geography and ecology of the everglades

7/29/2019 Geography and Ecology of the Everglades

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Geography and ecology of the Everglades 1

Geography and ecology of the Everglades

A satellite image of the lower Florida peninsula showing

darkened portions south of Lake Okeechobee as the

Everglades and Big Cypress Swamp. The reddish area

bordering the large inland lake is the Everglades Agricultural

Area.

The geography and ecology of the Everglades involve the

complex elements affecting the natural environment

throughout the southern region of the U.S. state of Florida.

Before drainage, the Everglades were an interwoven mesh of

marshes and prairies covering 4,000 square miles ( km2).

The Everglades is simultaneously a vast watershed that has

historically extended from Lake Okeechobee 100 miles ( km)

south to Florida Bay (around one-third of the southern

Florida peninsula), and many interconnected ecosystems

within a geographic boundary. It is such a unique meeting of

water, land, and climate that the use of either singular or

plural to refer to the Everglades is appropriate.[1]

When

Marjory Stoneman Douglas wrote her definitive description

of the region in 1947, she used the metaphor "River of

Grass" to explain the blending of water and plant life.

Although sawgrass and sloughs are the enduring

geographical icons of the Everglades, other ecosystems are

just as vital, and the borders marking them are subtle or

nonexistent. Pinelands and tropical hardwood hammocks are

located throughout the sloughs; the trees, rooted in soil

inches above the peat, marl, or water, support a variety of

wildlife. The oldest and tallest trees are cypresses, whose

roots are specially adapted to grow underwater for months at

a time. The Big Cypress Swamp is well known for its

500-year-old cypresses, though cypress domes can appear

throughout the Everglades. As the fresh water from Lake

Okeechobee makes its way to Florida Bay, it meets salt water from the Gulf of Mexico; mangrove forests grow in

this transitional zone, providing nursery and nesting conditions for many species of birds, fish, and invertebrates.

The marine environment of Florida Bay is also considered part of the Everglades because its sea grasses and aquatic

life are attracted to the constant discharge of fresh water.

These ecological systems are always changing due to environmental factors. Geographic features such as the

Western Flatwoods, Eastern Flatwoods, and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge affect drainage patterns. Geologic elements,climate, and the frequency of storms and fire are formative processes for the Everglades. They help to sustain and

transform the ecosystems in the Shark River Valley, Big Cypress Swamp, coastal areas and mangrove forests.

Ecosystems have been described as both fragile and resilient. Minor fluctuations in water levels have far-reaching

consequences for many plant and animal species, and the system cycles and pulses with each change.
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Shaping processes of ecosystems

Water

A storm over the Shark River in the Everglades,

1966

Photo:Charles Barron / State Library and

Archives of Florida

At only 5,000 years of age, the Everglades is a young region in

geological terms. Its ecosystems are in constant flux due to three

factors: the type and amount of water present, the geology of the

region, and the frequency and severity of fires.[2][3]

Water is the dominant element in the Everglades, and it shapes the

land, vegetation, and animal life of South Florida. The South Florida

climate was once arid and semi-arid, interspersed with wet periods.

Between 10,000 and 20,000 years ago, sea levels rose, submerging

portions of the Florida peninsula and causing the water table to rise.

Fresh water saturated the limestone, eroding some of it and creating

springs and sinkholes. The abundance of fresh water allowed new

vegetation to take root, and through evaporation formed thunderstorms.

Limestone was dissolved by the slightly acidic rainwater. The

limestone wore away, and groundwater came into contact with the surface, creating a massive wetland ecosystem.[4]

Although the region appears flat, the wearing away of the limestone in some areas created slight valleys and

plateausa difference of inches in elevationthat affected not only the flow of water, but also types of vegetation

present.

The Everglades are unique; no other wetland system in the world is nourished primarily from the atmosphere.[5]

Before the first attempt at draining the Everglades in 1882, the entire watershed extended from Orlando to Florida

Bay comprising the KissimmeeLake OkeechobeeEverglades (KLOE) watershed. Kissimmee River outlets flow

into Lake Okeechobee, which sits 18 feet ( m) above sea level.[6]

Only two seasons exist in the Everglades: wet (May

to November) and dry (December to April). Average annual rainfall in the Everglades is approximately 62 inches

( cm), though fluctuations of precipitation are normal.[7]

Droughts, floods, and tropical storms are normal

occurrences in the area.[8]

When Lake Okeechobee exceeds its water storage capacity during the wet season, it pours

slowly over the southern rim and flows for 100 miles ( km) to Florida Bay. The gradient change is so slight that the

river moves only 2 feet ( m) a minute.[9]

Sawgrass thrives in this river, dominates freshwater marshes and sloughs,

and is the main characteristic of the region.

Severe weather, in the form of tropical storms and hurricanes, also affects the structure of the Everglades. Between

1871 and 2003, 40 tropical cyclones struck the Everglades, usually every one to three years.[10][11]

These storms

alter the coastline, flush decaying vegetation from estuaries, strip weakened branches from trees, and disperse seeds,

pollen, and plant material.[12]

Hurricane Donna in 1960 affected 120 square miles ( km2) of mangrove forests by

depositing marl over the roots and depriving the trees of oxygen. It also eradicated orchids, bromeliads, and other

epiphytes that once flourished in the mangroves; their reappearance may take a century or more. Donna also

significantly spread buttonwood, saltwort, and glasswort, and epiphytes began to grow in new areas.[13]

Although the

lasting effects remain to be seen, Hurricane Andrew in 1992 also destroyed mangrove forests and snapped slash

pines in half. However, regrowth occurred quickly, and sand deposited by the storm surge improved nesting

conditions for crocodiles and sea turtles.[14]
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Geology

A vast marshland could only have been formed due to the underlying rock formations in southern Florida.[15]

The

floor of the Everglades formed between 25 million and 2 million years ago when the Florida peninsula was a shallow

sea floor. The peninsula has been covered by sea water at least seven times since the earliest bedrock formation.[15]

The rock that makes up the Everglades floor was created as layers of calcium carbonate were compressed by ocean

water, making limestone. Fossilized bryozoans and tiny shells, or ooids, make the limestone porous. Water is storedin the rock, sometimes from one year to the next.

[16]The length of time that a region in the Everglades remains

flooded, called a hydroperiod,[4]

determines what particular soils and vegetation are present.

Shorter hydroperiods of three or four months promote the growth of periphyton: algae and other microscopic

organisms covered with calcium carbonate crystals.[15]

Periphyton is the basic building block of marl, a calcitic mud.

In areas with hydroperiods of longer than nine months, peat builds up over hundreds or thousands of years due to

many generations of decaying plant matter. Peat and marl are considered nutrient-poor soils that foster the growth of

specialized vegetation depending on the length of the regional hydroperiod.

Five types of peat appear in the Everglades system; each type supports a specific type of vegetation, such as

sawgrass, tree islands, or custard apple trees.[17]

Peat buildup is possible because water prevents oxygen from

quickly decomposing plant matter. Once peat buildup reaches the surface, oxygen reacts with the microorganisms to

decay the peat rapidly in a process called subsidence. Initial attempts at developing agriculture near Lake

Okeechobee were successful, but the nutrients in the peat quickly deteriorated by drying, and were broken down by

bacteria in the soil. The dried peat burned or was degraded into carbon dioxide and water by microorganisms. Some

homes built near early farms had to restructure their foundations on stilts as the peat deteriorated; other areas lost

approximately 8 feet ( m) of soil depth.[18]

Between the 1880s and 2005, an estimated 3.4 billion metric tons of soil

has been lost in the Everglades due to oxidation. Most of that loss occurs in the Everglades Agricultural Area; the

least amount of loss is found in Everglades National Park.[19]

Fire

Fire near a cypress dome in the Turner River area

in the early 1920s

Fire is another important element in the maintenance of the Everglades.

The majority are caused by lightning strikes from thunderstorms during

the wet season. Their effects are largely superficial, and serve to foster

further plant growth: sawgrass will burn above water, but the roots are

preserved. Fire in the sawgrass marshes serves to keep out larger

bushes and trees, and releases nutrients from decaying plant matter

more efficiently than decomposition.[20]

Large burned areas also affect

waterflow, since wind and water are undeterred by the eradicated

sawgrass; water may flow two to three times faster in recently burned

areas.[21] During the wet season only dead plant matter and the tips of

plants are burned; however, the effects of fire are much more

significant in the dry season, as fire may be fed by organic peat and

burn deeply, destroying root systems. The only impediment to the spread of fire in the Everglades is the presence of

water. It takes around 225 years for one foot (0.3 m) of peat to develop, but the peat is not as dense as it should be

for the 5,000 years of the Everglades' existence. Scientists point to fire as the reason.[3]

Researchers have noted that fires appear in cycles associated with those of the hydroperiods.[3]

The first cycle is the

annual wet-season fires that occur with rapid frequency during the summer, but are quickly extinguished. Dry-season

fires are rarer due to the lack of lightning, but their damage may be more pervasive.[20]

A longer fire cycle spanning

ten to fourteen years coincides with similar water cycles affected by global climate conditions. Fires in this cyclemay be numerous and have little effect, or rare and have catastrophic consequences. The third cycle appears in a
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550-year frequency associated with severe drought. Layers of charcoal have been detected inside peat in parts of the

Everglades, indicating the region endured severe fires for years at a time, although this trend seems to have abated

since the last occurrence around 940 BCE.[3]

Ecosystem characteristics

Major landscape types in the Everglades before

human action. Source: U.S. Geological Survey

The Everglades are dominated by sawgrass in water; this is the titular

"River of Grass" popularized by Marjory Stoneman Douglas in 1947.

This river contains a wide variety of plant and animal life. An early

American environmentalist named Gifford Pinchot said of the

Everglades, "It is a region so different that it hardly seems to belong to

the United States. It is full of the most vivid and most interesting life

on land, in the air, and in the water. It is a land of strangeness, separate

and apart from the common things we all know so well."[22]

The sawgrass grows in prairies or strands, in between channels of

water in a shallow river 100 miles ( km) long and 60 miles ( km) wideflowing from Lake Okeechobee to Florida Bay. Some authors refer to

the sawgrass and water combination as the "true Everglades" or just

"the Glades".[23][24]

Prior to the first drainage attempts in 1905, the

sheetflow, or the wide shallow river starting in Lake Okeechobee,

occupied nearly a third of the lower Florida peninsula.[4]

Though

sawgrass remains the main feature of the Everglades, other ecosystems

are scattered among the marshes and prairies, and their borders are

sometimes imperceptible.

Sawgrass marsh

Most marshes in the Everglades are dominated by the sedge known as

Cladium, or sawgrass in common terminology. The sedge is a

three-dimensional v-shaped stalk with upward-pointing teeth. Sawgrass thrives in the slowly moving water, but may

die if oxygen is unable to reach its roots and is particularly vulnerable to floods immediately after a fire.[25]

Some of

the sawgrass can grow up to 6 feet ( m) tall, and directly south of Lake Okeechobee it has grown to 10 feet ( m).

Farther south, where the peat is not as rich, it typically grows 4 feet ( m) tall in patches, as opposed to the prairies of

the upper glades.[26]

The hydroperiod for the marsh is usually nine months but can last longer. In shorter

hydroperiods, marl may form instead of peat.[27]

Where sawgrass grows densely, few animals or other plants thrive, although alligators often choose these locations

for nesting. Where there is more room, periphyton grows, appearing as mats or brown sausage-shaped chunks.

Periphyton is predominantly algae, although over 100 different microorganisms help create it.[28]

Larval insects and

amphibians are supported by periphyton; these in turn provide food for birds, fish, and reptiles. Periphyton also

absorbs calcium from the water, which creates marl where sawgrass takes root.[29]

Freshwater sloughs

Sloughs are channels of free-flowing water in between the sawgrass marshes. Sloughs are deeper than sawgrass

marshes, about 3 feet ( m), and may stay flooded for at least 11 months out of the year if not multiple years in a

row.[30]

The peat beds that support sawgrass are slightly elevated and may begin abruptly creating ridges of grass.

The borders between these systems are called "ridge-and-slough" landscapes. Aquatic animals such as turtles, young

alligators, snakes, and fish live in sloughs and they usually feed on aquatic invertebrates, such as the Florida apple
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snail.[31]

Plants grow here, usually submerged or floating like bladderwort (Utricularia), waterlily (Nymphaeaceae),

or spatterdock (Nuphar lutea). Major sloughs in the Everglades system include the Shark River Slough draining to

Florida Bay, Lostmans Slough bordering The Big Cypress, and Taylor Slough in the eastern Everglades.

A cross section of fresh water ecosystems in the Everglades, with relative average water depths

Wet prairie

An alligator amid strands of

periphyton in the Everglades

Two kinds of wet prairies thrive in the Everglades: marl and water-marsh

community. Wet prairies are slightly elevated like sawgrass marshes, but contain

abundant plant diversity. Marl prairies are located where marl covers limestonethat may protrude as pinnacles or erode into solution holes: depressions formed

by the same processes that create sinkholes. Solution holes, however, do not

meet the water table; they are filled with rain water.[32]

The surface is covered

only three to seven months of the year, but the water is usually just 4 inches

( cm) deep.[33]

Marl is created by layers of periphyton loosely attached to the

limestone, and forms a grey or white crumbly mud when it dries. When flooded,

the marl can support a variety of water plants, and dwarf cypresses may grow for

hundreds of years though not exceed 10 feet ( m) in height.[34]

Solution holes

may remain flooded even when the prairies are dry, and they support aquatic

invertebrates such as crayfish and snails, as well as larval amphibians which feed

young wading birds.[35]

Where the predominant soil is peat, a water-marsh

community exists. Its hydroperiod is longer than the marl prairie, although its plants are less diverse. These regions

tend to be on the border between sloughs and sawgrass marshes.

Alligators have created an ecological niche in wet prairies; they dig at low spots with their claws and snouts and

create ponds free of vegetation that remain submerged throughout the dry season. Alligator holes are integral to the

survival of aquatic invertebrates, turtles, fish, small mammals, and birds during extended drought periods. Alligators

feed upon animals that visit the hole.[36][37]
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Tropical hardwood hammock

In a tropical hardwood hammock,

plants are very dense and diverse.

Islands of trees featuring dense temperate or tropical trees are called tropical

hardwood hammocks.[38]

They may rise between 1 and 3 feet (unknown

operator: u'[' and unknown operator: u'[' m) above water level in freshwater

sloughs, sawgrass prairies, or pineland. These islands illustrate the difficulty of

characterizing the climate of the Everglades as tropical or subtropical.

Hammocks in the northern portion of the Everglades consist of more temperate

plant species, but closer to Florida Bay the trees are tropical and smaller shrubs

are more prevalent. Tropical trees like the West Indian mahogany (Swietenia

mahagoni) were probably spread by birds carrying seeds from the West

Indies.[39]

These hammocks form on slightly elevated areas unharmed by deep peat fires or limestone plateaus rising several

inches above the surrounding peat. Hardwood hammocks exhibit a mixture of subtropical and hardwood trees that

grow in very dense clumps, such as Southern live oak (Quercus virginiana), gumbo limbo (Bursera simaruba), royal

palm (Roystonea), and willow bustic (Dipholis salicifolia).

[40]

Near the bases of hammocks sharp saw palmettos(Serenoa repens) flourish, making the hammocks very difficult to penetrate. Water in sloughs flow around the

islands creating moats. Though some ecosystems are maintained and promoted by fire, hammocks may take decades

or centuries to recover; the moats are therefore essential for protection.[41]

Islands vary in size, but most range

between 1 and 10 acres (unknown operator: u'[' and unknown operator: u'[' ha); the water slowly flowing around

them limits their size and gives them a teardrop appearance from above.[42]

The height of the trees is limited by

factors such as frost, lightning, and wind: the majority of trees in hammocks grow no higher than 55 feet ( m).

Florida strangler figs (Ficus aurea) are common in hammocks, and find particular ease in rooting at the heads of

cabbage palms (Sabal palmetto). After taking root into the ground, they build complex frameworks around the host

tree, eventually squeezing out light and nutrients, and essentially taking its place.[43]

A variety of invertebrates

including beetles, ants, spiders, and tree snails support a food chain that includes frogs, owls and other birds of prey,snakes, rodents, bobcats, and raccoons. There are more than 50 varieties of tree snails in the Everglades; the color

patterns and designs unique to single islands may be a result of the isolation of certain hammocks.[44]

Tropical hardwood hammocks in the Everglades have been harvested for lumber, particularly by shipbuilders

seeking West Indian mahogany and black ironwood (Krugiodendron ferreum). The largest and most mature of these

trees had been removed by the late 18th century.[39]

Seminoles made their villages in hammocks in the late 19th and

early 20th centuries; they lived in groups of chickees numbering half a dozen, with one central chickee for cooking

and another for eating. Dugout canoes, cookware, stills, and sewing machines may still be found in remote

locations.[45]

Bayheads and willowheads

Some hammocks are dominated by types of vegetation that grow in relation to the amount of water or type of soil

present. The majority of hardwood hammocks create a thin poor soil covering the limestone called humus, made of

decaying plant matter and moisture trapped by the structure of the trees. When peat forms the layer atop the

limestone of a tree island, bayheads develop, dominated by bay trees such as sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia

virginiana) and others like swamp holly (Ilex decidua), wax myrtle (Myrica cerifera), and cocoplum (Chrysobalanus

icaco).[46]

Willowheads, dominated by willow trees (Salix caroliniana), take hold where the hydroperiod is long,

usually around solution or alligator holes, and may surround the holes, giving them a donut appearance from

above.[47]
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Flatwoods and the Atlantic Coastal Ridge

The Pine rockland ecosystem is dominated by

South Florida slash pines and shrubs like saw

palmettos.

The prairies and sloughs of the Everglades system are bordered by two

areas of poorly drained sandy soil on both sides of Lake Okeechobee:

the Eastern Flatwoods and the Western Flatwoods just north of Big

Cypress Swamp. The predominant ecosystem in the Flatwoods is pine

forest, but there are also cypress swamps and sloughs in the Eastern

Flatwoods.[48]

Along the eastern border of the Everglades is the

Atlantic Coastal Ridge, rising 20 feet ( m) in elevation, and curving to

the southwest, gradually decreasing in elevation until it meets Taylor

Slough. The Coastal Ridge prevents Everglades water from flowing

into the Atlantic Ocean to the east, directing it southwesterly into

Florida Bay. The South Florida metropolitan area is located on a

portion of the Atlantic Coastal Ridge, and much of the landscape has

changed drastically within the past 100 years as a result of urban growth.

Pine rockland

Pine rocklands (also called pinelands) are found on uneven limestone substrates that contain pinnacles and solution

holes. There are three primary locations of pine rocklands: the Miami Ridge, which runs from Miami into Long Pine

Key near the main entrance of Everglades National Park; the lower Florida Keys; and the Big Cypress Swamp.[49]

The most significant feature of the pine rockland ecosystem is the South Florida slash pine (Pinus elliotti var densa;

also called Dade County pine) that reaches a height of 22 feet ( m). Pine rockland communities require fire for

maintenance; they have adapted to promote and resist fire at the same time.[50]

These communities are located in the

highest part of the Everglades with little to no hydroperiod, although some floors may have flooded solution holes or

puddles for a few months at a time. The sandy floor of the pine rocklands is covered with dry pine needles that are

highly flammable. South Florida slash pines are insulated by their bark to protect them from heat. Fire eliminatescompeting vegetation on the forest floor, and opens pine cones to germinate seeds.

[51]A period without significant

fire can turn pineland into hardwood hammock as larger trees overtake the slash pines.[52]

The understory shrubs in

pine rocklands include fire-resistant species like saw palmetto (Serenoa repens), cabbage palm (Sabal palmetto), and

West Indian lilac (Tetrazygia bicolor). The most diverse group of plants in the pine community are herbs, of which

two dozen species exist. These plants contain tubers and other mechanisms allowing for quick sprouts after

charring.[53]

Wildlife in pine rockland communities is diverse. In some forests, 15 species of birds can be found. Common among

them are the pine warbler (Dendroica pinus), the red-bellied woodpecker (Melanerpes carolinus), and the eastern

meadowlark (Sturnella magna). More than 20 species of reptiles and amphibians have been noted, such as the green

anole (Anolis carolinensis), southern leopard frog (Rana sphenocephala), and southern black racer (Coluber

constrictor priapus). Mammals such as the critically endangered Florida panther (Puma concolor coryi), Florida

black bear (Ursus americanus floridanus), and several types of bats also live in the pine rocklands.[50]

Before urban development of the South Florida region, pine rocklands covered around 161,660 acres ( km2) in

Miami-Dade County. Pine forests were extensively cleared by urban developers and the lumber industry in the 1930s

and 1940s.[50]

Within Everglades National Park, 19,840 acres ( km2) of pine rockland communities are protected, but

outside the park, 1,780 acres ( km2) of pine forests remain as of 1990, averaging 12.1 acres ( km

2) in size.

[50]Dade

County pine has a remarkable longevity and has proven to be termite-resistant, though dense enough to make driving

nails difficult.[54]

In 1984 they were protected by a county ordinance, after many pine areas had been depleted. A

misunderstanding of fire's role also played a part in the disappearance of pine forests, as natural fires were put out

and pine rocklands transitioned into hardwood hammocks.[50]

Today prescribed fires occur in Everglades National

Park in pine rocklands every three to seven years.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ursus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miami-Dade_County%2C_Floridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Termitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Local_ordinancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prescribed_firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prescribed_firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Local_ordinancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prescribed_firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prescribed_firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prescribed_firehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Local_ordinancehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Termitehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Miami-Dade_County%2C_Floridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ursus_americanushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puma_concolor_coryihttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Critically_endangeredhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coluber_constrictor_priapushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coluber_constrictor_priapushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rana_sphenocephalahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anolis_carolinensishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sturnella_magnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melanerpes_carolinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Dendroica_pinushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tetrazygia_bicolorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sabal_palmettohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serenoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slash_Pinehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Everglades_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestonehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Florida_rocklands%23Pine_rocklandhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=South_Florida_metropolitan_areahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Atlantic_Oceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ASouth_Florida_rocklands_on_Everglades_National_Park_Long_Pine_Key_Nature_Trail.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serenoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Serenoahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Slash_pine


8/15


The Big Cypress

West of the sawgrass prairies and sloughs lies the Big Cypress Swamp, commonly called "The Big Cypress",

referring to its size rather than the height or diameter of its trees. It takes up the majority of Collier County; at its

most limited measurement, the swamp measures 1,200 square miles ( km2), but its hydrological boundary is nearly

twice as large.[55][56]

The Big Cypress is slightly elevated at 22 feet ( m) at its highest point and slopes gradually to

the coastline for approximately 35 miles ( km). Because the defining feature of The Big Cypress is the abundance oftrees, it is considered a swamp rather than a marsh, in which grass is the main characteristic.

The basin for The Big Cypress receives on average 55 inches ( cm) of water in the rainy season.[57]

Most of The Big

Cypress sits atop a bedrock covered by a thin layer of limestone that contains quartz, creating a sandy soil that hosts

a variety of vegetation.[56]

The majority of trees are bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and not true cypresses

(Cupressaceae). Cypresses are conifers that are uniquely adapted to thrive in flooded conditions, with buttressed

trunks and root projections that protrude out of the water, called "knees".[58]

Cypress trees in the area can live for hundreds of years; some giants grow to 130 feet ( m) and are 500 years old.

Still, they may be only seventh- or eighth-generation cypresses. Few massive trees survived the logging operations

that took place in the 1930s and 1940s. As a result, much of The Big Cypress is protected by various federal or state

agencies that include Big Cypress National Preserve, Corkscrew Swamp Sanctuary, Fakahatchee Strand State

Preserve and two Indian reservations.[59]

Cypress head

A pond in The Big Cypress

Although The Big Cypress is the largest growth of cypress swamps in

South Florida, such swampsas well as portions of sawgrass

marshescan be found near the Atlantic Coastal Ridge and between

Lake Okeechobee and the Eastern flatwoods. Hardwood hammocks

and pineland are often interspersed with the cypress ecosystem. Much

like tree islands that are colloquially referred to as "heads", cypress

trees grow in formations that resemble domes, with the tallest and

thickest trunks in the center, rooted in the deepest peat. As the peat

thins out, cypresses continue to grow, but are smaller and thinner,

giving the small forest the appearance of a dome.[60]

They also grow in

strands, slightly elevated on a plateau of limestone and surrounded on two sides by sloughs.[61]

Other hardwood trees

can be found in cypress domes, such as red maple (Acer rubrum), swamp bay (Persea palustris), and pop ash

(Fraxinus caroliniana). If cypresses are removed, hardwoods take over, and the ecosystem is recategorized as a

mixed swamp forest.

Because the cypress domes and strands retain moisture and block out much of the sunlight, plants such as orchids,bromeliads, and ferns thrive in cypress domes and strands. Orchids bloom throughout the year in cypress heads, and

bromeliads appear in many varieties; on Fakahatchee Strand alone, thirteen species have been documented.[62]

Bromeliads collect moisture from rain and humidity in the bases of their leaves, which also nurture frogs, lizards and

various insects. Wood storks (Mycteria americana) nest almost exclusively in cypress forests and in the past

100 years have seen a dramatic decline, probably due to lack of reproduction tied to controlled water. Wood storks'

reproductive cycles coincide with the dry season, when small fish and amphibians are trapped in shallow pools and

puddles. When water from canals or locks is released too soon or not at all, storks are unable to find enough food for

themselves and their offspring. An estimated 20,000 wood storks nested in The Big Cypress in the 1930s, but by the

1990s less than 2,000 were counted.[63]
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Restoration_of_the_Evergladeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mycteria_americanahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fernhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bromeliadhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Orchidhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fraxinus_carolinianahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Persea_palustrishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Acer_rubrumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3ABig_cypress.jpghttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fakahatchee_Strand_State_Preservehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fakahatchee_Strand_State_Preservehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Corkscrew_Swamp_Sanctuaryhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Big_Cypress_National_Preservehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cupressaceaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taxodium_distichumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quartzhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Collier_County%2C_Florida


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Mangrove and Coastal prairie

Red mangrove trees bordering a canal in the

Everglades near Flamingo

Water from Lake Okeechobee and The Big Cypress eventually flows

to the ocean. At a transitional zone where fresh water meets salt water,

mangrove trees thrive, adapted as they are to both kinds of water. This

brackish mixture of water and mangrove systems, crisscrossed by

hundreds of tidal creeks, harbors a very productive ecosystem. The

depth of these zones is dependent on how much water flows from the

Everglades. In the wet season, fresh water pours into Florida Bay and

sawgrass appears near the coastline. In dryer years, salt water creeps

inland to the coastal prairie, an ecosystem that buffers the freshwater

marshes by absorbing sea water. Mangrove trees grow in fresh water

ecosystems when the salt water flows far enough inland.[64]

The

Everglades have the most extensive contiguous system of mangroves

in the world.[65]

The mangrove forests of the Ten Thousand Islands cover almost 200,000 acres ( km2).

[66]

Mangrove

Three species of mangrove trees exist in the region: red (Rhizophora mangle), black (Avicennia germinans), and

white (Laguncularia racemosa), although all are from different families.[67]

All have the same characteristics: they

are tolerant of salt, brackish, and fresh water; they grow in oxygen-poor soil; and they can survive drastic water-level

changes.[68]

Black and white mangroves excrete salt from under their leaves, and red mangroves filter the salinity of

sea water. All species are integral to coastline protection during severe storms. Red mangroves, for example, have

far-reaching roots that trap sediments. The trees not only stabilize coastlines, but add land as more sand and decaying

vegetation is trapped in the root systems. All three mangroves also absorb the energy of waves and storm surges.

The estuaries act as fisheries for fry and nurseries for crustaceans. Shrimp, oysters, crabs, whelks, cockles, and snails

thrive in these waters, as do primordial horseshoe crabs (Limulus polyphemus). The region supports a

$59 million-a-year Tortugas pink shrimp (Farfantepenaeus duorarum) industry, and a $22 million-a-year stone crab

(Menippe mercenaria) industry.[69]

Between 80 and 90 percent of species that are harvested commercially in Florida

are born or spend time in the shallow waters near the Everglades.[66][70]

Oysters and mangroves work in tandem to

build up the coastline. The sand around the coastline has minute white particles of quartz and fine shells. When

currents are right, oysters grow in colonies or beds, and deposit their shells, reinforcing the bed. Mangrove seeds,

called propagules, are full embryos and float in water until they reach a favorable location and take root, often on

oyster beds. They shed skin and litter, ensuring other trees will not compete for space and nutrients.[71]

Mangroves also serve as excellent rookeries for birds. Wading birds, such as roseate spoonbills (Platalea ajaja),

egrets, and tricolored herons (Egretta tricolor) use the mangroves as a nursery, due to the proximity of food sources

and the protection offered from most prey. Thousands of birds can nest in the mangroves at once, making a noisy

and messy colony, but their droppings fertilize the mangrove trees.[72]

Shorebirds like rails, terns and gulls; diving

birds such as pelicans and grebes; and birds of prey such as ospreys, hawks and vultures are among the more than

100 species of birds that use Everglades mangrove trees to raise their young.
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulturehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hawkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ospreyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Birds_of_preyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Grebehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pelicanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gullhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ternhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rallidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egretta_tricolorhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Egrethttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Platalea_ajajahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Embryohttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Propagulehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Menippe_mercenariahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Farfantepenaeus_duorarumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limulus_polyphemushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cockle_%28bivalve%29http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Whelkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Oysterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Crustaceanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fisherieshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Storm_surgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Laguncularia_racemosahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Avicennia_germinanshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rhizophora_manglehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ten_Thousand_Islandshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tidal_creekhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brackishhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mangrovehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AEverglades_mangroves_Buttonwood_Canal.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mangrove


10/15


Florida Bay

A clump of mangroves in the distance, Florida

Bay at Flamingo

Because much of the coast and inner estuaries are built by

mangrovesand there is no border between the coastal marshes and

the baythe ecosystems in Florida Bay are considered part of the

Everglades. More than 800 square miles ( km2) of Florida Bay is

protected by Everglades National Park, representing the largest body of

water in the park boundaries.[73]

There are approximately one hundred

keys in Florida Bay, many of which are mangrove forests.[74]

Larger

islands may be taken over by hardwood hammocks. The outer rims of

the Ten Thousand Islands and Cape Sable share characteristics of the

intertwining saltwater bays and fresh water marshes.

The fresh water entering Florida Bay from the Everglades creates ideal

conditions for vast beds of turtle grass and algae formations that foster animal life in the bay. Sea turtles and

manatees (Trichechus manatus latirostris) eat the grass, while invertebrates such as worms, clams, and other

mollusks consume algae formations and microscopic plankton.

[75]

Female sea turtles return annually to nest on theshore, and manatees spend the winter months in the warmer water of the bay. The Calusa Indians had various uses

for shells of marine invertebrates, due to the lack of dense rock with which to make tools. They used the horse conch

(Pleuroploca gigantea), left-handed whelk (Busycon contrarium), and the Florida crown conch (Melongena corona)

as drinking vessels, picks, hammers, knives and awls.[76]

Sea grasses stabilize sea beds and protect shorelines from erosion by absorbing energy from waves. Shrimp, spiny

lobsters, and sea urchins live in and among the grasses and feed on phytoplankton; they in turn feed larger predators

such as sharks, rays, barracuda, and king mackerel (Scomberomorus cavalla).[77]

Due to shallow water and abundant

sunlight, Florida Bay hosts communities of coral reefs and sponges, although the majority of the state's reefs are

closer to the Florida Keys.[78]

Everglades keys that foster mangroves also support nurseries for wading birds such as

the Great white heron (Ardea herodias), which was almost wiped out in the Labor Day Hurricane of 1935 (only 146

were counted afterward).[79]

After recovering to number more than 2,000, they were further endangered by

Hurricane Donna in 1960, which decreased their numbers by 35 to 40 percent.[80]

Sea floor patterns of Florida Bay are formed by currents and winds. However, since 1932, sea levels have been rising

at a rate of 1 foot ( m) per 100 years.[81]

Though mangroves serve to build and stabilize the coastline, seas may be

rising more rapidly than the trees are able to build.[82]

Biodiversity

Ecosystems in the Everglades have been described as both fragile and resilient.[83]

Author Michael Grunwald wrote

about the observations of the Everglades' first American visitors: "If the Grand Canyon was a breathtaking painting,

the Everglades was a complex drama, and everything in it had a role."[84]

An estimated 11,000 species of

seed-bearing plants and 400 species of land or water vertebrates live in the Everglades, but slight variations in water

levels affect many organisms and reshape land formations. The health and productivity of any ecosystem relies on

the number of species present: the loss of one species weakens the entire ecosystem.[85]

For example, Florida apple snails (Pomacea paludosa) are an amphibious fresh water mollusk.[86]

They have a

single gill and lung, and live on stalks of sawgrass in water depths no more than 20 inches ( cm). They are the

primary food of the endangered Everglades snail kite (Rostrhamus sociabilis) and limpkin (Aramus guarauna) as

well as the raccoon, otter, and young alligator. Apple snails lay their eggs on sawgrass stalks about 6 inches ( cm)

above the water line, and they are intolerant of being submerged for long periods of time. When the eggs hatch,

young snails must enter the water quickly or face death. When water levels are too low or rise too quickly while snail

eggs are developing, apple snails do not flourish, affecting the many reptiles, mammals, and birds that feed on
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aramus_guaraunahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rostrhamus_sociabilishttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ampullariidaehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hurricane_Donnahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Labor_Day_Hurricane_of_1935http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ardea_herodiashttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florida_Keyshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spongehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral_reefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Scomberomorus_cavallahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barracudahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rajiformeshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sharkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Phytoplanktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_urchinhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spiny_lobsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spiny_lobsterhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Melongena_coronahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Busycon_contrariumhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pleuroploca_giganteahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Calusahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Planktonhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trichechus_manatushttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sea_turtlehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Seagrasshttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cape_Sablehttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Everglades_National_Parkhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florida_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File%3AFlorida_Bay_at_Flamingo.JPGhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flamingo%2C_Floridahttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florida_Bayhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Florida_Bay


11/15


them.[87]

With regard to the ecology of trophic dynamics, or food chains, the 174 species of invertebrates play a vital

role in the Everglades.[88]

Crayfish, insects, scorpions, and other invertebrates also support a web of animals.

The group of animals most integral to the overall success of Everglades wi ldlife is freshwater fish. Few places in the

Everglades stay submerged from one year to the next, so alligator holes and deep clefts in the limestone are vital to

the survival of fish, and the animal community as a whole. Freshwater fish are the main diet of most wading birds,

alligators, and otters, and require large areas of open water in order to repopulate. Young amphibians also play animportant role in the food chain. Tadpoles spread quickly in isolated areas where fish do not have the time or access

to reproduce in numbers necessary to support larger animals. Hundreds of species of amphibians are found in the

Everglades, and their availability helps support wildlife during short hydroperiods or in remote locations.[89]

These smaller animals support communities of larger animals, including 70 species of land birds that breed within

the Everglades, and 120 water birds, of which 43 breed in the area. Many of these birds go on to migrate through the

West Indies and North America.[90]

Several dozen species of mammals also thrive in the region, from tiny bats and

shrews to midsize raccoons (Procyon lotor), otters (Lontra canadensis), opossums (Didelphis virginiana), and foxes.

The largest include white tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the Florida black bear, and the Florida panther.[91]

Although slight changes in water level affect many species, the system as a whole also cycles and pulses with each

change. Some transformations to the diversity of plant and animal life are natural, caused by fire or storms, and some

are induced by humans, such as urban encroachment, the introduction of exotic species, and rapid global warming.

Environmental conditions in the Everglades favor no particular species. Some species, such as snail kites and apple

snails, do well in wet conditions, but wood storks and Cape Sable seaside sparrows (Ammodramus maritimus

mirabilis) do well in dryer circumstances.[83]

Human impact

People have lived in the Everglades region for thousands of years. Within the past 100 years however, they have

changed the natural landscape dramatically. Settlement of urban areas in South Florida was facilitated by large

drainage projects intended to create more land. The drainage was often implemented without a full understanding of

the intricacies of ecosystems and shaping processes of the Everglades.[92]

Though the South Florida metropolitan

area grew exponentially, the result caused chaos in ecosystems throughout the Everglades. By the 1990s, the

diminishing quality of life in many of these urban areas was linked to the degraded local environment.[93]

The State

of Florida and the U.S. government devised and passed a plan in 2000 to restore as much of the Everglades to

pre-drainage conditions as possible. It is the costliest and most comprehensive environmental restoration project in

history.[94]

Notes and references

[1][1] Lodge, p. 13.

[2] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Watersheds and Coastal Waters (Big Cypress Watershed)"(http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1134/esns/bcw.html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under

Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved 2008-03-17.

[3] McCally, p. 1821.

[4] McCally, pp. 910.

[5][5] Lodge, p.14.

[6] Lodge, pp. 1819.

[7] U.S. Geological Survey (2004). "Environmental Setting - The Natural System: Climate" (http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/circular/1134/

esns/clim.html). Circular 1134: The South Florida Environment - A Region Under Stress. U.S. Department of the Interior. . Retrieved

2008-03-17.

[8] Obeysekera, Jayantha; Browder, J., Hornrung, L., Harwell, M. (October 1999). "The natural South Florida system I: Climate, geology, and

hydrology". Urban Ecosystems (Kluwer Academic Publishers) 3 (3/4): 223244. doi:10.1023/A:1009552500448.

[9][9] Lodge, p. 21.

[10] Hurricane Research Division (2008). "Atlantic hurricane best track" (http://www.aoml.noaa.gov/hrd/hurdat/tracks1851to2007-apr08.

txt). NOAA. . Retrieved 2008-05-03.
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[11][11] Lodge, p. 89.

[12][12] Jewell, p. 35.

[13] Lodge, pp. 8993.

[14][14] Toops, p. 95.

[15] Gleason, Patrick, Peter Stone, "Age, Origins, and Landscape Evolution of the Everglades Peatland" inEverglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

[16] McCally, pp. 1214.

[17] McCally, pp. 15

17

[18][18] Lodge, p. 38.

[19][19] SFWMD (2010), p. 6-3.

[20] Lodge, pp. 3941.

[21] Schaffraneck, Raymond; Ami L. Riscassi, Nancy B. Rybicki, Alfonso V. Lombana (September 3, 2003). "Fire Effects on Flow in Vegetated

Wetlands of the Everglades" (http://sofia.usgs.gov/projects/dynamics/fireeffects_03geerab.html). U.S. Geological Survey. . Retrieved

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[22][22] Grunwald, p. 12.

[23][23] George, p. 13.

[24][24] Douglas, p. 11.

[25][25] Whitney, p. 168.

[26] Lodge, pp. 2527.

[27][27] Jewell, p. 46.[28][28] Whitney, p.168.

[29][29] George, p. 42.

[30][30] Lodge, p. 31.

[31][31] George, p. 14.

[32] Whitney, p. 114115.

[33][33] Lodge, p. 29.

[34][34] Whitney, p. 164.

[35][35] Whitney, p. 163.

[36] George, pp. 4546.

[37][37] Lodge, p. 35.

[38][38] George, p. 30.

[39][39] Lodge, p. 55.

[40] Douglas, pp. 4849.

[41][41] George, p. 31.

[42][42] Toops, p. 53.

[43][43] Lodge, p. 58.

[44][44] Toops, p. 57.

[45][45] Toops, p. 61.

[46][46] George, p. 39.

[47] Lodge, pp. 4546.

[48][48] McCally, p. 9.

[49][49] Jewell, p. 45.

[50] U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. " South Florida Multi-Species Recovery Plan: Pine rockland (http://www.fws.gov/southeast/vbpdfs/

commun/pr.pdf)" (PDF), Retrieved May 3, 2008.

[51] George, pp. 7

8.[52] "Land and Resource Management Projects" (http://sofia.usgs.gov/publications/reports/doi-science-plan/managefire.html).DOI science

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[53][53] Lodge, p. 66.

[54][54] Lodge, p. 63.

[55][55] Lodge, p. 67.

[56][56] George, p. 26.

[57][57] Ripple, p. 16.

[58][58] Jewell, p. 43.

[59] Ripple, pp. 1920.

[60][60] Ripple, p. 26.

[61] Ripple, pp. 3132.

[62][62] Ripple, p. 28.

[63] Ripple, pp. 3038.
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[64][64] George, p. 19.

[65] Katherisen, K. (2001). "Biology of Mangroves and Mangrove Ecosystems",Advances in Marine Biology, Alan J. Southward (ed.) 40,

pp. 18251. ISBN 978-0-12-026140-6.

[66][66] Ripple, p. 80.

[67][67] Jewell, p. 41.

[68][68] Whitney, p. 286.

[69] "About Florida Bay" (http://www.floridabay.org/intro.shtml). Sea Grant Florida. July 16, 2001. . Retrieved 2008-06-08.

[70] Humphreys, Jay; Franz, Shelley, and Seaman, Bill (March 1993). "Florida's Estuaries: A Citizen's Guide to Coastal Living and

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[75] Whitney, pp. 313316.

[76] Griffin, pp. 93103.

[77] Whitney, pp. 328330.

[78][78] Jewell, p. 40.

[79][79] Toops, p. 88.[80][80] Williams, p. 26.

[81][81] Lodge, p. 100.

[82][82] Lodge, p. 104.

[83][83] Toops, p. 92.

[84][84] Grunwald, p. 14.

[85][85] Whitney, p. 383.

[86][86] Whitney, p. 241.

[87][87] Lodge, p. 136.

[88][88] Lodge, p. 140.

[89][89] Lodge, p. 160.

[90] Lodge, pp. 183185.

[91] Lodge, pp. 175180.

[92] Light, Stephen, Dineed, J. Walter, "Water Control in the Everglades: A Historical Perspective", inEverglades: The Ecosystem and its

Restoration, Steven Davis and John Ogden, eds. (1994), Delray Beach, Fla.: St. Lucie Press. ISBN 0-9634030-2-8

[93] "Chapter 1: Background and understanding" (http://web.archive.org/web/20110518165911/http://dlis.dos. state.fl.us/fgils/agencies/

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Article Sources and Contributors 15

Article Sources and ContributorsGeography and ecology of the Everglades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=520131769 Contributors: Acroterion, Bender235, Bibliomaniac15, Biruitorul, CapeVerdeWave,

Casliber, Climie.ca, Dank, Epbr123, Epipelagic, Eustress, Fairy gal123, Fiftytwo thirty, Glane23, Guettarda, Juliancolton, Kakofonous, Kevmin, LindsayH, Melchoir, Michael Devore, Miguel.v,

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