample of Rehau-Armapal 6030 is included.UK; EUROPEAN COMMUNITY

Accession no.387439

Item 339Altrincham, c.1987, pp.4. 12ins. 20/11/89. 42C12-62(14)-63ECiAMOPAVE ASPHALT OVERLAY ENGINEERINGFABRIC. TECHNICAL MANUALAMOCO FABRICS CO.



A product sample and a technical description are presentedfor Amopave, an asphalt overlay fabric for pavement repairs.Amopave is a needle punched polypropylene design whichreadily absorbs tack coat to form a strong permanent bondbetween new and old layers of asphalt. Details are given ofinstallation methods, properties and product specifications.UK

Accession no.386566

Item 340Construction & Building Materials3,No.2,June 1989,p.78-80GEOFABRICS IMPROVE LOAD BEARINGCHARACTERISTICS OF FLYASHMurtaza G;Shah S S;Ahmad MALIGARH,UNIVERSITY

The use of flyash in earthworks reinforced withgeofabrics, to improve the load bearing characteristics isdiscussed. The composition of the flyash studied, obtainedfrom thermal power plants in India, is detailed and MaduraCoats (type 3C) geofabric is used in the tests. Differentlaboratory tests, including California Bearing Ratio andTriaxial tests are conducted to compare the behaviour ofload bearing characteristics. 7 refs.INDIA

Accession no.386493

Item 341Plastics News(USA)1,No.19,10th July 1989,p.11MICHIGAN REGULATES ASH DISPOSAL

Michigan’s solid waste regulations now govern thegeneration, transportation, treatment, storage and disposalof municipal solid waste incinerator ash. The ash may bedeposited in specially designed pits or monofills locatedin solid waste landfills but kept separate from generalgarbage. The law includes an option for 3 layer liners inlandfills consisting of a leachate collecting system underthe ash, a synthetic liner of at least 60mm thick, ageotextile layer of at least 100mm thick, a synthetic linerof at least 40mm thick, a geotextile layer of at least 100mmthick, a leak detection and leachate collection system, anda synthetic liner of at least 40mm thick.USA

Accession no.386291

Item 342Kunststoffe Plastics36,No.2,Feb.1989,p.29GermanFABRICS:MEASUREMENTS AND CONTROL OFINHOMOGENEOUS PRODUCTS

A description is given of the FH 46M system from FAGKugelfischer suitable for the measurement and control ofweight per unit area of geotextiles made from plastics fibres.

FAG KUGELFISCHERWEST GERMANY

Accession no.385944

Item 343Deformation,Yield and Fracture ofPolymers.Proceedings of the 7th InternationalConference.Cambridge,11-14 April 1988,p.64/1-64/5. 951DEFORMATION OF THICK SECTIONPOLYPROPYLENES AT HIGH STRAIN RATES,FOR ORIENTED GEOGRIDSCoates P D;Ellis D I;Pourmahnaei S M;Martin KBRADFORD,UNIVERSITY; NETLON LTD.(PRI)

Preliminary results are presented of studies of thesignificant effects of specimen geometry and forcedconvective heat transfer on the magnitude and distributionof temp. rise in thick PP and PE samples drawn uniaxiallyat high strain rates. The studies are part of a widerinvestigation related to the commercial Tensar processfor the manufacture of geogrids. 3 refs.UK

Accession no.384903

Item 344New Materials/Japan6,No.9,Sept.1989,p.14COMPOSITE GEOTEXTILE

A composite of woven and non-woven polyester fabriccalled ‘Unitika Bonded Mat UBM 600’ is being producedby Unitika Ltd. The material incorporates a polyesterbinder fibre known as ‘Melty’ which consolidates theconstruction. Its water permeability characteristics makeit particularly suitable for applications such as geotextilesor filter media.

UNITIKA LTD.JAPAN

Accession no.384742

Item 345Plastics in Building Construction13,No.5,1989,p.4NYLON ‘ENKAMAT’ HELPS SOLVE EROSIONPROBLEMS

Enkamat is a lightweight, flexible alternative to concrete,asphalt and rip-rap systems for controlling soil erosion.It is a 3 dimensional matrix of heavy nylon monofilamentsfused at their intersections. Applications in the USA aredescribed in a brief article.USA

Accession no.383057



Item 346Constr.Wkly.16th Aug.1989,p.17CRACKING A ROAD PROBLEMCudmore ACHEMIE LINZ (UK) LTD.

The use of paving felt to reduce reflective cracking ofroads is briefly discussed. Examples of the use of PolyfeltPGM 14, such as on the hard shoulder of the M20 in Kent,are given.UK; USA

Accession no.383000

Item 347Constr.Wkly.16th Aug.1989,p.16SYNTHETICS FOR EARTH BUNDSPetri AMMG CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMS

MMG Civil Engineering Systems’ use of a polyestergeogrid, Akzo’s Fortrac, in the construction of a reinforcedsoil wall in Kent, is briefly described.

AKZO CHEMIE BV; MMG CIVIL ENGINEERINGSYSTEMSUK

Accession no.382999

Item 348Constr.Wkly.16th Aug.1989,p.14/6GEOMEMBRANES FOR LANDFILLBoyes R

The use of geomembranes and geotextiles in wastedisposal is discussed. The need for proper inspection andsupervision of installation is stressed since inadequatesupervision, rather than the wrong selection of polymertype and grade is said to have been the main reason forfailures. Two geofabrics mentioned are Monarflex RACmembrane and Rawmat.UK

Accession no.382998

Item 349Constr.Wkly.16th Aug.1989,p.12GEOSYNTHETICS INDUSTRY TAKES OFFIngold T

A brief review of recent developments in the geosyntheticindustry is presented. Market leaders such as ExxonChemicals’ Terram range of non-woven geotextiles; Don& Low’s Lotrak range of woven fabrics; and Netlon’sTensar geogrid and Netlon geomesh range are mentioned.Particular reference is made to the application ofgeosynthetics in soil reinforcement and toxic wastecontrol. 2 refs.

AMOCO CORP.; DON & LOW PLC; DU PONT DENEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; EXXON CHEMICALCO.; NETLON LTD.; POLYFELT INC.; RHONE-POULENC INC.UK

Accession no.382997

Item 350High Performance Textiles9,No.10,April 1989,p.2-3SYNTHETIC TAPE RESISTS DAMAGE BYSTITCHING

Stitch-bonding and needle punching may cause PP andPE tape yarns to split and fibrillate particularly when usedin demanding applications such as geotextiles, high impactbags for use with explosives, and as intermediate bulkcontainers. US Patent 4,643,119 is said to overcome theseproblems by producing a corrugated yarn through aserrated die. Details of the process are reported.

EXXON CHEMICAL PATENTS INC.USA

Accession no.381438

Item 351Construction & Building Materials2,No.1,March 1988,p.51DEBUT FOR SLOPE STABILISATIONMATERIAL

A slope stabilisation material which can be used as anerosion control system has been introduced by Enka. Thegeotextile, Armater, is made up of strips of non-wovenpolyester with a form of honeycomb distributing the forceexerted on a slope and spreading run-off surface water.Using this strong, porous, flexible material ensuredstability of the top layer and allows vegetation to beplanted. It has been used in the UK in the construction ofa pollution control channel on the approach to a newbridge, to retain the steep upper slopes along river banks,and also to line the chalk sides of a new playing fieldwhich slope at an angle of 65 degrees. This abstractincludes all the information contained in the originalarticle.

ENKA BVNETHERLANDS; UK

Accession no.380621

Item 352High Performance Textiles9,No.12,June 1989,p.11-12GEOTEXTILE CONTROLS RELEASE OFHERBICIDESREEMAY INC.

European Patent 0307,720 describes a geotextile whichcarries a series of nodules bound to the fabric sheet bybeing injected through it and then solidifying. The



compounds in the nodules can release chemicals into theground on a gradual or long-term basis. Suggestions aremade for the slow release system, dispersed in a water-soluble polymer.USA

Accession no.380594

Item 353High Performance Textiles9,No.8,Feb.1989,p.5ECONOMICAL GEOTEXTILES

Brief details are provided on the use of PP Mirafi 1000HP in the construction of a new sea wall, at Harris HarbourAlaska, which was built at a cost of only 1.86 US dollars/sq.m. compared with 4.65 US dollars for “a soldier pilebulkhead and a reinforced earth wall”.USA

Accession no.379935

Item 354Modern Plastics International19,No.4,April 1989,p.54-6GEOSYNTHETICS PROVE TO BE VITALORGANS IN SANITARY LANDFILLLeaversuch R D

The role of plastics as geosynthetics in landfills arediscussed in detail. Information is given ongeomembranes, cap liners, drainage mediums andgeotextile erosion mats made from materials such asHDPE and PVC. Other factors in the construction oflandfills discussed include containment of environmentalhazards and space saving methods.

GEOSERVICES INC.USA

Accession no.378990

Item 355High Performance Textiles9,No.7,Jan.1989,p.8-10WEST GERMAN GEOGRIDS USED IN ROADCONSTRUCTION

Rehau’s Armapal range of geogrids, some of which arebased on a reinforcement of high tenacity polyester yarns,is described. The physical properties of the geogrids aretabulated and their use in construction of various typesof road surfaces is discussed.

REHAU PLASTICS AGWEST GERMANY

Accession no.378987

Item 356St.Albans, c.1989, pp.4. 12ins. 10/5/89. 62(11)-63ECi-6L2MONARFLEX GEOMEMBRANE LINING

SYSTEMMONARFLEX LTD.

The geomembrane lining system from Monarflex isdescribed, and a sample of the material is included. Itconsists of a non-laminated low density polyethylene witha non-woven polyester scrim reinforcement. The materialis available in factory welded sections up to 1500 sq.m.,and can be further joined by continuous extrusion weldingon site. Monarflex 500 geomembrane lining system canbe used on landfill sites, in sewage works, for sealingreservoir roofs and for the construction of ornamentalwater features. These applications are illustrated andphysical properties are listed for the product.UK

Accession no.378383

Item 357High Performance Textiles9,No.9,March 1989,p.10-1GEOTEXTILES FOR ALL APPLICATIONS

Enka Industrial Systems range of geotextiles is reportedto be marketed by MMG Civil Engineering Systems inthe UK. Brief details are presented on each of the productswhich include Enkamat nylon matting for erosion control,Enkazon pre-grown turf incorporating Enkamat,Stabilenka woven polyester fabric for retaining structuressuch as stabilising embankments, Colbonddrain non-woven polyester material with a three-dimensional thickpolyester monofil open core for anti-clogging drainage,Enkadrain nylon and polyester non-clogging drainmaterial, and Armater non-woven polyester fabric stripslinked to form a honeycomb structure material forelimination of land sliding and gulleying.

ENKA BV; MMG CIVIL ENGINEERING SYSTEMSNETHERLANDS; UK

Accession no.377524

Item 358High Performance Textiles9,No.9,March 1989,p.9-10TEXTILES USED IN DRAINS

A fairly brief description is given of a new drainagematerial from BTR Industries. BTR Landscaper consistsof a geotextile Terram filter fabric of spunbonded PP witha PS core which allows the water to be filtered throughthe fabric and drain through the core preventing cloggingby soil particles.

BTR INDUSTRIES PLCUK

Accession no.377523

Item 359Textile Horizons9,No.2,Feb.1989,p.28-31



NEW GEOTEXTILE FROM SYNTHETIC ANDNATURAL FIBRESStadler R

The use of a geotextile fabric, made from yarns of bothsynthetic (PP) and natural (ramie) fibres, in the reconstructionof a river bank in Switzerland is reported. The particularfeatures of the Terranet Type 50226 from the Swiss NetCompany Ltd. (Tullindustrie AG) are outlined and theintegration of the geotextile into the bank is described.

SWISS NET CO.LTD.; TULLINDUSTRIE AGSWITZERLAND; UK

Accession no.377442

Item 360Textile Horizons9,No.2,Feb.1989,p.24-7DURABILITY OF GEOTEXTILESD’Souza J;Horrocks RBOLTON,INSTITUTE OF HIGHER EDUCATION

The durability of geotextiles for use in civil engineeringconstructions is discussed with reference to the principaldegrading agencies and related accelerated ageingprocedures. The ageing behaviour of different fibre typesis examined with details given on HDPE, PP, PETP, nylonand aramid fibres. Methods of effective lifetime predictionare outlined. 1 ref.UK

Accession no.377440

Item 361Modern Plastics66,No.4,April 1989,p.149NYLON/POLYESTER MATTING HELPSPREVENT BUILDUP OF RADON IN HOMESLindsay K F

Akzo has developed this control matting which consistsof a non-woven polyester geotextile filter fabric heat-bonded to durable and resilient nylon monofilaments. Theinstallation of Enkavent, which measures 0.8 in. thick andcontains about 90% airspace, is briefly described.

AKZO INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMSUSA

Accession no.376698

Item 362High Performance Textiles9,No.5,Nov.1988,p.10-1PERMAFROST ROAD USES GEOTEXTILES

A road across a permafrost region in Alaska has beenconstructed using geotextiles; it has been designed towithstand very heavy loads up to 1800 tonnes. Designconsiderations to be tackled are outlined and the finalconstruction is described briefly. The fabric selected wasNicolon 64109 woven PP developed specially for this task.

USA

Accession no.372784

Item 363Chemistry & IndustryNo.13,4th July 1988,p.414-20PLASTICS IN THE GROUND. PERFORMANCEOF POLYMERIC MATERIALSWrigley NNETLON LTD.

The performance of polymeric materials, chiefly PP, PEand PET, used in combination with bulk civil engineeringmaterials in geotechnical applications is discussed.Aspects considered are compatibility and interaction withthe fill material, tensile strength under sustained ordynamic loads, resistance to site damage, transmissivitythrough plane or in-plane, compression strength, chemicaland biological resistance, resistance to UV light, and theeffects of ageing. Data for Tensar geogrids are amongthose included. (Meeting of the Road & BuildingMaterials Preservation Groups of the SCI,London,17thMarch 1988). 24 refs.UK

Accession no.371967

Item 364Polyolefins V.Proceedings of the fifth InternationalRegional Technical Conference.Houston,Tx.,Feb.1987,p.683-93. 42C1STABILISATION OF PP FIBRES AND TAPESFOR TEXTILE AND GEO-TEXTILEAPPLICATIONSRoot S;Stengrevics ECIBA-GEIGY CORP.(SPE,South Texas Section;SPE,ThermoplasticMaterials & Foams Div.)

The manufacture, storage and end-use exposure, both UVand thermal, of PP fibres and tapes are explored. Thesuperior performance of HALS-1 and HALS-2 (hinderedamine light stabilisers) in controlling both light and thermaldegradation is demonstrated. The use of the correctantioxidant and phosphite to produce products stableenough for carpet and geotextile applications is explained.USA

Accession no.371886

Item 365Poliplasti e Plastici Rinforzati36,No.368/9,July/Aug.1988,p.54-6ItalianWORLD’S LARGEST 3-PLY SHEETING

HDPE 943 C is a geomembrane 11.2m wide. It is formedby coextrusion of a centre layer of carbon-filled PEsandwiched between layers of a different type of PE. Theouter layers, of medium density PE, may be of Eraclear



35 B, Eraclear 51-35 BO or Eraclene H AB 5015, productsdesigned and produced by EniChem ANIC for thisparticular application. Greater width laminate could beproduced by the technology used by the extruder (LaCaleppio ILT), but transport restrictions impose the abovelimit. The width actually produced reduces the amountof welding required, and the quality of the product ensuresdurable welds when made by highly expert operators.Price: 9800 lire/sq.m. (2mm thick).

ENICHEM ANIC SPA; LA CALEPPIO ILTITALY

Accession no.371096

Item 366Plastics and Rubber Asia3,No.16,June 1988,p.44-5PLASTICS MESH GOES RACING - AND IT’S AWINDER!

The use of Netlon mesh elements as a turf reinforcementfor the Happy Valley racecourse in Hong Kong is outlined.Use of a parallel range of products, produced by the Tensardivision of Netlon, for embankment foundations, roadstabilisation and surface erosion prevention schemes inJapan, Hong Kong and Malaysia is also briefly noted.

NETLON LTD.; TENSAR CORP.HONG KONG; JAPAN; MALAYSIA; UK; USA

Accession no.370418

Item 367Modern Plastics International19,No.1,Jan.1989,p.4MASTERBATCH OFFERS HIGH UVPROTECTION

A masterbatch of very fine highly dispersed particles offurnace black in HDPE provides long term protectionagainst ultraviolet radiation in HDPE geogrids used toreinforce engineering structures. The masterbatch is madeby Cabot Plastics Europe and is being used by Netlon inits Tensar grids for the construction of enbankments andretaining walls.

CABOT PLASTICS EUROPE; NETLON LTD.UK; WESTERN EUROPE-GENERAL; WESTERN EUROPE

Accession no.370327

Item 368Plastics in Building Construction11,No.12,1988,p.2-3GEOTEXTILE AGGREGATE TAKES PLACE OFCONCRETE EMBANKMENTS

Brief details are provided on a new type of geotextileaggregate, which can be used as a three-dimensionalreinforcement material that is cohesive enough to takethe place of concrete embankments. The aggregate, calledTexsol, is made by weaving continuous polyester,polyamide, PE or PP fibres into soil mixtures at the

construction site. Other uses of Texsol available fromSociete d’Application du Texsol, are indicated.

SOCIETE D APPLICATION DU TEXSOLFRANCE

Accession no.367015

Item 369Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles.Proceedings of the4th International Conference.Nottingham,23-25 Sept.1987,p.49/1-49/23. 42C12-62(14)BEHAVIOUR OF PP POLYESTERGEOTEXTILES AS SEPARATING MEMBRANESGlynn D T;Cochrane S R;Uprichard J EQUEEN’S UNIVERSITY OF BELFAST(PRI)

The development of a method for evaluating the abilityof geotextile fabrics used in road construction to minimisethe migration of fine clay particles from the clay belowto the road stone layer above is described. Themechanisms by which these fine clay particles aretransferred or ‘pumped’ upwards through the fabric tocontaminate the stone layers are also examined. Fourdifferent constructions of geotextile fabric, i.e. plainwoven monofilament tapes of PP (Scott-lay) , melt-bonded continuous filament fibres of PE and PP (Terram),needle-continuous polyester filaments (Bidim) and a PPcomposite (Lotrak). 9 refs.UK

Accession no.365751

Item 370Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles.Proceedings of the4th International Conference.Nottingham,23-25 Sept.1987,p.48/1-48/12. 42C12-62(14)ASSESSMENT OF PP FABRIC FORGEOTEXTILE APPLICATIONSRamaswamy S D;Nathor M NSINGAPORE,NATIONAL UNIVERSITY(PRI)

Areas where PP fabrics find potential applications asgeotextiles in civil engineering projects are indicated andexamples of projects, which have successfully made useof PP fabrics, are cited. Relative endurance properties,UV stability and selection of types for durability of PPfabrics are discussed as is the use of PP fabrics in tunnelconstruction. The overlapping and laying of PP fabricsunder water is also dealt with and an assessment made oflong-term performance, based on published data. 12 refs.SINGAPORE

Accession no.365749



Item 371Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles.Proceedings of the4th International Conference.Nottingham,23-25 Sept.1987,p.47/1-47/10. 42C12-62(14)STRESS AND STRAIN EVALUATION INSPUNBONDED AND NEEDLE PUNCHEDGEOTEXTILES UNDER LOADRigo J MLIEGE,UNIVERSITY(PRI)

A theoretical approach for calculating stresses and strainsin thermobonded and spunbonded non-woven geotextilesunder load is proposed. Using this theory, lateralcontractions observed during tensile testing with differentwidths can be explained. 7 refs.BELGIUM

Accession no.365748

Item 372Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles.Proceedings of the4th International Conference.Nottingham,23-25 Sept.1987,p.51/1-51/6. 42C12-62(14)PROPERTIES OF PP-MESH REINFORCEDCEMENT COMPOSITESKenai S;Brooks J J;Dalton D CLEEDS,UNIVERSITY(PRI)

The tensile properties of a geotextile mesh are describedtogether with the method of manufacture of the composite(Lotrak 22/16). Composite properties, such as flexuralstrength and impact strength, are reported and discussedand the effect of mesh content thereon evaluated. To assessthe properties of the composite in general practice,structural stability under three different curingenvironments were investigated, namely 20C in a fogroom, 35C in an environmental chamber at 70% R.H. and65C in water. 4 refs.UK

Accession no.365739

Item 373High Performance Textiles9,No.1,July 1988,p.10-2SPUNBONDED FLAT FILAMENT PREVENTSROAD CRACKS

A geotextile (GB 2185500) to be interposed between thebase and surface layers of roadways and pavements toprevent the surface layer cracking, is briefly described.Developed by Jacques Perfetti of Rhone-Poulenc Fibres,the interface consists of a bitumen-impregnated,spunbonded nonwoven fabric made from polyesterfilaments of flat cross section. Trials are reported whichshow the superior results obtained by use of the above

geotextile compared with a conventional, compressiblespunbonded nonwoven with circular cross-sectionfilaments.

RHONE-POULENC FIBRESFRANCE

Accession no.364114

Item 374European Plastics News15,No.9,Sept.1988,p.50GEOMEMBRANE SHEET CAN BE UP TO 5MWIDE

Satellite Extrusions is producing geomembrane sheet upto 5m wide in gauges from 1.0 to 3.0mm, in HDPE,LLDPE, ultra low LDPE and rubber modified forms. Thewide sheet is produced by a combination of sheetextrusion and extrusion welding. This technique is saidto give much better gauge control than alternative methodsand provides for pressure testing of welds on site. Thesheet route also allows much greater choice of rawmaterials and, hence, of specifications. The Absat sheethas been used for canal liners, landfill sites and amenitylakes. This abstract includes all the information containedin the original article.

SATELLITE EXTRUSIONS LTD.UK

Accession no.363870

Item 375High Performance Plastics5,No.9,July 1988,p.1-5NETLON AND TENSAR MESHES ANDGEOGRIDSCollyer A A

One of the commonly-employed techniques for increasingthe modulus and tensile strengths of engineeringthermoplastics is said to involve the redesign of the moleculararchitecture, so that polymer chains are less free to move.This involves the synthesis of new and more sophisticatedmaterials; a simpler and less expensive method is to designthe polymer chains of ‘commonplace’ materials such as PE,PP and PETP by orientation. Details are given of themanufacture of Netlon and Tensar oriented products, whichare used in civil engineering applications. 2 refs.

NETLON LTD.UK

Accession no.360399

Item 376Civil Engineering (London)March 1988,p.52/5GEOTEXTILES IN SLOPE PROTECTION ANDEROSION CONTROLBarker D HLAND CONSERVATION ASSOCIATES



Slope protection and erosion control are discussed withparticular reference to the use of geotextiles. Availablesurface-laid geotextiles such as the polymer meshesNetlon CE131 and Broplene Landmesh, and surface-buried geotextiles such as the 3-dimensional, randommatrices Enkamat and Geoweb are listed and their rolesare considered. 2 refs.UK

Accession no.358867

Item 377Civil Engineering (London)May 1988,Airport Construction ’88 Supplement,p.11GEOTEXTILE SPEEDS TAXIWAYCONSTRUCTION

Cementation Construction has used a needle-punchednon-woven Metlon 514R geotextile as a horizontaldrainage layer at Stansted Airport. Up to 3 layers havebeen used to speed up the consolidation of the clay.Technical details of the textile are given.

BRITISH AIRPORTS SERVICES LTD.; NAUEFASERTECHNIK; NETLON LTD.UK; WEST GERMANY

Accession no.358846

Item 378High Performance Textiles8,No.11,May 1988,p.8-9GROUND STABILISATION

Considerable effort is reported to have been expended inthe geotextiles field on the creation of geogrids. These arelaid in place on the ground and covered with variousmaterials, while providing what is essentially a skeletalsupport. Comporgan Rendszerhaz KV of Budapest hasdeveloped a new ‘surfacial’ structure, intended for theprotection of earthworks, dams, embankments, side slopes,waste rock piles, slope walls of fly-ash bunkers, grids formountain entrapment, reinforcement and binding of riverbeds and brooks and for making coating of dykes andnumerous other uses such as binding arable soils whichmay otherwise be liable to erosion. Details are given.

COMPORGAN RENDSZERHAZ KVHUNGARY

Accession no.358200

Item 379OilmanApril 1988,p.30SCOUR CONTROL MAT FOR PREVENTINGLOCAL EROSION NEAR SUBSEASTRUCTURES AND PIPELINES

The system, called SSCS Scour Control Mat, from SeabedScour Control Systems, is based on lines of buoyant PPfronds forming a viscous drag barrier. These fronds form

a mat held on the seabed by anchors hydraulically drivento 1 metre.

SEABED SCOUR CONTROL SYSTEMSUK

Accession no.355584

Item 380Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1231,2nd April 1988,p.3ERA STUDY FOCUSES ON GEOTEXTILESUNDER LOAD

ERA Technology is undertaking a three-year project coveringthe long term properties of geotextiles under load, whichwill pay particular attention to the effects of holes, tears andother damage that can occur when the materials are firstinstalled on site. The company has the support of theDepartment of Trade & Industry and most of the major UKcompanies involved in geotextiles; brief details are noted.

ERA TECHNOLOGY LTD.; UK,DEPT.OF TRADE &IND.UK

Accession no.354901

Item 381High Performance Textiles8,No.8,Feb.1988,p.12SOVIETS USE GEOTEXTILES IN ROADS ANDBANKS

In the Soviet Union, nylon waste from synthetic fibreplants is collected, melted, granulated, screw extrudedand needle punched to produce a fabric used in motorwayconstruction, as geotextiles and road construction inpermafrost areas.USSR

Accession no.354098

Item 382High Performance Textiles8,No.8,Feb.1988,p.10-2GEOTEXTILES IN SOIL

A brief outline is presented of the results of work carriedout on the water permeability of soil-geotextile systemsby the US,Dept.of Agriculture and the University ofTennessee. Tests were carried out using a speciallydesigned laboratory-type permeator to determine liquidflow behaviour through various combinations of soils andgeotextiles subjected to different flow rates andhydrostatic pressures. The geotextiles evaluated werespunbonded fabrics made from polyester (Trevira S andStabilenka) and PP (Supac N).

TENNESSEE,UNIVERSITY; US,DEPT.OFAGRICULTUREUSA

Accession no.354012



Item 383Textile Horizons8,No.1,Jan.1988,p.25-6AN IMPORTANT MARKETLennox-Kerr P

Some recent applications of geotextiles are described.These include the use of an 80% PP/20% polyester wovenmaterial from Akzo in land stabilisation, Kuraray Co.’sdevelopment of a simple, low cost woven constructionthat offers plants protection from heavy rain and yetretains maximum air- and moisture-permeability, and avariety of developments in the construction of drainenvelopes. 3 refs.

AKZO CHEMIE NV; KURARAY CO.LTD.UK

Accession no.353262

Item 384Textile Horizons8,No.1,Jan.1988,p.27-30APPLICATION AND MANUFACTURE OFWOVEN GEOTEXTILESAchermann A

Details are given of three specific applications of wovengeotextiles: in the construction of a shopping centre atRennaz, a railway siding at Dottikon and a drainagesystem near Saint Pierre du Vauvray. Fabric specificationsof the PP/polyester, polyester and PP geotextiles used areprovided. The manufacture of woven geotextiles isdiscussed with particular reference to the advantages ofprojectile-weaving machines.UK

Accession no.353260

Item 385Materie Plastiche ed ElastomeriNo.12,Dec.1987,p.576-8ItalianREMAKING THE LANDSCAPEMinarelli T

The function and uses of geotextiles are outlined. Wovenand non-woven fabrics are considered, their role inpromoting cohesion and drainage being emphasised. Theuse of the above materials in conjunction with plastics,elastomers or bitumen to produce impermeablegeomembranes to act as barriers against possibleenvironmental contaminants is also discussed. One typicaluse is a combination of non-woven continuous polyesterfilaments and bitumen as a road surfacing material tocombat cracking under stress from traffic. (Saie87,Bologna).

ASSOCIAZIONE GEOTECNICA ITALIANA;BOLOGNA,UNIVERSITA; LANDOLT; RILEMITALY

Accession no.353047

Item 386Plastics Engineering44,No.1,Jan.1988,p.12GEOTEXTILE REPLACES CONCRETEEMBANKMENT

Brief details are provided on a geotextile aggregate, calledTexsol, made by Societe d’Application du Texsol. Theaggregate is produced by weaving a continuous web ofsynthetic textile fibres (polyester, polyamide, PE or PP)into a load of sand or building soil and may be used as athree-dimensional reinforcement material that is cohesiveenough replace concrete embankments. It is strong,flexible and permeable and capable of absorbing shockscaused by earthquakes and vibration.

SOCIETE D APPLICATION DU TEXSOLFRANCE

Accession no.351557

Item 387Plastics Southern Africa17,No.2,Aug.1987,p.58HDPE BAFFLES FOR MATURATION PONDS

Aquatan has been contracted to supply HDPE baffles formaturation ponds at the Kabokweni sewerage works inKaNgwane, near Nelspruit. The baffles, which provide acost-effective alternative to concrete, are like curtains,trapezoidal in shape, and are anchored into trenchesbackfilled with river sand and stone on the floor and sidesof the ponds. This abstract includes all the informationcontained in the original article.

AQUATAN PRODUCTS PTY.LTD.SOUTH AFRICA

Accession no.342512

Item 388Rubber and Plastics News15,No.4,23rd Sept.1985,p.34-6DESPITE CHANGES, PROBLEMS,UNDERGROUND MEMBRANE LINER FIELDSTILL HOLDS PROMISENoga E

The present state of the US underground membrane linermarket is discussed in detail. Carlisle Corp.’s SynTecSystem Division left the scene in August 1985, the moveblamed on rising liability insurance rates, environmentalregulations are reported to be becoming tougher andnewer, more competitive materials are entering the field.

BURKE INDUSTRIES INC.; CARLISLECORP.,SYNTEC SYSTEMS DIV.; GOODRICHB.F.,CO.USA

Accession no.281014



Item 389Dundee, 1984, pp.64. 12ins. 14/8/85. 63ECiGEOTEXTILES DESIGN GUIDEDON & LOW PLC

This design guide on the use of permeable syntheticmembranes is drawn from the published data and fromexperience relating to geotextiles. It is aimed at practisingengineers and attempts to follow a logical sequence ofdesign. Major areas of interest are use of geotextiles inpaved and unpaved roads, drainage, erosion control, soilreinforcement, embankments, walls, slope remedial worksand soil reinforcement. 26 refs.UK

Accession no.280926

Item 390Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1104,7th Sept.1985,p.14DOING THE GROUNDWORK FOR LONG TERMTEXTILES

The long-term durability and strength of geotextiles isbecoming increasingly important as these materials gainincreased usage in a variety of load-bearing applications.The Battelle Institute is now launching a long term studyfor the testing of geotextiles. Brief details are provided.

BATTELLE INSTITUTEUSA

Accession no.280925

Item 391Civil Engineering (London)July 1985,p.22/7GEOTEXTILES - APPLICATION AND USE

Areas of application for geotextiles and geomembranesare presented with detailed case studies for each civilengineering project. Polyester woven fabric soilstabilisers; Geoseal PP/PE laminate membrane water tankliner; floating Hypalon covers for potable water; capillarymembrane for control of salt and moisture migration,reinforcement of bridge approach road embankment andriver closure in Bangladesh, are the applications detailed.UK

Accession no.278511

Item 392Plastics and Rubber International10,No.4,Aug.1985,p.20-4RAPID ADVANCE OF HIGH STRENGTHPOLYMER GRIDS IN CIVIL ENGINEERINGAPPLICATIONSTempleman JNETLON LTD.

The Tensar process was invented in 1978 specifically toproduce a soil reinforcement not subject to corrosion.

Tensar grids have been rapidly introduced into a widevariety of civil engineering applications. Production anddevelopment of the grids is described, together with theiruse in applications including soil retaining walls, floodwalls, motorway repairs, road construction, cellularreinforcement, pavement reinforcement and buildingapplications. 19 refs.

TENSAR CORP.UK

Accession no.277726

Item 393Civil Engineering (London)May 1985,p.30/48GEOTEXTILES - DEVELOPMENT, RESEARCHAND DESIGN

A review is presented of polymeric geotextiles used incivil engineering applications such as earthworksreinforcement, erosion stabilisers and as a drainagemedium. Geotextiles are manufactured from polyamides,PP or polyester using a range of techniques which aredivided into wovens and non-wovens. Details are givenof design guides and standards, testing, and research anddevelopment. 2 refs.UK

Accession no.273690

Item 394Plastics and Rubber WeeklyNo.1084,20th April 1985,p.15SHARP FIN BREAKS WATER

Brief details are given of BTR’s new Hitek Fin Drainsystem for subsoil drainage. It is available in two types;Stripdrain for groundwater interception and loweringapplications, and Cordrain for vertical applications; andit consists of a deep dimpled plastic core surrounded by atextile filter fabric.

BTR LTD.UK

Accession no.272110

Item 395Chemsphere AmericasFall/Winter 1984/85,p.19-22UNDERGROUND STORY

Details are given of the use of geotextile fabrics,manufactured by Exxon Chemical Americas, whose roleis to stabilise and prevent soil erosion. The geotextilesare made of oriented PP slit film.

EXXON CHEMICAL AMERICAS INC.USA

Accession no.269865



Item 396Blackburn, 1982, pp.8. 12ins. 15/10/84. 63ECiTENSAR AND NETLON GEOGRIDS FOR SLOPESTABILISATION AND ROCK FACE PROTECTIONNETLON LTD.

Tensar Geogrids are manufactured from high strengthpolymer structures produced by the above company. Thepolymers are such that the long chain molecules areoriented into one direction so as to increase the tensilestrength. The grids are therefore particularly suitable forsoil stabilisation. 5 refs.UK

Accession no.268064

Item 397Blackburn, 1982, pp.8. 12ins. 15/10/84. 63ECiSOIL STABILISATION WITH TENSARGEOGRIDS: THE DESIGN INCLUSION OFPOLYMER GRIDS INTO FOUNDATIONS ANDPAVEMENT STRUCTURESNETLON LTD.

Tensar Geogrids are high strength polymer structuresmanufactured using a technique which orientates the longchain molecules within the polymer. The grids have hightensile strengths and are resistant to all chemicalsubstances present in soils. 6 refs.UK

Accession no.268063

Item 398Blackburn, 1982, pp.16. 12ins. 15/10/84. 63ECiDESIGNING WITH TENSAR: TECHNIQUESAND DESIGN PHILOSOPHY FOR UTILISINGTENSAR GRIDS IN THE REINFORCING OFSOIL STRUCTURESNETLON LTD.

Detailed descriptions are given on the use and placementof Tensar reinforcing materials for use in soil stabilisationand other civil engineering projects. Tensar is of a highlyoriented polymer, with high tensile strength and chemicalresistance. 6 refs.UK

Accession no.268061

Item 399Blackburn, 1984, pp.7. 12ins. 15/10/84. 42C1-63ECiTENSAR GEOGRIDS: SPECIFICATION DATAFOR NETLON CIVIL ENGINEERINGPRODUCTS, TENSAR SR2 AND SS3 GEOGRIDSNETLON LTD.

Data is given on Netlon PE and PE net and grid productsfor use in ground stabilisation applications. Particularreference is made to dimensions, mechanical properties,chemical composition and resistance, biological

resistance, thermal stability and resistance to sunlight.Applications are listed. Specification data is provided onboth Tensar SR2 Geogrids and Tensar SS3 Geogrids.UK

Accession no.266450

Item 400Journal of Coated FabricsVol.14,July 1984,p.53-64COATED FABRICS IN GEOTEXTILE ANDGEOMEMBRANE APPLICATIONSFluet J EGEOSERVICES INC.

A discussion is presented of the use of coated fabrics tomodify the behaviour of soil and its associated fluids in ageotechnical system. Statistics are presented on marketgrowth of geomembranes in the U.S. for 1980-1983. 8 refs.USA

Accession no.265659

Item 401Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles 3;InternationalConference.University of York,October 4-6,1983,p.37.1-37.9.42C12-62(14)GEOTEXTILE TRENDS IN END USE ANDDEVELOPMENTWarwick R GLOW BROS.& CO.(DUNDEE) LTD.(PRI)

An overview of current geotextile use and near futuredirections of development for mainstream uses only ispresented. Consideration is given to polymer and fabrictypes, drainage and filtration, erosion protection and useof geotextiles in roads and railways. 2 refs.UK

Accession no.263173

Item 402Polypropylene Fibres and Textiles 3;InternationalConference.University of York,October 4-6,1983,p.36.1-36.10.42C12-62(14)ROLE OF GEOTEXTILES IN THE DYNAMICFILTRATION OF ROAD PAVEMENTSSaunders A T;Bell A L;Green H MBELFAST,QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY; LAMBEGINDUSTRIAL RESEARCH ASSOCIATION(PRI)

The background to drainage and filtration problems inroad pavements is described and the use of geotextiles toprevent contamination is discussed. The types of sub-basefilters available are outlined and the performance ofgeotextile/granular composite filters assessed. The



significant requirements for a suitable geotextile filter arenow known to include permeability, pore size, thickness,structure, incompressibility, TS and deformationresistance. 7 refs.UK

Accession no.263172

Item 403Polypropylene Textiles;Conference.Manchester,October 22,1981,p.47-56. 42C12-62(14)CARPET BACKING, INDUSTRIAL, ANDGEOTEXTILE FABRICS FROMPOLYPROPYLENEYoung J BDON FIBRES LTD.(Shirley Institute)

A detailed description is given of the development ofwoven PP fabrics in carpet backing, industrial fabrics andgeotextile applications.UK

Accession no.263149

Item 404Plastics in Building Construction8,No.5,1984,p.7-12COATED FABRICS IN GEOTEXTILE ANDGEOMEMBRANE APPLICATIONSFluet J EGEOSERVICES INC.

A review is given of the use of geotextiles andgeomembranes in civil engineering applications such asroad construction, soil stabilisation, drainage, forestry,erosion control and mining applications. Mention is givento the market growth in the US. 8 refs.USA

Accession no.260903

Item 405Ground Engineering17,No.3,April 1984,p.29-32GEOTEXTILES AS EARTH REINFORCEMENTIN THE UNITED KINGDOMIngold T SLAING J.,RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT LTD.;QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY OF BELFAST

Consideration is given to the use of synthetic geotextilesin soil reinforcement applications in the UK. Materialsexamined include Terram RF/12 unidirectional polyesterfabric (ICI), Lotrak 16/15 woven, extruded PP tape (LowBros.), and CE131 extruded PE mesh and Tensar SRI andSR2 oriented HDPE mesh geogrids (Netlon Ltd.)Applications described include embankment and wallsreinforcement, brick and gabion wall reinforcements, andremedial works in motorway cutting slopes.

ICI FIBRES LTD.; LOW BROS.& CO.(DUNDEE)LTD.; NETLON LTD.UK

Accession no.254836

Item 406Plastics and Rubber Processing and Applications4,No.2,1984,p.99-104APPLICATION OF HIGH STRENGTHPOLYOLEFIN GRIDS IN CIVIL ENGINEERINGTempleman J E;Sweetland D B;Langley P ANETLON LTD.

This article describes the manufacture of polyolefin gridstructures, with tensile strengths equal to mild steel.Application in increasing the load bearing strength ofweak soils and reinforcing soil in earthworks forfoundations, embankments and retaining walls isdiscussed, while the improved rutting resistance of asphaltroad surfacing with polymer grid inclusion and crackcontrol provided by the grids is also demonstrated.Properties of cement composite structures containingpolymer grids are illustrated. 9 refs.UK

Accession no.253922

Item 407Polysar ProgressSept./Oct.1983,p.4STRICTER STANDARDS FOR‘GEOMEMBRANES’ TO HOLD LIQUIDS INPONDS, RESERVOIRS

The use of synthetic rubber and plastic materials asgeomembranes to line water reservoirs, irrigation canals,sewage lagoons, industrial waste pits and solar energyponds is discussed. The service conditions which thesemembranes are required to endure are described includingcompatibility with and impermeability to, the fluid beingcontained, weathering and UV resistance and flexibilityat temp. extremes. Two of the most widely used rubbersare claimed to be EPDM and butyl. For special needs,such as contact with hydrocarbons, oil-resistant nitrilerubbers are used in blends with PVC.

POLYSAR LTD.CANADA

Accession no.244255

Item 408Chemical Week131,No.22,1st Dec.1982,p.54-5REBUILDING THE MARKET FOR HIGHWAYREPAIR

Details are given on new materials which are beingdeveloped for highway repair in the USA. Current costsfor maintaining roads is approximately 500 million dollarsa year over 3.85 million miles of roads and streets.



Materials, developed by Du Pont are Typar spun bondedPP for soil stabilisation and Reepav spun bonded polyesterfabric for resurfacing. Phillips have developed Petromatand Petrolac which are already proved in highwayconstruction. Details are given regarding these materialswhich include statistics.

DU PONT DE NEMOURS E.I.,& CO.INC.; OWENSCORNING FIBERGLASS CORP.; PHILLIPSPETROLEUM CO.USA

Accession no.223972

Item 409Plastics & Rubber Institute. Use of Plastics and Rubberin Water and Effluents. International ConferenceLondon,February 15-17,1982,Paper 27,p.27.1-27.13.CONFER. 012STABILISATION OF SOIL IN COASTAL ANDWATERWAY STRUCTURESTempleman J E; Sweetland D B

The applications of polymer meshes, polymer grids andgeotextiles in the stabilisation of coastal and waterwaystructures are reviewed. Aspects covered includeenhancement of natural beach and waterway protection,soil reinforcement, control of windblown sand,construction of foundation mattresses for building largeearthworks onweak soils and increasing the load-bearingproperties of weak soils for gaining access and forconstruction purposes, and containment of stone for shoreand waterway armouring. 12 refs.

Accession no.215854

Subject Index


Subject Index

AABRASION RESISTANCE, 13 55

147 255 289 294ABSORPTION, 59 84ACCELERATED AGEING, 55 69

147 220 360ACCELERATED TEST, 10 55 68

75 110 136 220 260ACID RAIN, 136ACOUSTIC INSULATION, 94

193 198 262 319 347ACRYLIC POLYMER, 193 269

303ADDITIVE, 6 10 31 54 55 64 69

70 96 138 166 193 233 235 303ADHESION, 35 55 69 94 124 193

194 210 212 233 234 260 331346

ADHESIVE TAPE, 63AGEING, 2 10 55 64 69 147 220

235 337 360 363AGGRESSIVE MEDIUM, 110AGRICULTURAL

APPLICATION, 28 31 32 45 4655 69 86 111 146 187 204 208256 257 295 324 325 345 351352 394

AIRPORT, 17 185 193 377ANALYSIS, 8 20 21 22 29 32 38

40 54 61 73 78 79 80 81 88 90118 131 136 138 142 162 235371

ANTIBACTERIAL, 87ANTIFOULING, 56ANTIFUNGAL, 87ANTIOXIDANT, 2 16 33 47 122

227 235 364ARAMID FIBRE, 193 360ARAMID RESIN, 229ARCHITECTURAL

APPLICATION, 193ARRHENIUS’S LAW, 10 50 58

220ARTIFICIAL AGEING, 10 55 69ARTIFICIAL ROCK, 13ASH, 341ASPHALT, 186 194 230 316 346AUTOXIDATION, 75

BBACTERIA RESISTANCE, 55 64

217

BARRIER, 218 385BARRIER LAYER, 6 25BARRIER PROPERTIES, 6 16 94

138 177 214 313BENTONITE, 106 130 160BIAXIAL, 19 193 263 289 375BINDER, 94 262 269 336 344 378BIODEGRADATION, 95 244 363BIODETERIORATION, 17 95 146

225 312 360 363 399BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES, 318

320BITUMEN, 31 131 194 305 331

338 346 373 385BLAST RESISTANCE, 23BLEND, 34 82 85 122 226 280 292

383 384BLOW MOULDING, 44 116 149

204 208 264BLOWN FILM, 116 135 137 188

190 214 217 218 261 264 266270 284

BOND, 31 55 61 63 69 124 339BONDING, 31 35 55 61 63 69 124

194 198 210 243 323 331 339377 403

BONDING AGENT, 55 69 124BOTTLE, 44 122 149 208 264 317BOUNDARY CONDITION, 58 62

82BREAKAGE, 231BREAKING STRENGTH, 271BREAKTHROUGH TIME, 138BREATHABLE, 198BRICK, 13BRITTLE FAILURE, 136 233 235BRITTLENESS, 167 235BUBBLE, 165 217 218BUILDING, 289 322BUILDING APPLICATION, 4 10

13 15 17 23 32 63 64 105 106107 108 109 119 172 173 176177 178 179 180 181 190 192193 196 197 198 207 238 240250 251 252 253 268 269 272303 361 375 378 380 392 395408

BUOYANT, 379BUTADIENE-ACRYLONITRILE

COPOLYMER, 69 407BUTT WELD, 280BUTYL RUBBER, 55 69 70 407

CCABLE, 64 122 200CALENDER, 24 264 284CALENDERED, 17CALENDERING, 64 149 274 284CANAL, 17 172 323 325CARBON BLACK, 6 16 27 54 55

124 193 202 217 227 233 235246 365 367

CARBON FABRIC, 193CARBON FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 282CASE HISTORY, 88 153 322CAST FILM, 182 188 245 261 264CAUSTIC SODA, 66CELLULAR MATERIAL, 12 32

94 137 285 292 319CEMENT, 31 94 372CERAMIC FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 282CHARACTERISATION, 7 71 80

131 152 344CHEMICAL PROPERTIES, 1 5 6

13 17 31 42 50 55 57 64 69 7177 84 86 113 136

CHEMICAL RESISTANCE, 1 5 613 17 31 42 50 55 57 64 69 7177 84 86 113 136 196 201 202217 220 233 246 264 284 298314 318 320 329 330 360 363365 377 387 395 397 398 399

CHLORINATED PE, 55 69CHLOROPRENE POLYMER, 55

69CHLOROSULFONATED PE, 55

69 193 317 400CLAY, 14 130 151 160 164 185

189 219 221 258 369 377CLIMATE, 31 55COASTAL EROSION, 399 403COATED FABRIC, 193 247 332

400COATING, 34 55 87 94 99 192 193

241 248 249 316 403CODE OF PRACTICE, 274COEXTRUSION, 5 7 32 55 123

135 137 245 264 270 365COHESION, 221 368 386COIR, 20COLOUR, 55 64 69 87 138 233COLOUR STABILITY, 122 328COMMERCIAL INFORMATION,

36 64 71 99 116 123 129 135

Subject Index


148 188 200 208 266 309 317323 338 339 341 354

COMPOSITE, 7 8 10 14 24 25 3234 36 43 53 69 153 154 186194 200 207 223 226 229 247248 259 282 283 285 286 288291 304 305 308 312 316 322335 336 338 344 348 369 372406

COMPOSTABLE, 195COMPRESSION PROPERTIES,

13 14 40 82 125 196 199 236249 251 363

CONCRETE, 13 173 175 198 293315 316 322 323 346 368 386387

CONDUIT, 315CONSTRUCTION, 111 133 154

191 223 318 322 338 344 347381

CONSUMPTION, 69 111 134 191192 198 206 208 211 265 275314 334 349 390

CONTINUOUS FIBRE, 313 369CONTINUOUS FILAMENT, 17

330 331CONTRACTION, 371CONTROL EQUIPMENT, 137 246

270 275 280 342CORE, 124 194 358CORROSION RESISTANCE, 86

322 392COST, 4 13 31 52 55 122 183 193

214 224 274 289 293 353 375408

COTTON, 193 194COVER, 83 149 195CRACK RESISTANCE, 83 230

331CRACKING, 92 194 230 233 234

298 305 346 406CREEP, 6 8 9 21 26 43 64 65 72 79

92 104 118 145 151 155 226239 263 392 393 403

CROP PROTECTION, 28 32CRUMB RUBBER, 15 99CRUSH RESISTANCE, 394CURING, 13 282 285 372

DDAM, 175 301DAMAGE, 81 194DEFECT, 55 70DEFENCE APPLICATION, 4DEFORMATION, 21 26 38 43 88

93 143 145 151 153 160 170193 194 221 231 249 313 343

402DEGRADABLE, 17 95 146 195DEGRADATION, 2 10 41 47 54

55 64 68 69 75 86 110 136 147198 199 225 227 244 267 268290 312 337 360 363

DENSITY, 12 44 55 82 85 138 166184 194 202 217 218 236 246276 298

DEPTH, 20 194DESIGN, 5 25 76 82 88 117 130

139 140 145 164 169 171 173175 207 212 220 223 234 325389 390 398

DESORPTION, 50 57 58 59 84138

DICHLOROMETHANE, 97 138DIE, 137 214 245 270 275 284 350DIFFERENTIAL THERMAL

ANALYSIS, 54 110 220 235DIFFUSION, 50 58 59 60 84 97

115 121 131 138 177 329DIMENSION, 31 64 73 166 318

320 399DIMENSIONAL STABILITY, 69

70 194 198DISCOLOURATION, 328DISPLACEMENT, 29 61 73 77

102 130 142 161 194DRAINAGE, 6 17 18 31 56 64 81

82 154 191 193 198 201 206223 224 272 278 287 288 293308 315 326 327 330 348 349354 357 358 377 383 384 385389 393 394 401 402 403 404

DRAINAGE PIPE, 32 126 207 218DRAWING, 124DRILLING, 255DRINKING WATER, 83 217DSC, 54 110 220 235DUCTILE FAILURE, 233DURABILITY, 10 27 43 47 68 69

75 86 93 110 136 198 209 220223 225 227 230 241 244 283289 312 370 390

DYKE, 174DYNAMIC PROPERTIES, 88 89

90

EEARTHQUAKE, 31 83 88 386EARTHWORKS, 340 405ECONOMIC INFORMATION, 3

64 69 111 122 134 137 200 204208 265 274 281 296 309 333334 349

ELASTOMER, 15 18 30 32 34 39

41 55 63 69 70 81 83 87 91 9499 117 134 136 148 164 168169 170 171 182 183 192 193200 227 255 256 257 273

ELECTRIC CABLE, 122 205ELONGATION, 17 31 145 179 198

233 243 290 337ELONGATION AT BREAK, 31 55

110 136 193 194 271 377EMBANKMENT, 189 196EMBEDDED, 27 79 132EMBRITTLEMENT, 167 235ENCAPSULATION, 106 217 218

246ENGINEERING APPLICATION, 1

2 9 14 17 20 22 25 26 29 40 6667 100 105 106 107 108 109124 125 126 127 128 155 156157 158 201 206 232 249 250251 268 293 312 326 327 332333 353 363 367 368 370 371373 387 390 394 406

ENVIRONMENT, 17 31 55 71 176178 181 272 274 275 279 297298 312 319

ENVIRONMENTALAPPLICATION, 43 210

ENVIRONMENTALPROTECTION, 71 202 211 217218 246 258 275 279 319

ENVIRONMENTALRESISTANCE, 291

ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSCRACKING, 6 16 44 92 93 113136 233

EPDM, 55 69 70 388 407EPOXY RESIN, 69EROSION, 22 279 384 389 393

401EROSION CONTROL, 51 173 174

184 206 211 287 289 326 354357 376 378 379 385

EROSION RESISTANCE, 215ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE

COPOLYMER, 55 67 69ETHYLENE-PROPYLENE-

DIENE TERPOLYMER, 55 6970 388 407

ETHYLENE-VINYL ACETATECOPOLYMER, 55 69 110 136

EXPANDED, 12 191EXTENSIBILITY, 73 308EXTENSION, 141 216 255EXTRACTION, 235EXTRUDER, 135 214 218 245 246

307EXTRUSION, 4 33 55 60 76 85

116 122 137 149 188 202 203

Subject Index


217 233 246 261 264 266 270274 275 278 280 284 307 309328 350 374 375 381 405 406

EXTRUSION BLOWMOULDING, 116 214

EXTRUSION COATING, 264EXTRUSION WELD, 55 210 217

218 356 374

FFABRIC, 8 11 14 17 19 23 24 25

27 31 49 56 124 187 193 194212 213 223 242 251 254 265267 283 287 288 299 301 303308 316 328 336 339 340 342344 349 352 357 358 362 368369 370 372 381 382 384 385386 390 391 395 401 402 403405 408

FAILURE, 10 41 44 49 74 136 142144 145 150 158 164 169 194221 231 233 234 235 248 263300

FATIGUE, 64 93 145FATIGUE RESISTANCE, 198FELT, 198 330 331 385FIBRE, 6 17 23 24 33 41 47 51 64

95 111 124 130 140 146 147152 193 198 220 226 262 277279 301 302 317 322 328 336342 344 355 368 369 375 377381 383 384 386 393 401 402403

FIBRE ORIENTATION, 160 194FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC,

69 286FILAMENT, 17 56 66 111 124 207

223 230 279 308 330 331 361369 373

FILLER, 54 55 124 193 227 233235 246

FILLER CONTENT, 55 217 218233

FILM, 32 46 70 71 76 95 122 123135 137 146 149 182 195 198204 208 264 266 276 292 325378 395

FILTER, 17 191 198 224 243 271308 315 316 336 344 358 394401 402

FILTRATION, 17 41 76 134 154201 206 283 287 327 330 349377 382 401 402 404

FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS,38 118 142 153 161 179 252302

FIRE RESISTANCE, 94 196 285

FLAME RETARDANT, 53 87FLAMMABILITY, 13 23 64 193

198 258 285FLEXIBLE, 6 24 31 48 55 79 93

111 114 143 173 184 331 346386 407

FLEXURAL PROPERTIES, 5 1461 73 79 102 143 145 153 224231 248 264 285 372

FLOATING COVER, 69FLOOD BARRIER, 1 4FLUOROPOLYMER, 42 193 280FLY ASH, 13 340FOAM, 12 32 94 137 191 192 196

236 285 292FOOTPATH, 289FOUNDATION, 191FRICTION, 12 74 102 123 169 212

259 291FRICTIONAL PROPERTIES, 89

123 142 262 291FUEL, 93 134 208FUNGAL RESISTANCE, 64FURNACE BLACK, 367FUSION, 124 285FUSION WELDING, 233

GGAS BARRIER, 64 154GAS FORMATION, 134GAS PIPE, 10 39GEOFILL, 94GEOFOAM, 12 191 196 236GEOGRID, 3 6 8 9 10 11 14 15 16

17 18 19 25 26 27 28 31 33 3438 41 42 43 47 49 51 52 54 5556 64 65 66 69 70 72 73 74 7578 79 80 81 82 87 89 95 98 101102 103 104 105 106 107 108109 111 118 119 124 125 126127 128 129 132 133 139 140141 142 143 145 146 147 149150 153 154 186 189 191 197219 238 281 286 289 318 320322 338 343 347 355 378

GEOLOGICAL APPLICATION,244 255 389

GEOMEMBRANE, 2 3 5 6 7 10 1116 17 19 21 22 24 25 29 31 3235 36 37 45 46 48 49 50 55 5758 59 60 62 63 64 67 69 70 7173 77 81 83 84 85 86 88 89 9093 96 97 100 101 106 110 113114 115 116 120 121 122 123130 131 133 134 135 136 137138 139 140 141 144 154 160161 162 166 167 168 169 170

171 175 176 177 179 180 181182 185 188 190 191 192 195199 200 202 203 204 205 210214 216 217 218 221 222 228230 233 234 235 237 240 244245 246 253 254 258 260 261262 263 264 265 270 273 274275 276 278 280 284 290 292297 298 300 304 307 309 312314 317 319 322 325 332 333337 348 349 354 356 365 374379 385 387 391 400 404 407

GEONET, 8 17 31 82 89GEOPHYSICAL APPLICATION,

304GEOPOLYMER, 13 40 282 285

363GEOSYNTHETIC, 6 8 17 19 20 21

22 31 34 41 43 61 62 68 72 7374 79 88 89 90 105 106 107108 109 302

GEOSYNTHETIC CLAY LINER,130

GEOTECHNICALAPPLICATION, 6 72 78 79 8081 82 191 203 206 236

GEOTEXTILE, 3 6 8 9 10 11 14 1516 17 18 19 25 26 27 28 31 3334 38 41 42 43 47 49 51 52 5455 56 64 65 66 69 70 72 73 7475 78 79 80 81 82 87 89 95 98101 102 103 104 105 106 107108 109 111 118 119 124 125126 127 128 129 132 133 139140 141 142 143 145 146 147149 150 151 152 153 154 155156 157 158 159 160 161 163164 165 173 174 176 177 178179 180 181 183 184 185 186187 189 191 193 194 197 198199 201 206 207 208 209 211212 213 215 217 218 219 220223 224 225 226 227 229 230231 232 238 239 241 242 243247 248 249 250 251 252 256258 259 265 267 268 269 271272 278 279 281 283 286 287288 289 291 293 294 295 296299 301 302 303 304 305 306308 311 312 313 315 316 317318 319 320 321 322 323 324326 327 328 331 332 333 334335 336 338 339 340 341 342343 344 345 346 347 348 349350 351 352 353 354 355 357358 359 360 362 363 364 366367 368 369 370 371 372 373376 377 378 380 381 382 383

Subject Index


384 385 386 388 389 390 391392 393 394 395 396 397 398399 400 401 402 403 404 405408 409

GLASS FABRIC, 193 194GLASS FIBRE-REINFORCED

PLASTIC, 32 69 153 269 282291 322 338

GRASS, 294GRAVEL, 81 82 316GREENHOUSE, 32 204GRID, 224 229 230 244 294 363

392 396 397 398 399 406GROUNDWATER, 220

HHAZARDOUS WASTE, 50 58 206HEAT AGEING, 2 55 69 235 372HEAT BONDING, 80 215 218 223HEAT DEGRADATION, 10 54 55

218 364HEAT RESISTANCE, 6 16 55 64

96 182 217 246HEAT-SEALING, 64 264HEAT STABILISER, 54 64 96 200

235 364HEAT STABILITY, 122HEAT WELDING, 55 69 210HEATED TOOL WELDING, 217HIGH DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE, 2 5 6 11 1617 19 21 24 25 26 29 32 55 5859 60 62 64 69 70 71 77 81 8890 96 97 104 106 115 116 118120 121 122 131 133 140 144150 156 160 161 162 172 177180 185 190 195 197 202 204208 210 214 219 221 233 234237 240 245 250 253 254 275278 280 284 290 298 318 348354 360 365 366 367 374 387388 392 405 406

HIGH-FREQUENCY WELDING,31 69

HINDERED AMINE, 96 235 328364

HONEYCOMB, 17 285 351 378HORTICULTURAL

APPLICATION, 32 46 114 187204 358

HOT AIR AGEING, 2HOT AIR STAKING, 35HOT AIR WELDING, 31 69 210HUMIDITY, 372HYDRATION, 160HYDRAULIC, 131 133 327 330HYDRO-CULTURE, 256

HYDRODYNAMIC, 159 165HYDROELECTRIC

APPLICATION, 301HYDROLYSIS, 10 31 66 68 95

122 146 235HYDROPONIC, 256HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE, 382HYPALON, 317 391 400

IIMMERSION, 2 138IMPACT PROPERTIES, 5 31 52

69 70 87 182 192 264 372IMPERMEABLE, 188 217 305INDENTATION, 199INFLATABLE STRUCTURE, 193INJECTION MOULDING, 64 95

149 204 264 280INSTALLATION, 20 31 32 41 55

69 70 123 169 174 186 207 215223 233 234 267 331 338 339348

INSULATION, 13 17 31 32 37 4546 50 55 64 69 70 94 99 193233 234 235 388

INTERFACE, 88 89 102 142 161164 169 194 259

INTERFACIAL ADHESION, 12189

INTERFACIAL PROPERTIES, 1119 22 61 73 89 90 106 107 221

INTERFACIAL SHEARSTRENGTH, 24 90 130 221

INTERMEDIATE BULKCONTAINER, 111

IRRADIATION RESISTANCE,277

IRRIGATION, 31 32 37 46 55 69114 256 257 325 407

JJOINING, 35 51 210JOINT, 207JOINTING, 217 218JUTE, 20 194 403

KKEVLAR, 23KNITTING, 124 287

LLABORATORY TEST, 20 72 80 81

89 130 133 219 234

LAMINATE, 7 17 32 55 64 69 110149 356 365

LANDFILL, 2 3 6 13 16 25 29 7781 88 89 90 94 99 100 110 123133 134 137 161 176 178 179180 188 190 195 199 210 214217 218 220 221 224 240 246258 270 273 274 275 278 284307 314 317 341 348 349 354

LEACHING, 134 188 217 218 235348

LEAD, 200 205LEAK DETECTION, 42 195 210

290LEAK PREVENTION, 234LEAKAGE, 31 70 83 233 234 275

284LEGISLATION, 123 154LENGTH, 132 163 217 218LIFETIME PREDICTION, 10 226LIGHT AGEING, 69 235LIGHT DEGRADATION, 10 31 69

96 136 227 235 320 328 363364 370

LIGHT RESISTANCE, 17 55 64193

LIGHT STABILISER, 64 96 193235 367

LINEAR LOW DENSITYPOLYETHYLENE, 50 58 59 60121 122 137 180 208 216 374

LINEN, 193LINER, 6 52 81 88 89 90 99 101

130 133 134 149 160 161 188202 233 234 258 290 297 298341 354 388

LINING, 2 29 31 32 37 42 48 7077 83 116 123 137 172 185 187195 199 208 210 214 216 217218 246 256 263 266 270 273278 290 297 298 300 307 314317 325 329 337 341 354 356388

LOAD-BEARING, 230 302 313322 340 380 390 409

LOADING, 8 17 72 81 90 101 103104 133 141 194 219 221 236263 363 371

LONG-TERM, 2 10 21 26 75 81140 151 244 263 370 390

LOW DENSITYPOLYETHYLENE, 6 32 55 6970 71 84 114 121 137 180 190208 245 325 356 374 406

LOW TEMPERATURE, 167 297LOW TEMPERATURE

PROPERTIES, 31 55 192 233381

Subject Index


MMACHINERY, 76 87 135 137 195

203 245 264 270 275 280 307MANUFACTURE, 7 68 124 152

203 286 324 326 372 406MANURE SLURRY, 80MARINE APPLICATION, 51 243

353 379MARKET, 204 208 258 265 270

274 314 333 349 404MARKET SHARE, 3 111 122 188

334MASTERBATCH, 6 16 33 202 217

218 246 367MATERIAL REPLACEMENT, 1 5

48 55 149 191 198 200 205 208264 269 272 293 328 353 368375 386 387 388

MATERIALS SELECTION, 46 58174 216 370

MATTING, 316 357 361MEASUREMENT, 7 44 58 72 98

131 133 136 162 220 246 270342

MECHANICAL DEGRADATION,41 75 267

MEDIUM-DENSITYPOLYETHYLENE, 69 137 210216 217 218 246 261 263

MELT BLOWN, 111 198MEMBRANE, 17 31 45 48 50 55

59 60 64 69 70 71 77 84 86 99113 115 120 121 138 149 162168 170 171 175 190 193 194202 203 206 216 228 233 234235 254 258 305 307 314 329337 346 369 388 389 391 393400 402 403 407

MERCURY INTRUSIONPOROMETRY, 165

MESH, 103 279 289 345 355 366372 375 405 406

MICROBIAL ACTIVITY, 93 136MICROBIAL DEGRADATION,

69MIGRATION, 2 55 64 70 122 166

235 244 369MILITARY APPLICATION, 1 4MINERAL FIBRE, 308MINING APPLICATION, 13 27 53

137 173 278 287 404MODULUS, 65 77 194 228MOISTURE ABSORPTION, 191

372MOISTURE BARRIER, 172 206MOISTURE RESISTANCE, 17

192 198 264 331

MONITORING, 2 10 42 217MONOFILAMENT, 56 215 345

357 369 372MULCH, 32 187MULTI-AXIAL, 62MULTILAYER, 3 16 32 69 114

137 190 245 308MUNICIPAL WASTE, 81

NNATURAL FIBRE, 17 111 193 335NATURAL RUBBER, 193NEEDLE PUNCHING, 3 8 27 78

80 81 163 198 217 218 242 302308 313 321 330 331 350 369371 377 381

NEEDLEFELT, 3NEOPRENE, 55 69NET, 17 31 82 278 335 363 376

378 399 405 406NETTING, 184 335 399NITRILE RUBBER, 69 407NON-DESTRUCTIVE TESTING,

234NON-WOVEN, 3 8 11 16 17 19 24

25 27 31 41 49 78 80 81 90 145152 161 163 187 191 193 198206 207 212 223 224 229 242247 259 283 287 288 293 302305 308 313 317 321 324 326327 334 344 346 349 351 356357 361 369 371 373 377 385391 401 402

NORMAL STRESS, 12 212 259NYLON, 8 17 22 51 345 357 360

361 381

OOFFSHORE APPLICATION, 10OIL RESISTANCE, 407OPTICAL PROPERTIES, 55 64 69

138 193 208 233ORIENTATION, 197 289 375 396

397ORIENTED, 54 103 343 395 405OXIDATIVE DEGRADATION, 2

10 47 55 75 110 136 227OXIDATIVE INDUCTION, 235OZONE RESISTANCE, 55 69

PPACKAGING OF CHEMICALS,

187PATENT, 51 56 272 352 373

PAVEMENT, 108 109 305 330 331338 339 392 397

PEAT, 212PEEL STRENGTH, 48 233 234

260PENETRATION, 138PERMAFROST, 362 381PERMEABILITY, 6 16 17 28 45

50 55 80 82 114 115 121 131138 191 206 242 246 301 313348 363 377 382 383 386 389402 403

PERMEAMETER, 78PESTICIDE, 31 187PH, 27 68 220PHENOLIC ANTIOXIDANT, 2

122PHOSPHITE, 2 122 364PHOTOCHEMICAL

DEGRADATION, 136 328PHOTODEGRADATION, 54 244PHOTOLYSIS, 147PHOTOOXIDATION, 10PHYSICAL PROPERTIES, 40 74

78 80 82 95 126 133 159 196220 221 262 314 318 320 327355 356

PIGMENT, 122 193 217 218 328PIPE, 10 32 39 46 93 118 192 209

210 223 246 262 280 290 315PIPE LINING, 183PLANT POT, 146PLASTICISED, 32 69 216PLASTICISER, 31 55 64 70 166

193 244PLAYGROUND, 87POLLUTION, 246 274 309 361POLLUTION CONTROL, 188 202

211 361POLYAMIDE, 8 17 22 51 191 193

229 245 248 316 345 357 360361 368 380 381 386 393 402

POLYBUTADIENE, 227POLYCHLOROPRENE, 55 69 193POLYESTER RESIN, 14 293 338POLYETHER-ETHERKETONE,

92 282POLYETHYLENE, 2 5 6 8 11 16

17 19 21 22 24 25 26 29 32 3839 44 46 50 52 55 58 59 60 6264 69 70 71 77 81 82 84 86 8890 92 93 96 97 104 106 110 114115 116 118 120 121 122 123131 133 136 137 140 144 149150 156 160 161 162 167 172177 180 185 188 190 193 195197 202 204 208 210 211 214216 217 218 219 221 223 227

Subject Index


228 229 233 234 235 237 240245 246 247 250 253 254 258261 263 266 270 275 276 297307 309 318 322 329 350 363367 368 369 378 380 386 391399 401 405

POLYETHYLENETEREPHTHALATE, 21 27 6465 66 68 95 104 107 124 146206 241 242 360 363

POLYISOBUTYLENE, 69POLYPROPYLENE, 3 6 8 14 16

17 19 21 22 27 31 33 36 47 5152 54 58 59 60 64 67 69 72 8182 88 102 103 105 111 112 113121 128 137 140 145 147 149163 172 174 180 184 186 189191 194 197 206 207 208 210211 215 219 220 223 224 225226 229 238 247 251 254 264267 271 280 283 289 292 299302 303 305 316 320 322 328330 331 335 339 343 350 353358 359 360 362 363 364 366368 369 370 372 377 379 380382 383 384 385 386 391 393395 399 401 402 403 405 408

POLYSTYRENE, 12 92 191 192193 196 208 226 236 309 319358

POLYUREA, 192POLYURETHANE, 37 69 192 193

262POLYVINYL CHLORIDE, 6 16 24

31 32 45 46 48 52 55 62 64 6970 88 92 97 107 131 136 138144 166 175 180 187 191 193198 203 205 208 210 216 240241 244 248 249 258 260 290307 314 315 323 354 378 385400 407

POND LINING, 116 123 195 270328

PORE SIZE DISTRIBUTION, 152165

POROSITY, 17 78 80 82 159 198242 243 283 288 308 315 402

POROUS, 122 315POTABLE WATER, 83 217 391PRESSURE, 70 78 81 102 131 138

149 168 169 231 235 382 397PRESTRESSING, 14PRICE, 87 95 146 208 264 365 403PROCESSING, 5 10 55 149 277

285PRODUCT DESIGN, 25 234 267PRODUCTION, 123 203 208 214

309 341

PROTECTIVE COVER, 81 101133 154 187

PULL-OUT, 61 73 74 79 102 130132 142 231 252

PUNCTURE RESISTANCE, 27 3155 64 82 113 139 140 141 168182 198 218 246 254 264 313

QQUALITY ASSURANCE, 217 246QUALITY CONTROL, 31 35 123

181 233 234 290

RRADIATION RESISTANCE, 10

147 277RADON, 361RAILWAY, 119 249 299 313 321

384 401RAIN, 31RAMIE, 335 359RECLAIM, 15 32 39 99 117 148

273RECYCLED CONTENT, 87 195

209RECYCLING, 15 30 39 95 99 111

117 122 148 195 258 262 273317

REGULATION, 100 154 258 274341 388

REINFORCED CONCRETE, 286372

REINFORCED PLASTIC, 10 3236 53 69 153 154 200 207 226229 247 248 259 282 283 285286 288 291 304 308 312 322335

REINFORCEMENT, 43 61 73 79142 186 189 230 231 279 287306 322 327 330 347

RELATIVE HUMIDITY, 372REPAIR, 52 70 233 234 300 323

338 339 408RESERVOIR, 17 31 32 45 55 69

70 83 114 214 217 246 256 290337 404 407

RESIDUAL STRESS, 233 297 298RESTORATION, 289 408REVIEW, 10 41 88 90 108 109 111

119 149 152 163 164 165 171179 181 197 200 206 244 274287 300 304 316 322 324 334348 350 383 384 385 393 401404

RIBBED, 275

RIVER BANK EROSION, 283 335403

ROAD, 17 30 194 224 268 272 306315 320 346 355 369 373 381389 392 401 403 408

ROAD SURFACE, 52 56 143 188194 230 271 305 331 385 391402 406 408

ROOFING, 13 63 64 99 149 192269 319 332

ROT RESISTANCE, 198ROTATIONAL MOULDING, 149RUBBER, 15 18 30 32 34 39 41 55

63 69 70 81 83 87 91 94 99 117134 136 148 164 168 169 170171 182 183 192 193 200 227255 256 257 262 272 273 283292 310 312 317 322 337 352374 400

RUNWAY, 346 377RUPTURE, 43 104 155 169 231

263

SSACK, 111SAFETY, 31 139 140 209 267 380

390SALT WATER RESISTANCE, 220SAND, 12 81 103 151 259 302 313

402SANDWICH STRUCTURE, 14

194 285SATURATED POLYESTER, 3 8 9

14 17 23 31 65 68 69 74 78 80102 104 140 145 147 163 189193 198 212 220 224 229 230231 243 247 249 251 322 327336 347 351 355 356 357 361368 369 373 380 382 383 384385 386 393 402 405 408

SCRAP, 13 15 18 30 87 107 134381

SCRAP POLYMER, 52 91 99 112117 273 381

SCRAP TYRES, 15 18 30 39 87 91117 134 148 256 257 272

SCRATCH RESISTANCE, 13 136SEA WATER, 220 409SEALANT, 53 97 323SEAM, 35 51 160 167 210 233 234

260 290 298SEEPAGE, 3 172SEISMIC BEARING, 191SEISMOLOGY, 88 89SEPARATION, 287 330 349 369SEPTIC TANK, 18SERVICE LIFE, 2 10 16 25 31 42

Subject Index


52 55 64 70 193 263 305 312SERVICE PROPERTIES, 153 174

213 244SETTLING, 170 219SEWAGE TREATMENT, 387SHEAR, 11 12 61 73 89 194 212

233 234 259 328SHEAR PROPERTIES, 19 24 31

61 74 79 90 102 103 106 107125 130 161 194 221 230 240

SHEET, 5 6 31 32 53 55 64 69 7085 142 149 191 204 210 214233 234 259 262 263 264 270274 275 276 280 284 314 317323 374

SHEETING, 4 45 46 113 123 198SHOCK ABSORPTION, 386SHORT BEAM SHEAR

STRENGTH, 194SHORT-TERM, 21 104 140 244SHRINKAGE, 55 70 166 194SILAGE, 32SILICONE RUBBER, 193SILO, 280SISAL, 283SLAG, 13SLIT-FILM, 163 395SLITTING, 76SODIUM HYDROXIDE, 66SOIL, 31 41 71 132 217 218 221

246 347SOIL BURIAL, 19 29 31 64 172

187 193 233 267 394 403SOIL EROSION, 17 31 345 366

389 396 397 398 401 403 404SOIL PROTECTION, 71 193SOIL REINFORCEMENT, 17 25

41 43 72 73 74 79 102 103 104119 193 196 197 212 213 232238 239 247 286 294 302 304308 318 349 385 389 391 392396 397 398 399 401 402 403405 406 409

SOIL STABILISATION, 13 17 2661 73 74 79 81 191 193 199 211215 219 220 224 231 236 267293 320 324 326 332 333 344345 351 359 366 368 376 377378 382 383 384 385 386 389395 396 397 398 399 401 402403 404 406 408 409

SOIL TREATMENT, 12 31 90 133187

SOLID WASTE, 81 88SOLVENT, 70 97 124 138SOLVENT RESISTANCE, 329 360SOLVENT WELDING, 55 69SORPTION, 50 57 58 59 60 97 115

121 138SPECIFICATION, 5 35 191 209

331 339 384 399SPORTS STADIUM, 64SPORTS SURFACE, 294 311 366SPUN BOND, 3 327 358 371 373

382 408SPUN BONDED, 111 145 198 212

243STABILISER, 2 16 54 64 96 110

122 136 193 205 235STABILITY, 6 31 88 96 231 328

372STAKING, 35 187STANDARD, 5 18 32 35 55 62 69

70 110 126 154 191 201 211222 224 228 233 234 260 331339 384 393 399

STANDARDISATION, 32 184STAPLE FIBRE, 111STARCH POLYMER, 195STATISTICS, 3 69 111 134 137

192 200 204 208 211 258 265274 281 296 314 334 349 400404 408

STIFFNESS, 14 61 73 79 102 143145 153 224 231 248

STITCH, 8 283 308 350STONE, 168 199 369STORAGE TANK, 42STORM PROTECTION, 316STRAIN, 7 8 25 26 49 62 88 92 98

103 133 169 170 171 194 220231 237

STRAIN RATE, 8 163 343STRAIN-SOFTENING, 102 164STRENGTH, 3 8 11 75 92 104 114

145 147 163 213 231 277 289300 337 386 390

STRESS, 10 21 31 43 62 65 70 7489 92 191 193 194 233 263 310337 346 397

STRESS CONCENTRATION, 233290 298

STRESS CRACK RESISTANCE,5 222 246

STRESS CRACKING, 6 16 44 150222 233 234 297 298 312

STRESS DISTRIBUTION, 74 79STRESS RELAXATION, 8 21 65

72 79 104 233STRESS-STRAIN PROPERTIES,

9 11 14 62 66 88 106 118 119125 127 128 142 144 155 163178 220 232 237 248 250 252253 263 310 340 371

SUNLIGHT, 31 399SURFACE CRACKING, 233 297

SURFACE DEGRADATION, 328SURFACE FINISH, 24 70 137SURFACE PROPERTIES, 7 11 66

156 162 220 227 297SURFACE TREATMENT, 34 124

138SWELLING, 50 57 58 60 70 84 97

138 184SYNTHETIC FIBRE, 51 111 147

304 308 322 340 359 360 364377 383 384

SYNTHETIC FIBRE-REINFORCED PLASTIC, 69

SYNTHETIC RUBBER, 63 83 317

TTANK, 18 32 42 63 169 262TANK LINING, 42 329 391TAPE, 54 63 76 112 194 350 364

369 405TEAR RESISTANCE, 218 246TEAR STRENGTH, 27 31 55 69

193 198 264 283 344TEARING, 130TEMPERATURE, 31 50 58 92 138

193 194 198 227 233 235 343TENACITY, 68 74 112TENSILE PROPERTIES, 6 16 17

27 29 41 43 44 54 55 61 69 7981 92 102 119 126 133 141 142151 153 160 163 167 168 178184 198 216 220 222 237 248253 279 283 308 316 355 363371 372 377 392 396 397 398402 403 406 409

TENSILE STRESS, 194 263TENSIOMETRY, 260TENSION, 62 73 81 144 145 169

170 171 189 193TEST EQUIPMENT, 10 72 74 78

82 90 132 221 242 260 310TEST METHOD, 10 32 35 41 55

87 92 93 110 123 136 143 144224

TEST SPECIMEN, 62 80 82 131132

TETRAHYDROFURAN, 70 323TEXTILE, 17 31 64 69 70 187 193

208 226 337 383 384 394 403TEXTILE APPLICATION, 111

271 336 353 402TEXTILE FINISH, 124TEXTILE-REINFORCED, 53 226TEXTURED, 11 116 123 137 221TEXTURING, 5 7THERMAL BONDING, 35 247

308

Subject Index


THERMAL CONTRACTION, 233THERMAL DEGRADATION, 2

10 54 55 69 218 227 328 364372

THERMAL EXPANSIONCOEFFICIENT, 233 282

THERMAL INSULATION, 94 192193 198 236 285 319

THERMAL OXIDATION, 283THERMAL PROPERTIES, 69 91

138 233 285 297 300THERMAL STABILITY, 6 16 55

64 96 182 217 246 328 399 403THERMAL STRESS, 194 233THERMOBONDING, 369 371THERMOOXIDATIVE

DEGRADATION, 10 55 75THERMOPLASTIC

ELASTOMER, 69 182THERMOSET, 14 32 37 41 43 53

69 92 93 98 100 153 154 183192 200 201 222 262 282 283285 286 293 322 338 351 352

THICKNESS, 17 29 31 50 55 5658 64 70 81 82 114 137 138 140141 168 171 184 190 193 198214 217 218 233 234 237 245246 259 270 275 284 377 402

THREE-DIMENSIONAL, 20 130174 191 215 331 368 386

THREE-LAYER, 64 123TOPOGRAPHY, 7 11 162 220TOUGHNESS, 1 289TRANSPARENCY, 193TRANSPORT PROPERTIES, 97

131 138 363TRIAXIAL, 193TRICHLOROETHYLENE, 97 138TUNNEL, 370TWO-DIMENSIONAL, 164TYRE, 15 18 30 87 107 117 134

148 256 257 272TYRE CHIP, 18

UULTRA LOW DENSITY, 172 216ULTRASONIC WELD, 31 69UNDERGROUND, 64 244 394UNDERGROUND

APPLICATION, 17 363 388393 395

UNDERGROUND PIPE, 217UNDERPINNING, 173UNDERWATER APPLICATION,

370UNIAXIAL, 7 19 62 144 343UNSATURATED POLYESTER,

14 32 293 338UV DEGRADATION, 54 147 202

218 233 244 283 318 330 407UV RADIATION, 297 328UV RESISTANCE, 16 17 33 55

147 193 217 246 258 283 318330 407

UV STABILISER, 16 54 64 364367

UV STABILITY, 96 235 320 363370

VVAPOUR PERMEABILITY, 69VAPOUR PERMEATION, 138VAPOUR TRANSMISSION, 52 81

133VENTING, 191VERY LOW DENSITY

POLYETHYLENE, 16 276VIBRATION WELDING, 55VISCOELASTIC PROPERTIES,

43 79 120 239VITAMIN E, 122VOID, 25

WWADDING, 198WALL, 23 79 153 347 353 389WARP, 56WARPING, 124 194WASTE, 81 88 206WASTE DISPOSAL, 58 88 110

112 117 133 148 154 221 224258 309 312 341 348 349 388407

WASTE MANAGEMENT, 161164 180 181 210 240

WATER, 2 138 235 377 391WATER ABSORPTION, 2 17 55

69 105 184 194 196 360 372WATER CONSERVATION, 337WATER FILTER, 17WATER INSULATION, 17 31 32

37 45 46 55 64 69 70 233 234235

WATER PERMEABILITY, 17 5580 131 193 283 344 377 382391

WATER RESISTANCE, 17 94 235360 372

WATER RETENTION, 194 337WATER TANK, 32WATER TRANSFER, 394WATER VAPOUR

TRANSMISSION, 52 69 81133

WATERPROOF, 45 67 198WATERPROOFING, 31 55 69 346WEAR, 11WEAR RESISTANCE, 13 55 147

289WEATHERING, 6 10 16 41 55 64

87 93 136 217 312 360 367 407WEAVE STRUCTURE, 193WEAVING, 124 316 384WEB, 191WEED CONTROL, 31 187WEFT, 56WELDING, 6 31 42 55 64 69 70

116 175 193 210 214 233 258260 275 365

WIDTH, 137 190 218 245 246 270275 280 284

WIND RESISTANCE, 31 55 171WINDBREAK, 187WINDING, 76 245 275WLF EQUATION, 226WOVEN, 8 14 16 17 51 56 145

152 163 174 191 193 194 213224 229 231 247 259 271 283287 288 299 308 316 344 357362 368 369 385 386 391 401402 405

YYARN, 43 56 111 147 308 338 350

355YELLOWING, 122YIELD, 73 194 237

Company Index


Company Index

AACF ENVIRONMENTAL, 187AD HOC CIVIL ENGINEERING

COMMITTEE, 117AENOR, 32AGRIFIM IRRIGATION

INTERNATIONAL, 295AGRU ENVIRONNEMENT

FRANCE, 131AKZO CHEMIE BV, 347AKZO CHEMIE NV, 383AKZO INDUSTRIAL SYSTEMS,

361AKZO NOBEL

GEOSYNTHETICS, 126ALASKA UNIVERSITY AT

FAIRBANKS, 143ALGERIA ECOLE NATIONALE

TRAVAUX PUBLICS, 212ALIGARH UNIVERSITY, 340ALKOR DRAKA, 64ALKOR DRAKA IBERICA SA, 45ALLIED FOAM TECH CORP., 94AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR

TESTING & MATERIALS, 35222 228

AMOCO CORP., 349AMOCO FABRICS CO., 339AMUT SPA, 203ANAIP, 32ANFALAS, 69APEX INTERNATIONAL INC.,

27AQUATAN PRODUCTS

PTY.LTD., 387ASAHI CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

CO.LTD., 279ASSOCIAZIONE GEOTECNICA

ITALIANA, 385ASSOCIAZIONE ITALIANA

POLISTIRENE ESPANSO, 319ASTOR LTD., 63ATEC ASSOCIATES INC., 175ATKINS W.S., ENVIRONMENT,

210ATLANTIC WASTE DISPOSAL

INC., 134

BB & H (LEICESTER) LTD., 223BAECHTOLD AG, 335BALTEN, 69

BAM, 2BANGKOK ASIAN INSTITUTE

OF TECHNOLOGY, 232BARMAG BARMER

MASCHINENFABRIK AG, 76BARODA,UNIVERSITY, 291BASF CORP., 122BATTELLE INSTITUTE, 295 390BATTENFELD GLOUCESTER

ENGINEERING CO.INC., 116BAYER CORP., 37BELFAST QUEEN’S

UNIVERSITY, 402BERLEBURGER

SCHAUMSTOFFWERKGMBH, 273

BESKIDIAN TEXTILEINSTITUTE, 147

BIDIM GEOSYNTHETICS SA, 17BIOTECH, 195BIRMINGHAM UNIVERSITY,

102BOLOGNA UNIVERSITA, 385BOLTON INSTITUTE OF

HIGHER EDUCATION, 54 112227 360

BORED PILING PTE.LTD., 231BRAAS GMBH, 64BRADFORD UNIVERSITY, 38

343BRADLEY INDUSTRIAL

TEXTILES INC., 51BRASILIA UNIVERSITY, 78 158BRIDGE DIAGNOSTICS INC., 98BRITISH AIRPORTS SERVICES

LTD., 377BRITISH BOARD OF

AGREMENT, 207 223BRITISH COLUMBIA

UNIVERSITY, 26 78 82BRITISH TEXTILE

TECHNOLOGY GROUP, 201BROOKLYN POLYTECHNIC

UNIVERSITY, 68 75BROUTMAN L.J.,&

ASSOCIATES LTD., 241 244263

BTR INDUSTRIES PLC, 358BTR LTD., 394BURKE ENVIRONMENTAL

PRODUCTS, 83BURKE INDUSTRIES INC., 388

CCABOT CORP., 16CABOT PLASTICS, 6CABOT PLASTICS EUROPE, 367CALIFORNIA INTEGRATED

WASTE MANAGEMENTBOARD, 30 148

CALIFORNIA DEPT.OFTRANSPORTATION, 30

CALIFORNIA UNIVERSITY, 6288 144

CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY, 189CANADA DEFENCE

RESEARCHESTABLISHMENT, 97 115138

CANADA MINISTRY OFAGRICULTURE,FISHERIES& FOOD, 80

CANADA ROYAL MILITARYCOLLEGE, 171

CARLETON UNIVERSITY, 139140 141

CARLISLE CORP., SYNTECSYSTEMS DIV., 388

CEDEX, 69CEN, 32CHARLOTTESVILLE

INSTITUTE OF TEXTILETECHNOLOGY, 112

CHAROEN POKPHANDPETROCHEMICAL CO.LTD.,135

CHEM SYSTEMSINTERNATIONAL LTD., 281

CHEM SYSTEMS LTD., 274CHEMIE LINZ (UK) LTD., 346CHEMISCHE FABRIK

STOCKHAUSEN GMBH, 324CHONNAM NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY, 9CIBA-GEIGY CORP., 328 364COFACO, 32COLLIN GROUP LTD., 143COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF

TRANSPORTATION, 142COLORADO UNIVERSITY, 142

151COLORTECH CORP., 122COLUMBIA GEOSYSTEMS, 123COMITE ESPANOL DE

PLASTICOS ENAGRICULTURA, 69 70

Company Index


COMPORGAN RENDSZERHAZKV, 378

COOKSON SPECIALITYADDITIVES, 200 205

COOPER CLARKE GROUP PLC,207

CORDI-GEOPOLYMERE SA, 282CORNELL UNIVERSITY, 220CP GROUP, 116CT PETROCHEMICAL CO.LTD.,

116 135CURTIS ‘SURE-GRIP’, 310CZECH REPUBLIC ACADEMY

OF SCIENCES, 248

DDAEWOO ENGINEERING INC.,

20DAINIHON GLASS INDUSTRY

CO.LTD., 286DALEN PRODUCTS INC., 187DANAKLON AS, 277DELAWARE UNIVERSITY, 104DEUTSCHER

DACHGARTENERVERBANDINT.GEOTEXTILE SOC., 319

DEWITT & CO.INC., 187DODGE CORK CO., 273DODGE-REGUPOL INC., 262 273DOLCI EXTRUSIONS, 245DON & LOW PLC, 271 299 349

389DON FIBRES LTD., 403DONGGUK UNIVERSITY, 20DRAKE F.,(FIBRES) LTD., 225DRESDEN TECHNISCHE

UNIVERSITAT, 249DREXEL UNIVERSITY, 27 47

139 140 141 160 173 183 312DSM RESINS BV, 276DUNLOP PRECISION RUBBER,

255DUPONT DE NEMOURS, 17 95

146 178 305 349 408DUPONT DOW ELASTOMERS

LLC, 83DYNEON CORP., 42

EEARTH ENGINEERING &

SCIENCE INC., 75EASTMAN CHEMICAL CO., 1ECOLE NATIONALE DES

TRAVAUX PUBLICS DEL’ETAT, 103

ECOLE POLYTECHNIQUE DEMONTREAL, 301

EDANA, 198ELASTOMERIC

TECHNOLOGIES, 99ELIAS V.,& ASSOCIATES, 68ENICHEM ANIC SPA, 365ENKA BV, 351 357ENTIRE ENVIRONMENTAL

SYSTEMS INC., 256 257ENVIRO-FLEX, 99ENVIRONMENTAL

PROTECTION INC., 48 260EQUISTAR CHEMICALS LP, 44ERA TECHNOLOGY LTD., 10

199 267 380ESSEN UNIVERSITY, 120EUROPEAN ASSOCIATION FOR

TEXTILE POLYOLEFINS, 111EUROPEAN PLASTICS NEWS,

93EXXON CHEMICAL AMERICAS

INC., 395EXXON CHEMICAL CO., 349EXXON CHEMICAL

GEOPOLYMERS LTD., 247304

EXXON CHEMICAL LTD., 326EXXON CHEMICAL PATENTS

INC., 350

FFAG KUGELFISCHER, 342FIBREX RECYCLING

CONTAINERS, 195FILLON, 64FIRST STATE TIRE

RECYCLING, 15FOURIER J., UNIVERSITE, 131FOURNIER DRAINAGE, 315FRANCE, GEOPOLYMER

INSTITUTE, 285FROST & SULLIVAN INC., 333

GGEOCELL SYSTEMS INC., 1 4GEOFABRICS LTD., 254GEOHIDRA, 107GEORGIA INSTITUTE OF

TECHNOLOGY, 7 11 156 162GEOSCIENCE INC., 91GEOSERVICES INC., 354 400

404GEOSYNTEC CONSULTANTS, 7

89 101 105 107 131 148 166

167 168 169 170 171 237 253GEOSYNTEC INC., 297GEOSYNTHETIC RESEARCH

INST., 298GERMANY, FEDERAL

INSTITUTE FORMATERIALS RESEARCH &TESTING, 179

GHENT UNIVERSITY, 212GLASGOW CALEDONIAN

UNIVERSITY, 22GOLDER ASSOCIATES AB, 185GOLDER ASSOCIATES INC., 24

164GOLDER CONSTRUCTION

SERVICES, 185GOODRICH B.F., CO., 388GREAT LAKES SOIL &

ENVIRONMENTALCONSULTANTS INC., 133

GRENOBLE CENTRED’ETUDES NUCLEAIRES,131

GRENOBLE JOSEPH FOURIERUNIVERSITY, 103

GRILTEX, 17GROSFILLEX, 64GRUBER A.,& SOHN OHG, 280GSE LINING TECHNOLOGY

INC., 36GUNDLE/SLT

ENVIRONMENTAL INC., 188

HHAAHJEM NORTH AMERICA

INC., 195HALEY & ALDRICH, 88 180HAMINAN ENERGIA OY, 39HANSON MATERIALS

ENGINEERING, 300HANYANG UNIVERSITY, 9HERAEUS DSET

LABORATORIES INC., 235HIMONT INC., 264HOECHST AG, 96HOECHST CELANESE CORP.,

96 124HOFFMANN-LA ROCHE INC.,

122HONG KONG GEOTECHNICAL

ENGINEERING OFFICE, 239HPM CORP., 214HUBRON LTD., 33HUESKER FRANCE, 17HUESKER SYNTHETIC GMBH

& CO., 229 230 249

Company Index


II-CORP INTERNATIONAL INC.,

195 233 234ICI FIBRES LTD., 405ICI ADVANCED MATERIALS,

289ILLINOIS UNIVERSITY, 24 81

106 130 133 161INDIA CALCUTTA PORT

TRUST, 283INDIA CENTRAL BOARD OF

IRRIGATION AND POWER,325

INDIAN INSTITUTE OFTECHNOLOGY, 226 250 251302 306

INDUSTEX HOLDINGS (PTY.)LTD., 287 288

INDUSTRIEVERBANDHARTSCHAUM, 319

INNOVATIVE PROCESS CORP.,37

INTERLINE PLASTICS, 42INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS

ORGANISATION, 32IRANOR, 32

JJPS ELASTOMERICS CORP.,

ENVIRONMENTALPROD.DIV., 317

KKARNATAK UNIVERSITY, 50 57

58 59 60 84 121KINGSTON QUEEN’S

UNIVERSITY, 21KOMAR INDUSTRIES INC., 195KOREA HIGHWAY RESEARCH

CENTRE, 14KOREA INSTITUTE OF

CONSTRUCTIONTECHNOLOGY, 7 11

KUHLKE & ASSOCIATES, 208KUHNE GMBH, 275 284 307KURARAY CO.LTD., 383

LLA CALEPPIO ILT, 365LAING J., RESEARCH &

DEVELOPMENT LTD., 405LAMBEG INDUSTRIAL

RESEARCH ASSOCIATION,

402LAND CONSERVATION

ASSOCIATES, 376LANDOLT, 293 385LEEDS UNIVERSITY, 49 66 372LIEGE UNIVERSITY, 371LOW BROS.& CO.(DUNDEE)

LTD., 401 405

MMACCAFERRI RIVER & SEA

GABIONS LTD., 215MADRID UNIVERSIDAD

POLITECNICA, 46MANHATTAN COLLEGE, 236MASSACHUSETTS

UNIVERSITY, 7MASTIO & CO., 137MAUNSELL G.,& PARTNERS

LTD., 100MCALPINE A.,

CONSTRUCTION LTD., 243MCGILL UNIVERSITY, 80MELBOURNE UNIVERSITY, 40MICHIGAN UNIVERSITY, 290MMG CIVIL ENGINEERING

SYSTEMS, 347 357MONARFLEX LTD., 114 190 329

356MONOMET LTD., 243 327MONTANA STATE

UNIVERSITY, 98 108 109 128MONTELL POLYOLEFINS, 67MORBARK SALES CORP., 195

NNANYANG TECHNOLOGICAL

UNIVERSITY, 231NAPIER UNIVERSITY, 22NATIONAL SEAL CO., 121 133

214 235 309NAUE FASERTECHNIK, 377NEAL C.W., CORP., 83NESTE OY, 277NETLON LTD., 186 197 289 318

320 343 349 363 366 367 375377 392 396 397 398 399 405406

NEW MEXICO UNIVERSITY,105

NEW ORLEANS UNIVERSITY,125

NEW SOUTH WALESUNIVERSITY, 74

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY, 221

NEWCASTLE UNIVERSITY, 157NORTH CAROLINA STATE

UNIVERSITY, 242NORTHEASTERN UNIVERSITY,

90NORWEGIAN GEOTECHNICAL

INSTITUTE, 163NOVA CORP., 309NOVA GEOTECHNICAL

PRODUCTS LTD., 309NOVACOR CHEMICALS INC.,

261NTH CONSULTANTS LTD., 27NYLEX CORP.LTD., 113 309NYLEX POLYMER PRODUCTS,

67

OO’BRIEN & GERE ENGINEERS,

165OCCIDENTAL CHEMICAL

CORP., 314OHIO UNIVERSITY, 240ONTARIO ROYAL MILITARY

COLLEGE OF CANADA, 155OPORTO UNIVERSITY, 239ORICLOR INC., 97OSAKA CHEMICAL

MARKETING CENTER, 3OURO PRETO FEDERAL

UNIVERSITY, 158OWENS CORNING

FIBERGLASS CORP., 408

PPARSEC INC., 52PARSONS BRINCKERHOFF, 139

140 141PATRAS UNIVERSITY, 12 259PCD, 313 321PHILLIPS FIBERS CORP., 332PHILLIPS PETROLEUM CO., 408PLASTICS & RUBBER WEEKLY,

93PLOCK R&D CENTRE OF THE

REFINERY INDUSTRY, 71POLAND INSTITUTE OF

HYDRO-ENGINEERING, 8 65POLISH ACADEMY OF

SCIENCES, 79POLYFELT GMBH, 330 331POLYFELT INC., 349POLYSAR LTD., 337 407POLYSHEET AS, 86PORTO UNIVERSIDADE, 19 132

Company Index


POST, BUCKLEY, SCHUH &JERNIGAN INC., 176

PPG INDUSTRIES OHIO INC., 34PROCESS MACHINERY LTD.,

307PROSPECT ENTERPRISES INC.,

272PURDUE UNIVERSITY, 107PYN SA DE CV, 31

QQUANTUM CHEMICAL CO.,

182QUEEN’S UNIVERSITY OF

BELFAST, 369 405QWIK-TIP INC., 195

RRAPRA TECHNOLOGY LTD., 10

92 93 136RECYCLED RUBBER

RESOURCES INC., 87REEMAY INC., 187 352REHAU PLASTICS AG, 355REHAU PLASTICS LTD., 338RENSSELAER POLYTECHNIC

INSTITUTE, 89RHONE-POULENC (UK) LTD.,

327RHONE-POULENC FIBRES, 373RHONE-POULENC INC., 349RILEM, 385ROBUSTA BV, 316ROHM & HAAS CO., 269RUST ENVIRONMENT &

INFRASTRUCTURE, 133 161

SSAGA UNIVERSITY, 61 73SANDVIK ROCK TOOLS INC.,

53SANTIAGO UNIVERSITY, 19SATELLITE EXTRUSIONS LTD.,

374SATELLITE GEOSYSTEMS, 266SAVAL SRL, 308SCHWEIZER GESELLSCHAFT

FUER TUELLINDUSTRIEAG, 335

SCRAP TIRE MANAGEMENTCOUNCIL, 117

SEABED SCOUR CONTROLSYSTEMS, 379

SERROT CORP., 83

SGS GEOSYSTEMS LTD., 188190 202 217 218 246

SHAWINIGAN-LAVALIN, 301SHELL CHEMICALS EUROPE,

191SHERBROOKE UNIVERSITY, 97

115 138SHIMIZU CORP., 153 286SILOXO PTY.LTD., 13SINGAPORE NATIONAL

UNIVERSITY, 370SLT ENVIRONMENTAL, 270SLT NORTH AMERICA INC., 278SMAC ACIEROID SA, 64SOCIETE A RESPONSABILITE

LIMITEE DESCHAMPS, 56SOCIETE D’APPLICATION DU

TEXSOL, 368 386SOLMAX GEOSYNTHETIQUES,

123SOLMAX INTERNATIONAL

INC., 123SOLVAY POLYETHYLENE

NORTH AMERICA, 5SOUTH FLORIDA UNIVERSITY,

77SOUTHERN ILLINOIS

UNIVERSITY, 219 238SPAIN, MINISTRY OF THE

ENVIRONMENT, 69STEVENS GEOMEMBRANES,

36STRATHCLYDE UNIVERSITY,

252SULZER BROS.LTD., 316SURREY UNIVERSITY, 196 322SWEDEN NATIONAL TESTING

& RESEARCH INSTITUTE,86 110

SWEDISH CIVIL AVIATIONADMINISTRATION, 185

SWISS NET CO.LTD., 359SYNTHETIC INDUSTRIES INC.,

174SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY, 152

159 165

TTAIWAN NATIONAL CHI-NAN

UNIVERSITY, 29TENERIFE CONSEJO INSULAR

DE AGUAS, 69TENNESSEE UNIVERSITY, 382TENSAR CORP., 53 150 366 392TERAGEOS, 17TERRAM FRANCE, 17TEXACO CHEMICAL CO., 192

TEXAS A & M UNIVERSITY, 294TEXAS UNIVERSITY, 25 72 88

151 164THIEL ENGINEERING, 101TIRE & RUBBER RECYCLING

ADVISORY COUNCIL, 117TOKYO UNIVERSITY, 14 119TRI/ENVIRONMENTAL INC.,

177 184TULANE UNIVERSITY, 97TULLINDUSTRIE AG, 359

UUK DEPT.OF TRADE & IND.,

380UK NATIONAL CRICKET

ASSOCIATION, 311UK TRANSPORT & ROAD

RESEARCH LABORATORY,267

UK TRANSPORT RESEARCHLABORATORY, 268

ULSTER UNIVERSITY, 194UNION CARBIDE, 85 216 292UNITIKA LTD., 336 344US ARMY, 23 105 181US BUREAU OF

RECLAMATION, 172US DEPT.OF AGRICULTURE,

382US INDUSTRIAL FABRICS

ASSN.INTERNATIONAL, 265UTAH UNIVERSITY, 62 88 144

VVALENCIA POLYTECHNICAL

UNIVERSITY, 55VENCEL RESIL LTD., 196VIRGINIA TECH UNIVERSITY,

187

WWALES UNIVERSITY, 127WASHINGTON,STATE

DEPARTMENT OFTRANSPORTATION, 155

WASHINGTON,UNIVERSITY, 25163

WASTE MANAGEMENT INC.,133

WESTERNONTARIO,UNIVERSITY, 118213

WISCONSIN UNIVERSITY, 72

DOCUMENTS DIRECT(Document Delivery Service)

The Polymer Library (www.polymerlibrary.com) is the world’s most comprehensive collection of information onthe rubber, plastics, composites and adhesives industries. The fully searchable database covers approximately 500regular journals as well as conference proceedings, reports, books, company brochures and data sheets.

Almost all the articles selected for the database can be ordered in full text through our document delivery department.Non-patent requests are usually despatched within 24 hours of receipt (Monday to Friday).

● We have a large collection of literature directly related to the industries we serve and can offer a personalservice with minimal bureaucracy, based on detailed knowledge of our stock.

● Many of the documents held at Rapra are not available via other services. This is particularly the case for ourextensive and unique collection of company literature and data sheets.

● We offer a fast turnaround service (within one working day) combined with a range of delivery options. Somefull text documents are available as PDF files which can be downloaded immediately

SPEED OF DELIVERY

Non-patent documents are despatched from Rapra within 24 hours of receipt (Monday - Friday) of request usingfirst class mail within the UK, and airmail for the rest of the world. If you request e-mail or fax service, delivery willbe within hours anywhere in the world.

HOW TO ORDER

Orders can be made by post, fax, telephone, e-mail, on-line via the website database (http://www.polymerlibrary.com),or through an online host.

When ordering please include your full company details and which documents you require, quoting one of the following:

1. Accession Number or Copyquest number or,2. Full Bibliographic Details

Please include which payment method you wish to use and how you wish to receive the article (i.e. e-mail,post, fax, etc.)

Documents can be ordered from Rapra online using the appropriate command of your online host. In this case wewill issue you with an invoice and statement every three months.

For further information, please see www.rapra.net/absdocs/copyquest.htm or contact Sheila Cheese or JackieMcCarthy on +44 (0)1939 250383 or e-mail [email protected].

PLEASE TURN OVER FOR PAYMENT METHOD OPTIONS AND ORDER FORM

CREDIT CARD PAYMENTS

This is preferable for people who only intend to use our service occasionally. The prices are per copy inclusive ofpostage and packaging if appropriate. Pre-payment is required by Credit Card payment.

Delivery Method Price

E-mail, Ariel, Fax, First Class / Airmail Post £10 / Approx. US$15 or €17 (UK & Overseas) + VAT

PDF files Prices – Please refer to online order form for details(these may vary – each publisher sets price)

ANNUAL DEPOSIT ACCOUNTS

A more cost effective way to use our service is to open an annual deposit account. (Web subscribers can use theirweb subscription for both web access and document delivery)

The minimum amount required to open an account is £200 / Approx. US$290 or €330 (UK & Overseas)

Delivery Method Price

E-mail, Ariel, Fax, First Class / Airmail Post Documents are only priced at £7 / Approx. US$10 or €12 per item

PDF files Prices – Please refer to online order form for details(these may vary – each publisher sets price)

Please Note: Any money remaining in an annual deposit account after 12 months is void.

Patents are charged at a standard price of £10 / Approx. US$15 or €17.

ORDER FORM

❑ I would like to open/renew a deposit account for the following amount ___________________________________

❑ I would like to order the following documents _______________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________

PAYMENT

Name: ____________________________________________________

Company: _________________________________________________

Address: __________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

_________________________________________________________

Postcode: ______________________ Country: __________________

Telephone: _____________________ Fax: ______________________

Rapra Technology LimitedShawbury, Shrewsbury, Shropshire SY4 4NR, United KingdomTel. +44 (0)1939 250383 Fax: +44 (0)1939 251118E-mail: [email protected]

❑ Remittance enclosed(use only for opening or renewing annual deposit accounts)

(If paying by cheque, please make payable to Rapra Technology Ltd. in£ Sterling/US$/Euros via UK banks only or make payment direct toAccount No: 05625025, Sortcode: 55-50-05, National Westminster Bank Plc,8 Mardol Head, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY1 1HE, UK)

❑ Please invoice my company (use only for opening or renewingannual deposit accounts)

❑ Please deduct from my annual deposit account (use this optionwhen ordering documents if you already have a deposit account)

Account Number _______________________________________

❑ Please charge my credit card

American Express / Visa / Mastercard (delete as appropriate)

Card Number:

Signature: ______________________ Exp. date: ______________

IMPORTANT - Value Added Tax (VAT)The above prices do not include VAT. Customers in EU member countries may beliable to pay VAT if their Registration Number is not supplied. Please enter your EURegistration Number (VAT - BTW - IVA - TVA - MWST - MOMS - FPA) below:

VAT Number: