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Geographical Information Technologies for Road Infrastructure Maintenance in Uganda
Lydia Mazzi Kayondo-Ndandiko
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Blekinge Insitute of Technology Licentiate Dissertation Series
No 2011:08ISSN 1650-2140
ISBN 978-91-7295-211-9
School of Planning and Media Design Department of Technology and Aestetics
Blekinge Institute of Technology Sweden
Geographical Information Technologies for Road Infrastructure Maintenance in Uganda
Lydia Mazzi Kayondo-Ndandiko
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Blekinge Institute of Technology
Blekinge Institute of Technology, situated on the southeast coast of Sweden, started in 1989 and in 1999 gained the right to run Ph.D programmes in technology.
Research programmes have been started in the following areas:
Applied Signal ProcessingComputer Science
Computer Systems TechnologyDevelopment of Digital Games
Human Work Science with a special Focus on ITInteraction Design
Mechanical EngineeringSoftware Engineering
Spatial PlanningTechnosicence Studies
Telecommunication Systems
Research studies are carried out in faculties and about a third of the annual budget is dedicated to research.
Blekinge Institue of TechnologyS-371 79 Karlskrona, Sweden
www.bth.se
© Lydia Mazzi Kayondo-Ndandiko 2011Department of Technology and Aestetics School of Planning and Media Design Graphic Design and Typesettning: Mixiprint, OlofstromPublisher: Blekinge Institute of TechnologyPrinted by Printfabriken, Karlskrona, Sweden 2011ISBN 978-91-7295-211-9 um:nbn:se:bth-00498
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Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Abstract
Acknowledgements
Preface
List of Acronyms
Part 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1Background
1.2GeoSpatialTechnologiesasDecisionSupportTools
1.3TransportServicesinUganda
1.3.1RoadInfrastructureMaintenanceinKampala
1.3.2GITUsageforRIMinUganda-Theproblem
1.4ResearchObjectivesandQuestions
1.5SignificanceoftheResearch
1.6Methodology
1.6.1LiteratureReview
1.6.2FieldVisitsandInterviews
1.6.3Observations
1.6.4FieldDataCollection
1.6.5WorkshopsandConferences
1.6.6DataAnalysis
1.7Scope
1.8References
Part 2 RESEARCH CONTEXT
2.1DecisionSupportSystems
2.2PreviousRelatedResearch
2.3ConcludingRemarks
2.4References
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Part 3 PAPERS
3.1IntroductiontothePapers
3.2PaperI
3.3PaperII
3.4PaperIII
3.5PaperIV
Part 4 CONCLUSION
4.1SummaryandDiscussionofthepapers
4.1.1PaperI
4.1.2PaperII
4.1.3PaperIII
4.1.4PaperIV
4.2ResearchContribution
4.3WayForward
4.4FinalRemarks
Bibliography
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List of Figures
List of FiguresFigure1-1:ExamplesofGITsFigure1-2:ResearchDesignFigure2-1:TheDecisionMaking/ModellingProcessFigure2-2:ComponentsofSpatialDecisionSupportSystems:TheDDMParadigmFigure3-1:ASnapshotoftheGeosetterMainWindowFigure3-2:MapofUgandaShowingKampalaandJinjaAreasFigure3-3:CamerasClampedontheVehicleGuardRailFigure3-4:FieldBaseMapDocumentFigure3-5:GPSDataasanExcelSheetFigure3-6:KMLPlotoftheGPSLogFigure3-7a&b:SectionsofBujagaliRoadCapturedat10amFigure3-8a&b:ThesamesectionofBujagaliRoadasinFigure3-7,CapturedafterRainfall
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List of Tables
List of TablesTable2-1:PrioritizationSchemeTable3-1:ElementsofRoadManagementTable3-2:ComparisonbetweentheTraditionalROMDASandtheGITBasedTech-nology
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This thesis is a documentation of research on Geographical Information Technologies(GITs)asdecisionsupporttoolsinRoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM)inUganda.Themainobjectiveistodevelopanoperationalframeworkwithinwhichtheuseofgeo-informationtechnologiescanbeenhancedasdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceworksofUganda.Specifically,theresearchidentifiesthegapsandlimitationsintheuseofandaccesstoGITsforRIManddefinesanalgorithmicframeworktoaccentu-atetheuseofGITsinRIM.Theresearchundertookaparticipatorymultifacetedapproachthatincludedareviewofdocumentationbothinacademia,informofarticles,journals,books,reportsandresearchthesesandalsoreportsanddocumentspreparedbytheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesector.Participantobservations,fieldvisitsandmeasures,in-terviewsandworkshopswerealsotriangularlyemployedtoobtaintheinherentanswers.ContentandGISanalysesweremadetoarriveatthefindingsthataredocumentedinthepaperswhicharepartofthethesis.
ThegapstousingGITsinRIMhavebeenfoundtoincludethelackofstandardizeddatasetstoaddresskeynation-wideandlocalmaintenancerequirements,challengesoncoordinat-inghowgeospatialdataareacquiredandutilizedandthecollectionofduplicatedatasetsatthelocalandnationallevels.Also,thepresentinstitutionalarrangementsdonotpermittheformationoflastingpartnershipsandoperatingunderacoordinatedGISinfrastructure.ThelimitationstoaccessofGITsinthesectorinclude;theabsenceofpoliciesforacces-sibilityandstandarduseofGITs,lackofinfrastructuretosupportutilizationofgeographicdatasets,unavailabilityofandlimitedaccessibilitytogeographicdata, lackofgeospatialcapacityatindividualandorganizational levelsandthedigitaldivide.Anondeterminis-ticalgorithmicframeworkapproachtotheaccentuationofGITusageinRIMhasbeensuggested.Thisframeworkinvolvesstrategieson;developingapolicyondatacollectionguidelinesemphasizingtheuseofGPS,satelliteimageryandGIS,continuousundertak-ingofcapacitybuildinginthebenefitsofGITuseandthescienceinvolved,establishmentofLocalSpatialDataInfrastructures(LSDI)forroadmaintenancedataandsettingasideyearlybudgetsforthedefinedactivities.Inthisframework,thedynamicsegmentationdatamodelisconsideredasuperiordatastoragestrategyforroadmaintenancedatawithintheGIS.DynamicSegmentationistheprocessoftransforminglinearlyreferenceddata(alsoknownasevents)thathavebeenstoredinatableintofeaturesthatcanbedisplayed,que-riedandanalyzedonthemapthroughcomputations.Itallowsforthelocationofmultipleeventsstoredwithlinearlyreferencedattributeswithoutanyduplicationwithroutegeom-etryandineffectsupportssharingofnetworkinfrastructurewithdifferentapplications
Thethesishasbeenorganisedinfourparts.Thefirstpartistheintroductiontotheresearchwhichprovides a background, discusses the conceptual issues related toGITs, the cur-rentstatusofGITsintheRIMsector,theobjectivestotheresearchandthemethodologyadopted to achieve those objectives. Part 2 is a review and contextualisation of relatedresearch,Part3arethepublishedpapersintheiroriginalformandPart4isabriefdiscus-sionoftheattachedpapers,theresearcher’scontributionto-date,thewayforwardtothedoctoralthesisandfinalremarks.
Keywords:Datamodel,Decisionsupport,GeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs),RoadMaintenance,Uganda.
Abstract
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Acknowledgement
Iamprivilegedtohavetheopportunitytothankwhoeverhassomehowmadeacontri-butiontothesuccessofthisresearchtodate.ThealmightyLordwhohaskeptmealiveandenergetictoperformtheseworks,Iwillalwaysgiveyoutheglory!
Iamgratefultothesponsorsofthisstudy,Sida.Thankyouforthecontinuedsupport!
Tomysupervisors,ProfsGerhardBaxandS.S.TickodriTogboawhoarediligentlyincustodywithmethroughoutthejourneyofthisresearch,Isay,thankyouprofessors!
IappreciatethecooperationandresponsesfromseveralpeoplethatIinterviewedandhavecontinuedtointeractwithduringthedatacollectionstages.EventhoughIcan-notmentionallbyname,thankyousomuchforthetimeandbrilliantideasdiscussed.IwouldhoweverliketomentionEngineers.DavidssaliLuyimbazi,PatrickLudigo,OrachCharlesAssedri,CharlesBakaki,RobertKakiza,Ms.MaryAdweo,EmmyKwe-siga,CharlesKizitoandEmy.Thankyousomuchforthedataanddevotedattitudetowardsthisresearch.
Myseniorcolleaguesatwork,Drs.MosesMusinguziandAnthonyGidudu,Ithankyouforyourguidanceatthevariousstagesoftheresearch.
MyappreciationalsogoestotheentirefamiliesoftheformerFacultyofTechnology,nowthecollegeofEngineering,Design,ArtandTechnologyofMakerereUniversityandthedivisionofTechnoscienceStudiesofBlekingeInstituteofTechnology,Cam-pusKarlshamn,Sweden.YouhaveprovidedacomfortableworkingenvironmentforwhichIamhighlygrateful.SpecialthankstoProf.LenaTrojerforhermotherlytouchateveryopportunityavailed.ThankyousomuchLena.
Lastly,Iamindebtedtomyfamily,forthetimestheyhaveenduredwithoutmyphysi-calpresenceasmotherandwife,especiallytothelatestadditionBrianna!Briannahaskeptjollyandaccommodativeinmyabsence,anaspectofherthatkeptmecomfort-ablywritingthisthesisawayfromhome.
MayGodabundantlyblessyouall!
MazziLydiaKayondo–NdandikoKarlshamnApril2011
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...I dedicate this thesis to my family, Brianna, Bridgette, Bruno and Charles…...So that you may know, that in my absence, I was making these ends meet...
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Thisthesisbuildsfromtheauthor’smaster’sresearchwheresheinvestigatedtherela-tionshipbetweeninformationrequirementsanddataavailabilityinthecaseoftrans-portplanninginUganda.Theproblemaddressedatthetimewascentredonthetrans-portationsystemofKampalabeingfacedwithmanychallenges.Researchhasassignedthesechallengestolackofknowledgeonthepartofplannersastowhichdatatouse,datanotbeingavailableandeventheavailabledatanotbeingputtouseinplanningforabettersystemandservices.Thiswasessentiallybecausethisdatadidnotsuittherequirementsforplanners.However, today, this situation is being addressed through the ongoing National Spatial Data infrastructure (NSDI) studies taking place in the country. A Spatial Data Infrastructure (SDI) is a framework of policies, institutional arrangements, technologies, data and people that makes it possible to share and use geographic informa‑tion effectively. Although individual attempts to affect SDIs have been on for quite some time, at the moment, there is an ongoing study at the national level that was commissioned to assess NSDI for monitoring development outcomes. This study is at the stage of defin‑ing roles and responsibilities to cater for the various sections of the NSDI. The question of its (NSDI) funding is however still a hassle to come by thus far.Toaddresstheresearchproblem then, the researcher sought topropose someguidelines for improving theutilizationofgeoinformationwithinthetransportdomaininKampala.Thesedevisedguidelineswerelogicallyderivedfromthechallengesfacedwiththeutilizationofgeoinformation.Thechallengesweremainlyorganizationalbutalsotechnicalinnature.Theseguidelines included,struggletowarrantpolitical favour, formalisationofcol-laborationsamongthedifferentorganisations,streamliningoforganisationalrolesandresponsibilities,documentationofdata,developingofdatastandards,maximizingthedonorfundedprojectsandcombiningseveralfundingmechanismstofacilitatedataupdate.Thatresearchconcludedthatbecauseofthecomplexityofthetransportsec-tor demands, therewasno single approach to collecting, analysing, displaying anddisseminationofgeospatialtransportinformation.Fromthatresearch,amanuscriptchapterentitled“SDIRequirementsforTransportPlanning:ACaseStudyofKampalaUganda”hasbeenacceptedforpublishinginthebook,“RecentAdvancesinGISandRemoteSensingAnalysisinSub-SaharaAfrica”bytheNovapublishers.
Inacontinuedprocessfromthemaster’sprogramme,thisresearchthenseekstoinves-tigatetheuseofGeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs)asDecisionSupportToolsinRoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM)inUganda.Despitethetremendousadvancesingeospatialtechnologyandtheincreaseinavailabilityofspatialdata,geo-graphicinformationtechnologieshavenottakenfootintheroadmaintenancesectorofUganda.ThegapsandlimitationsintheuseofGITsforRIMhavebeenanalysedtorelatewiththeinstitutionalchallengeslimitingtheattainmentofbasicdatarequire-mentsfortransportationplanningfromthepreviousresearch.Thesehavebeendis-cussedinpaperIIofthisthesis.InpaperIII,aframeworktoenhancingtheuseofGITsforRIMhasalsobeensuggested.PaperIVdiscussesaLowcostGITbasedmappingmethodology that could assist decision makers at the preliminary decision makinglevelofmaintenanceprograms.Thethreepapers(I,IIandIII)includedinthisthesis
Preface
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havebeenpublishedasconferencepapers.PaperIVisamanuscriptthathasbeensub-mittedforpresentationatthe1stConferenceontheAdvancesinGeomaticsResearchscheduledfor4th-5thAugust2011.Thereferencedetailstothesepapersareasbelow.
IMazzi,L.,K.,Tickodri,S.,S.,T.,andBax,G.,(2009).GeographicalInformationTech-nologiesasDecisionSupportToolsinRoadInfrastructuremaintenanceinUganda.Inproceedingsofthe9thAfricaGISinternationalConference:“GeospatialInformationandsustainabledevelopmentinAfrica;FacingChallengesofGlobalChange”,Kam-pala,Uganda,26th-30thOctober2009.ISBN:9970-814-17-6.
IIMazzi,L.,K.,Tickodri,S.,S.,T.,andBax,G.,(2010).AnOverviewoftheGapsandLimitationsintheUtilizationofGITsforRoadInfrastructureMaintenanceinUgan-da.Presentedatthe5thESRIEasternAfricaUserConference(EAUC),Transporta-tionandUtilities.SafariParkHotel,Nairobi- Kenya.10th-12thNovember2010
IIIMazzi,L.,K.,Tickodri,S.,S.,T.,andBax,G.,(2011).AlgorithmicIncorporationofGeographicalInformationTechnologiesinRoadInfrastructureMaintenanceinUganda.PresentedatTheSecondInternationalConferenceonAdvancesinEngi-neeringandTechnology(AET2011).Theme:Contributionofscientificresearchindevelopment.1(C)InformationandCommunicationsTechnologyandPolicy(ICTP-1)pp242-248.ImperialResortBeachHotel,Entebbe,Uganda.January30th–February1st2011.ISBN:978-9970-214-00-7
IVMazzi,L.,K.,Bax,G.,andTickodriS.S.T.,(2011).LowCostGITBasedTechnologyforPreliminaryRoadMaintenanceDecisionSupport.TobepresentedattheAdvancesinGeomaticsResearchConferenceon3rd-4thAugust2011,Kampala,Uganda.
AsabackgroundtothisresearchbutnotincludedinthisthesisisthemanuscriptbookchapteracceptedforpublicationbytheNovapublishers.Itsdetailsareasbelow;
VMazziLydia.K.N.andGidudu,A.,“SDIRequirementsforTransportPlanning:ACaseStudyofKampalaUganda”inRecentAdvancesinGISandRemoteSensingAnalysisinSub-SaharaAfrica
The researchwill eventuallyprogress to aPhDon assimilationof the stakeholders’contributiontothedevelopedframeworkandondevelopmentofaprototypeGIS-TdynamicsegmentationdatamodelforroadmaintenanceinUganda.
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List of AcronymsADEOS AdvancedEarthObservingSatelliteAVL AutomaticVehicleLocationCAA CivilAviationAuthorityCCD ChargeCoupledDeviceCEDAT CollegeofEngineering,Design,ArtandTechnologyDBMS DatabaseManagementSystemDDM DataDialogModellingDGMS DialogGenerationandManagementSystemDSS DecisionSupportSystemsETM+ EnhancedThematicMapperplusGDP GrossDomesticProductGI GeographicalInformationGIS GeographicalInformationSystemsGIS-T GeographicalInformationSystemsforTransportationGITs GeographicalInformationTechnologiesGLCF GlobalLandCoverFacilityGMMS GISBasedMaintenanceManagementSystemGoU GovernmentofUgandaGPS GlobalPositioningSystemsICT InformationandCommunicationsTechnologyIQL InformationQualityLevelIRI InternationalRoughnessIndexIRS IndianRemoteSensingITS IntelligentTransportSystemsKBS KnowledgeBasedSystemKCC KampalaCityCouncilKML KeyholeMarkupLanguageLC LocalCouncilLG LocalGovernmentLISS LowImagingSensingSatelliteLRP LocationReferencePointLRS LocationReferenceSystemLSDI LocalSpatialDataInfrastructureMBMS ModelBaseManagementSystemMDGs MillenniumDevelopmentGoalsMIS ManagementInformationSystemsMoLG MinistryofLocalGovernmentMoWT MinistryofWorksandTransportMRSAC MaharashtrastateRemoteSensingandApplicationCentreNDP NationalDevelopmentPlanNISDIC NationalInteragencySpatialDataInfrastructureCommitteeNPA NationalPlanningAuthorityNSDI NationalSpatialDataInfrastructureNWSC NationalWaterandSewerageCorporationOPRC OutputPerformance-basedRoadContractsPAN PanchromaticPCI PavementConditionIndex
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PEAP PovertyEradicationActionPlanPMIS PavementManagementInformationSystemPROME ProjectManagementEngineeringPWD PublicWorksDepartmentRAFU RoadAgencyFormulationUnitRAMPS RoadAnalysisManagementandPlanningSoftwareRAMS RoadAssetManagementSystemRGB RedGreen&BlueRIM RoadInfrastructureMaintenanceRIMS RoadInformationandManagementSystemRMS RoadManagementSystemROMDAS RoadMeasurementandDataAcquisitionSystemRS RemoteSensingSDI SpatialDataInfrastructureSDSS SpatialDecisionSupportSystemsSLC ScanLineCorrectorSOI SurveyofIndiaTOR TermsofReferenceTRB TransportResearchBoardTTCA TransitTransportCoordinationAuthorityUBOS UgandaBureauofStatisticsUEB UgandaElectricityBoardUETCL UgandaElectricityTransmissionCompanyLimitedUML UnifiedModellingLanguageUNRA UgandaNationalRoadsAuthorityWTC WorldTradeCentre
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Part 1 - Introduction
1.1 Background
Awellmaintainedtransportationsystemofacountryplaysapivotalroleinitsinfra-structuraldevelopmentthuspromotingsustainabledevelopment.Economically,trans-portisalivelihoodofcities,andinmostcountries,includingdevelopingcountries,citiesarethemajorsourcesofthenationaleconomicgrowth(WorldBank,2002).Thisistoimplythattheeconomichealthofaregionisdirectlylinkedtomobility.Transportaccountsforanappreciablepercentageofacountry’sGrossDomesticProduct(GDP)andassuchiscentraltodevelopment.
Theprovision,operationandmaintenanceofthephysicalinfrastructureofatranspor-tationsectoranditsrelatedsocialservicesrequireapriorknowledgeandmanipulationofgeo-information.Geospatialdataareafoundationforrelevantandcritical infor-mationforplanning,engineering,assetmanagement,andoperationsassociatedwitheverytransportationmodeatalllevelsofgovernmentandadministration,TransportResearchBoard(TRB,2004).
Themanagementofroadtransport,sinceitisthemostwidelyusedmodeoftransportinAfrica,playsanimportantfactorinthecountry’sdevelopment.ThetransportsectorinUgandacontributessignificantlytotheeconomicgrowthandpovertyeradicationinthecountrythroughvariousways,especially,throughtradeandtourism.It(thetrans-portsectorinUganda)comprisesofroads,railways,airandinlandwaterways.Roadtransportisbyfarthemostdominantmodeoftransportinthecountry,carryingwell
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over90%ofpassengerandfreighttrafficandservingasatruebackbonesupportingthecountry’seconomy,UgandaNationalRoadsAuthority,TermsofReference(UNRA-TOR,2007).RoadsprovidetheonlymeansofaccesstomostoftheruralcommunitiesandeffectivemanagementofthisassetisvitaltotheGovernmentofUganda’sstrategyforeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyeradication.TheabsenceofafullyfunctionalrailroadtohandlebothfreightandlongdistancerouteshascreatedstrainontheroadinfrastructureinUganda.
TherehavebeenmanycasesofpoortransportservicesinUgandaasdocumentedby;Grimaudetal.(2007),TransitTransportCoordinationAuthority(TTCA,2004),andMukwaya(2001).Theroadinfrastructurewasdevelopedinachaoticmanner,withnoplanforacoordinatedandrationalizeduseofmodesandroutes(Mukwaya,2001).Asaresult,ithassufferedfromnegligenceleadingtoroadinfrastructurefailure.Attemptstomaintainroadshavefrustratedusersasthey(theroads)almostimmediatelydeveloppotholesafterrepair.Worsestill,roadmaintenancehasprovenadhoc,thusmakingthetransportsystemunsatisfactory.
DimitriouandBanjo (1990)discuss transportproblemsof thirdworldcities.Theyincludetrafficcongestion,impactstotheenvironment,andhighroadaccidents.Eventoday, Uganda still faces problems of traffic congestion, high road accidents, weakinstitutionalsupportleadingtopoordefinitionoftheproblemathandanddifferingtechnologytransferprioritiesinproblemresolution.
Nowadays, however, the need for preventive maintenance is being appreciated inUgandaandplansofmakingitapriorityareinplace(RobinsonandStiedl,2001).Luyimbazi(2007)indicatedthatmaintenanceneedsarebasedonroadinventory,con-ditionand trafficdata, allofwhichcanbeeffectivelycollectedandmanagedusingGeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs).
TheunderstandingofGITs,effectiveuseofgeographicalinformationandtheknowl-edgeof theiradvantages iscritical totheplanninganddecisionmakingprocess forassetmanagementdepartments.Becauseawellmaintainedroadnetworkassetisveryimportant for theeconomicdevelopmentof thenation,RoadInfrastructureMain-tenance(RIM)isaprerequisiteforthesuccessfulmanagementofroads.TheuseofGeographicInformation(GI)thatiscollected,managedandanalyzedusingGITsisveryusefulindecisionmakingforRIM.GITsarecommonlyreferredtoasInforma-tionCommunicationTechnology (ICT) tools used in the collection,management,maintenance,manipulationandpresentationofgeographicdataandorinformation(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).Morerecently,ithasbecomeclearthatGIS,togetherwithGlobalpositioning systems (GPS), aerialphotography,RemoteSensing techniques,andotherspatiallyrelatedtoolsfordecisionmaking,comprisealargerarrayofcomple-mentarytoolsthatcanbegroupedtogetherunderthemorecomprehensiverubricof“geographicinformationtechnologies”(GIT)(TeresaM.Harrisonetal.,2007).Theuseofthesetechnologiesisknowntosimplifydecisionmakingtoanontechnicallevelandtosupportthestakeholdersinsustainable-orienteddecisionmaking.Embracingandcontinuingtodevelopaflexible,methodological frameworkforthe integration
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ofdecision-supportingtechnologieswithinfrastructureisfundamentaltosupportingeffectiveincorporationofspatialdataindecision-making(Cartright,1993)ascitedinMasserandOnsrud(1993).
UgandaisbeyondthefirstappearancesofGIT,whenonlyhighlyqualifiedprofession-alscouldhandlethem.Today,advancesintechnologyaretremendous(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).AwiderangeofGISisavailablerangingfromhighcostserverbasedtolowcostuser-friendlydesktopsoftware.Thesectorhasnotedtheincreaseintheavailabilityofspatialdata.Thespatialandtemporalresolutionofremotesensingdatahasimpres-sively increased, andmoredata arenow freely available.Themostoutstanding ad-vancementhasprobablybeenthedevelopmentoftheInternetandwebGISwhichhasopenedupnewopportunitiessuchasaccesstorealtimemaps,cheapandfrequentdataupdatesandworldwidesharingofspatialinformation.Disseminatingspatialinforma-tionontheInternetthroughweb-basedGISimprovesthedecision-makingprocesses(JainandSharma,2005).Throughgraphicrepresentationandspatialanalysis,theuseofGITswouldhelptomakeRIMprocessesunderstandabletodecisionmakersandlaypersons.
UseofGITs is increasingly shifting fromreference tools todynamicdecisionmak-ingtools.Thisshifthasbeentriggeredby,amongotherfactors,emergencysituationssuch as theWorldTrade Centre (WTC) attacks of September 11 200l (Teresa M.Harrisonetal.,2007).Thisattackbecameacatalyst forchange in theuseofGITsforalmostallrelevantdisciplinestransportationinclusive.Mostofthedatarequiredforroadmaintenanceisspatialinnature,makingGITsrelevantinroadmaintenance.Roadmaintenance inUgandahaspresentedabigchallengeandyet there isno re-searchthathasbeenundertakentocontextualizetheGITrequirementsforimprov-ingroadmaintenance.Maintenanceattemptshaveextensivelycenteredonfixingofpotholeswhenobserved.However,withoutuseofappropriatedataanddatamodels,roadmaintenanceactivitiesareboundtopersistascostlyandtimeconsuming.Thereisnocomprehensivemethodologyorframeworkforaddressingboththetechnicalandnon-technicalissuesaffectingGITimplementation.TheoverallaimofthisresearchistodefineaframeworkthatwillworktowardsenhancingtheuseofGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceworksinUganda.ThisthesisgivesadescriptionoftheroadmaintenancesectorinUganda;itdiscussesthegapsandlimita-tionsfacingtheseorganisationsastheyseektoutiliseGITsinRIM(PaperII).Basingonthesegaps,thethesissuggestsanalgorithmicapproachinformofaframeworktoaccentuatetheuseofGITsinRIM(PaperIII).AspartofthethesisdocumentationisanintroductiontoalowcostGITbasedtechnologyforpreliminaryroadmaintenancedecisionsupport(PaperIV)andabriefoftheavailablefreewareandopensourcesoft-waretomanipulateGIdata/products(PaperI)
1.2 Geo Spatial Technologies as Decision Support Tools
GeoInformationTechnologiesareasetofspecializedInformationandCommunica-tionsTechnologieswhichhelptocollect,manageandanalysedataabouttheresources,
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landscape features, and socioeconomiccharacteristicsofanarea inboth spaceandtime(Ehrensperger,etal.,2007).Theyprovideanimportantfeatureforcommunica-tion,disseminationandknowledgesharingonaccountoftheircapabilitytofacilitatedisplayandvisualizationofspatialdata.GITsincludefourbasicspatialtools,namely,GeographicalInformationSystems(GIS),GlobalPositioningSystems(GPS),RemoteSensing(RS)andwebbasedtoolssuchasGoogleEarthwhichprovidenewwaysofsharinginformationandvisualizingofnearrealtimedata.Figure1-1showsagraphicalexampleofavailableGITtools,includinga)NokiaGPSnetworkroverreceiverwithGISsoftwareformobilemappingb)Satelliteimage,c)TrimbleGPSequipment,d)Aerialphotograph,e)EarthglobeinstancingGoogleEarthandf )Asatellitesurveyingtheearth.
Figure 1‑1: Examples of GITs
GIS facilitates storage,management and analysis of geographically referenceddata,integratingcommondatabaseoperationswithuniquemeansofvisualizationandthegeographicandanalysispotentialsofmaps.Itassistsusersinspatialanalysisandpro-vides a base for interpreting how physical, social and economic factors interact inspace.GIScaneffectivelybeusedasatool intheSpatialDecisionSupportSystem(SDSS)ofroadinfrastructureinUganda.ASDSSisaninteractive,computer-basedsystemdesignedtosupportauserorgroupofusersinachievinghighereffectivenessofdecisionmakingwhilesolvingsemi-structuredspatialdecisionproblems.
GPSaresatellitebasedpositioningsystemsforcapturinglocationsofsamplepointssuchas road junctions,potholesor larger features (landmarks)on the road.Theseotherlandmarksmaylaterbeusedtoreferencesatelliteimagesorotherspatialdatalay-ers.RemoteSensingontheotherhandisthedetectingoftheearth’ssurfacefromsatel-litesandairplanesbymakinguseofthepropertiesofelectromagneticwavesemitted,reflectedordiffractedbythesensedobjects.Itprovidesimagesoftheearth’ssurfacethatcanbeusedtoidentifyespeciallydifferenttypesoflandcover.
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Mapping and cartography are a discipline and science with a long historical back-ground,whichdatesbackprobablyas longas thehistoryof thewrittenword(Eh-rensperger, 2006). They are a traditional approach of GITs, which uses maps andsketchesoffeaturesinthegeographicspacetocarryoutspatialanalysis.
AdvantagesassociatedwiththeuseofGITsareimprovedmapping,greaterefficiencyinretrievalofinformation,fasterandmoreextensiveaccesstothetypesofgeographi-calinformationimportanttoplanning,improvedanalysis,bettercommunicationtothepublic,andspeederaccesstoinformationforvariousapplicationprocesses.Theirimplementationhoweverisassociatedwithsomekeyissuestoconsider(Ehrensperg-er,etal.,2007).Theseinclude;Relevanceofcontent:thereisaneedtoidentifythevariousstakeholderstohelpinthedefinitionofthecontentintheGIS.Appropriatetechnology:acrucialaspectofsuccessfulGITimplementationisaccessibilitywhichincludescostsofhardware,softwareanddata.Also,multidisciplinarysystemshavebecomeaprerequisiteforinfrastructuremanagement.Forinstance,roadinfrastructuremaintenancerequiresdatafromutilityorganisations,e.g.,waterandelectricityallofwhichrequireintegration.Furtherstill,oneshouldconsiderthestrengtheningofstakeholder’smotivationtoworktogether,e.g.acrosssectorministriesandordepartmentsandthisistodowiththeinstitutionalizationofGIT.
1.3 Transport Services in Uganda
ThetransportsectorinUgandaconsistsoffourmajormodes;i.e.,air,road,railwayandinlandwatertransport.Roadtransportisbyfarthemostdominantmodeoftransportwithinthecountry,carryingwellover90%ofpassengerandfreighttrafficandservingas a truebackbone supporting thecountry’s economyUgandaNationalRoadsAu-thority,TermsofReference,UNRA-TOR,(2007).RoadsprovidetheonlymeansofaccesstomostoftheruralcommunitiesmakingitseffectivemanagementvitaltotheGovernmentofUganda’sstrategyforeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyeradication.Uganda’sRoadNetworkcomprises:
• 10,800kmNationalRoadsundertheresponsibilityoftheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT)throughtheUNRA.About2700kmarepavedandtheremain-ing8,100gravel;
• 27,500kmDistrictroadsundertheresponsibilityofMinistryofLocalGovernment(MoLG);
• 4,300kmUrbanRoadsundertheresponsibilityofUrbanCouncils;and
• 30,000kmCommunityAccessRoadsunderalowertierofLocalGovernmentresponsibility(LCIII);(RoadFund,2011)
TheGovernment iscurrently implementingaprogrammeofcontinuousupgradingofkeygravel roads tobitumenstandard.Theseroadsarecharacterizedbybadroadsurfaces,potholes,poorroaddesignsandinadequateroadfurniture.ThegovernmentstructureofUgandaiscomposedof2tiers,namelyCentralGovernment(GoU)andLocalGovernment(LG).TheGoUexecutesitsfunctionsthroughministrieswhichre-
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ceivetheirmandatefromparliament.TheMinistryofWorksandTransportisrespon-siblefortheplanning,developmentandmaintenanceoftheclassifiedroadnetworkinUganda.TheLGstructureconsistsofdistrictsgovernedbyautonomousdistrictcoun-cilsandurbanareasgovernedbyautonomousurbancouncils.ThelocalgovernmentactofUgandawaseffectedin1997todecentralizefunctions,powersandresponsibili-ties,includingthedevolutionofroadmaintenanceservicesofrural,district,urbanandcommunityroads to localandurbanauthorities.Thedistrictandurbanauthoritiesareresponsibleforthemaintenanceofthedistrictandurbanroadsrespectively.Eventhoughthisactallowsdistrictstofullyimplementroutineandperiodicmaintenanceactivities,rehabilitationisstillhandledbythecentralgovernmentthroughtheMoWT.Asafurtherdecentralizationstrategy,theMoWTisplanningonissuingoutOutputPerformance-BasedRoadContracts(OPRC)wherethecontractordecideswhattodo,whentodoit,howtodoitandwheretodoitinordertoachievetheclientprescribedservicelevels.
1.3.1 Road Infrastructure Maintenance in Kampala
RoadinfrastructuremaintenanceinUgandainvolvesanumberoforganisations;TheMinistryofWorksandTransport,UgandaNationalRoadsAuthority,roadconsult-ants and contractors. The Local governments and donors also play a part in somecircumstances.TheMoWThastheconstitutionalmandatetosetpolicy,regulate,setstandards, and provide technical guidance and monitoring to the construction in-dustry. Road infrastructure maintenance falls under the construction industry. TheUgandaNationalRoadsAuthorityisresponsiblefordevelopmentandmaintenanceofnationalroads.Thedistrictandurbanauthoritiesareresponsibleforconstructionandmaintenanceofthedistrictandurbanroadsrespectively.Alldistrictsarestaffedwithengineers,plannersandsurveyors.SincetheestablishmentoftheUNRA,thedistrictengineersareanswerabletoUNRAforthenationalroadswithintheirjurisdiction.AmaintenancescenarioinKampalaforexample,KampalaCityCouncil(KCC),alocalgovernment organization, is charged with the responsibility of maintaining districtroadswithinthecity.Dependingonthesizeofroadandthescopeofworksrequired,KCCnormallydecideswhetherornottoperformmaintenanceworksusinginhouseequipmentandpersonnelorcontractbasedroadmaintenance.Inthelattermethod,aprivatecontractorisoftenprocuredandhiredtoperformtheworksunderdirectorin-directsupervisionbyKCC.Underindirectsupervision,aprivateconsultantcompanyisassignedsupervisoryroleonbehalfoftheclientandthisnormallydependsontheprojectsizeandavailabilityoffunds.Thecommunityaccessroadsarearesponsibilityofthelowerlocalgovernmentsandtheirmaintenanceisoftencommunitybased.
1.3.2 GIT Usage for RIM in Uganda - The Problem
ThedesiretouseGISbytheMoWTinthemanagementofnationalanddistrictroadswasevidencedbythecommissioningofaprojectknownasManagementInformationSystems(MIS)in2006.ThisprojectwasplannedtoapplyGISformonitoringcross-
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cuttingissuesintheroadsector.TheRoadAnalysisManagementandPlanningSoft-ware(RAMPS)wasintegratedwithGISandwasappliedmainlyforreportingvariousattributesforroadmaintenance.Today,theUgandaNationalRoadsAuthority,whichischargedwiththemanagementofnationalroads,alsousesGISforreporting.Pres-entlyundertheUNRA,thereisanongoingprojectofbuildinganationalroadsdata-bankforthecountry.TheestablishmentoftheRoadAgencyFormationUnit(RAFU)in1999sawthetransferofthemanagementofcapital(development)projectsfromtheMoWTtothissemi-autonomousunit,theUNRA.InaccordancewiththispolicyandinordertoimprovetheefficiencyandeffectivenessofitsroadnetworkmanagementtheGoUalsodecidedtointroduceanOutputandPerformance-basedRoadContractssystem.Thissystemofperformance-basedcontractingisdesignedtoincreaseefficiencyandeffectivenessofroadassetmanagementandpreservation.Therefore,thecontractorissupposedtodecidewhattodo,whentodoit,howtodoitandwheretodoitinor-dertoachievetheclientprescribedservicelevels.Thepilotapplicationofthisstrategyisplannedonanetworkofapproximately1,500kmofselectednationalroadsnetworkineasternUgandai.e.Jinja,TororoandMbalemaintenancestations.
InordertoadequatelyprepareforthereplicationofthisOPRCsystemtotherestofthenationalroadnetworkofapproximately9,000km,RAFUnowUNRAneededtosetupacomprehensiveRoad/BridgeManagementSystem(RMS)witha roaddatabanktobeusedaccuratelyfordeterminingthefundingrequirementsforroadmain-tenance,developmentandrehabilitation.Accordingly,theMinistrydecidedtocom-missionconsultancyservicestoassistincollectingplanningdataonthenationalroadnetwork and set up a comprehensive geo-referenced roadmanagement system thatcanbeusedtodeterminethemaintenance,rehabilitationanddevelopmentneedsofroads,bridgesandotherroadnetworkassets.RoughtoninternationalandPROMEconsultantltdareprovidingtheseconsultancyservices.ApparentlyitisatthisprojectlevelthatGITsaretoanextentbeingrealizedinthecollectionandmanagementofroadmaintenancedata.Forexample, theRoadMeasurementandDataAcquisitionSystem(ROMDAS)isbeingusedtovideo-logtheroadconditioninaroadinventorysurveyundertakenbytheprojectinUganda.TheROMDASisasurveyingvehiclethatconsistsofseveralmeasuringinstrumentsincludingagyroscope,GPSreceivers,bumpintegrator,etcandavideocameramountedinthevehicle.Italsopossessessoftwaretoprocessthecollecteddiscretedata. It isusedbasicallyfor inspectionoftheroadnetwork(MihicandIvetic,2010).PROMEisjustoneoftheconsultantcompaniesinvolvedinroadmaintenanceactivitiesinthecountry.SeveralotherconsultantandcontractorcompanieswithoutGITknowledgeandexpertisearesimilarlyinvolvedinvariousroadmaintenanceactivities.
In reality, GITs are being underutilized in the RIM decision making processes. InUganda,thedecisiontoperformmaintenanceworksonaroadisinitiallybasedon;recordsofpastexpendituresontheroadsectionsinquestion,availabilityofresourcesandtrafficlevelsalongtheseroads.However,mostofthedatarequiredforroadmain-tenanceisspatialinnature.Luyimbazi(2007)indicatesthatroadmaintenanceneedsarebasedonroadinventory,conditionandtrafficdata.ThismakesGITsrelevantfor
26
the purpose. And yet, road maintenance has continued to present a big challenge.ThereisnoresearchthathasbeenundertakentocontextualizetheGITrequirementsfor improving road maintenance. Maintenance attempts have extensively revolvedaroundfixingofpotholeswhenobservedoratworst,whencomplaintsaremadeviathemedia.JustlikeBishopetal.,(2002)articulate,aprerequisiteforinterventionisaframeworkofup-to-datespatialinformationandausercommunitywithboththeskillstousespecificsoftwareproducts,andanunderlyingknowledgeofspatialinfor-mationscience.WithoutsuchinterventioninvolvingtheuseofappropriatedataanddatamodelstoenhanceGITusageinthesector,thetraditionalapproachtodecisionmakingwillsuffice.Andyetthisapproachislimitedbytimeconstraintsandwastageofbothhumanandfinancialresources.ThefocusofthisstudyistodevisestrategiesofenhancingtheuseofgeospatialtechnologiesasdecisionsupporttoolsinRIMinUganda, as support to the traditional pattern matching (majorly based on humanjudgement),thathasbeenusedovertime.
1.4 Research Objectives and Questions
Theresearchhasbeenguidedbyageneralobjectiveandthreespecificobjectives
General Objective:Todevelopanoperationalframeworkwithinwhichtheuseofgeo-informationtech-nologiescanbeenhancedasdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceworksinUganda.
Specific Objectives:1.ToidentifygapsintheuseofGITsintheroadinfrastructuremaintenanceprocessof
Ugandaandthelimitationstoaccessingthesetechnologies,
2.TodevelopanalgorithmicframeworkthatincorporatesGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceinUgandaand
3.TodeveloparoadmaintenancedatamodelbasedontheroadmaintenancedatarequirementsintheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesectorofUganda
Research Questions:Theaboveobjectivesarebeingaddressedusingthefollowing5researchquestions:
i.WhatarethebarriersfacedbyGITinitiativesinroadinfrastructuremaintenance?
ii.HowcantheuseofGITsbeenhancedintothedecisionmakingprocessesoftheroadinfrastructureworkstoensure,thatdecisionsinroadinfrastructuremaintenancearebasedonreliablespatialdata?
iii.Whatisthenatureofthedatausedforroadmaintenancedecisionmaking?
iv.Howeffectivelycanthedatainiii)aboveberepresentedinaGIS?
v.WhatisthemostappropriateGIS-TdatamodelforroadmaintenancedatainUganda?
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1.5 Significance of the Research
Thesignificanceoftheresearchcanbehighlightedinfourmajorways.Theresearchwillcreateawarenessofthepotentialofgeographicalinformationtechnologiesfordatacollection,managementandanalysisamongthestakeholdersintheRIMsector.ItwillincitethemtotheavailabilityoflowcosttechnologiesandfreewareopportunitiesofengaginginGITsfordecisionsupportpurposes.Inthisway,theresearchisalignedwithgoal8oftheMDGswhichstrivestomakeavailablethebenefitsofnewtechnolo-gies,especiallyinformationandcommunicationstechnologiesindevelopingaglobalpartnershiptodevelopment.Itshouldbeappreciatedthatachievingglobaldevelop-mentisdifficultunlessinitiatedatalocallevel.
Theresearchisalsowellalignedwithobjective5ofUganda’sNationalDevelopmentPlan(NDP)2010/11-2014/15whichhassincethensubstitutedthePovertyEradica-tionActionPlan(PEAP).Ashasbeenestablished,thetransportnetworkofacountryplaysapivotroletotheeconomicdevelopmentofthatnationhenceplayingapartinitspovertyeradication.Roadmaintenancestrategiesareaimedatmaintainingandimprovingthestateofthetransportnetworkinfrastructure.Objective5oftheNDPendeavours to promote science, technology, innovation and ICT to enhance com-petitiveness.Theresearchaddressesthekeybindingconstraintoflowapplicationofscienceandtechnology.
TheresearchwillexposethegapsandlimitationsthatareaffectingtheusageofGITsintheroadmaintenancesectorfortheresponsibleofficestodealwith.Noticethateventhoughtheresearchisdealingwiththeroadmaintenancedivision,thesegapsandlimi-tationsareaffectingseveralothersectorsthatmakeuseofspatialdatafordecisionmak-ingpurposes.Documentingthesechallengesisaprospecttohavingthemaddressed.
TheframeworkasoneofthefinaloutputsofthisresearchshallbeaguidingdocumenttothesectoronhowtoenhancetheuseoftheseGITsinsupportofknowledgebaseddecisionmaking.Finally,theresearchwilldevelopandtestamodelforroadinfrastruc-turemaintenancedataforUganda.
1.6 Methodology
Theresearchismultifacetedandparticipatoryinnature.Itisparticipatoryinthesensethatstakeholdersareinvolvedatallstagesoftheresearchduringinterviews,organi-zational observations, workshops and conferences. The research initially involved athoroughidentificationofallstakeholdersintheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesec-tor.VariousliteraturesrelatingtoGITs,roadmaintenance,diffusionofGITsetc, iscontinuouslybeingreviewed.Participantobservations,fieldvisitsandmeasureshavebeencarriedout.Allthesemethodsareemployedtriangularlytoensurecomplementa-rilyoffindings.TheoverviewissummarizedinFigure1-2.Thefiguresummarizesthemethodsused,thereasonsfortheirapplication,labeledasjustification,andtheoutputobtainedfromthesemethods.Areviewofliteraturewasnecessaryatallstagesofthe
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researchhencethedirectarrowfromtheliteraturereviewmethodtothejustificationbox.Similarly,allthemethodsemployedintheresearchhadacontributiontowardsthealgorithmicframeworktoaccentuatetheuseofGITsintheRIMsector.Likewise,theconferencesattendedandthescheduledworkshop(seesection4.3)istocontributetotheentirefindingsoftheresearch.
Figure 1‑2: Research Design
1.6.1 Literature Review
Thereisliteraturedocumentedinjournalarticles,conferenceproceedings,booksandreportsontheapplicabilityandimplementationofGITs.Thisliteratureiscontinu-ouslybeingreviewedinsubjectsrelatedto,theuseofGITsincludingbutnotlimitedtoRS,GIS,GPS,groundbasedmappingandcartographyasdecisionsupporttools,theirinstitutionalization,adoption,implementation,andsuccessfactors,roadinfra-structuremaintenancemanagementworks,roadmaintenancedataandallothermate-rialinlinewithmodellingGITsfordecisionsupport.Thecontentofthesedocumentshasbeenanalyzedandusedforpurposesofthisresearch.
Observations & Field measures
Literature Review
Interviews
Workshops & conferences
To understand GIT concepts &
applicability for road maintenance
To identify gaps in GIT use and
limitations to enhance use
To acquire knowledge on the data
requirements for road maintenance decision
support
To develop inputs into the framework
enhancing GIT use in road maintenance
METHODS OUTPUT JUSTIFICATION
Gaps in the use and Limitations to access of GITs
in road infrastructure maintenance
Nature of road maintenance data and Data Model for road maintenance
data requirements
Algorithmic framework for
GIT enhancement in
road maintenance
decision making decisionmaking
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1.6.2 Field Visits and Interviews
Initially, field visits were made to the transport ministry and other stakeholders(UNRA,districtengineers,contractorsandconsultancyfirms)forbrief illustrationsonhowdecisionmakingismadepriortomaintenanceoftheroadinfrastructure.Inorder toachieveobjective1and2, theexistingsystems in theseorganizationswerestudied.Ananalysisofthedatausedforroadmaintenancewasmade.Howthisdataiscollected,whomanagesthedatabases,thefrequencyofdatacollectionandsimilarobservationsweremade.Thiswas followedby interviewsusingan interviewguide.For purposes of pretesting and developing a precise interview guide, informal ses-sionswereinitiallyorganizedwithonlyafewquestionsprepared.Theintentionwastoevokemorequestionsbasingontheresponsesoftheinterviewee.Forthispretestingsession,five(5)personswereinterviewedusingthedesignedguideandduringthen,theguidewasaccessedintermsclarityofquestions,timeforinterviewandwhetheralltherequiredparameterswereincludedintheguidequestions.Theinterviewguidewascontinuouslyupdateduntilamomentwhenfoundsatisfactory.
Furtherquestionswerecontinuouslygeneratedduringtheactualinterviewsasameansofprobingintervieweesincaseofunclearresponses.Thesamplingframecomprisedofmanagersinroadmaintenanceorganisations,i.e.MoWT,UNRA,consultantsandcontractors.Thesamplesizewaslimitedto3personsperorganizationconsideringthatthey(organizations)arenotheavilydeployedinthefieldofgeoinformationmanage-ment.However,5personnelfromUNRAwereinterviewed.Thisisbecause,inUNRA,GITisbeingappreciatedatafasterratetoday.Acombinationofexpertandsnowballsamplingwasusedtosamplepersonswithknowledgeanddemonstrableexperienceandexpertiseintheresearcharea,thesethenrecommendedotherswhoalsometthecriteria for inclusionto the interview.Thisdatacollectiontechniquewasmainly toassistinthegenerationofthereportontheexistinggapsintheuseofgeospatialtech-nologiesinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceinthecountry,toidentifythelimitationstoincorporatingthesetechnologiesindecisionmaking,andassessingtherequirementstohavingthesetechnologiesincorporatedinthedecisionmakingprocesses.
1.6.3 Observations
Directparticipantobservationshavebeenmadeattheroadmaintenanceorganisationsespeciallyatthedatacollectionstagesofdecisionmaking.Populatingoftheorganisa-tionsdatabasesandthemanagementofthesedatawerestudiedforaperiodoftime.ThisgaveanindicationofthegapsandlimitationsofGITusageandassistedindevel-opingstrategiestodeveloptheframeworktoaccentuationofGITusageinthesector.
1.6.4 Field Data Collection
An independentmappingof the roadsas ameansof assessing thedigitaldatacor-rectnesswasmade.UsingaGPSandlaptop,theresearchermappedasampleofroadsinthestudyareaforpurposesofaccessingthecurrencyoftheexistingdatabases.A
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GISanalysisofthesedataisintendedtohighlightthegapsinthedataarchivedintheroadmaintenanceorganizations.Throughthismethodofdatacollection,alowcostGITbasedmethodologyforpreliminaryroadmaintenancedecisionsupportwasalsodeveloped.
1.6.5 Workshops and Conferences
ThetransportsectorofUgandaiscontinuouslyholdingworkshopsandconferenceswheretheirstrategicplansandpoliciesareoftendiscussedandreviewed.Thisisafo-rumwherechallenges,limitationsandexpectationsofplansandprojectsfromvariousdivisionsofthesectorarediscussed.DuringthelatterstagesofthePhD,theresearcherplanstoattendworkshopsandconferencesorganisedbythesectorasameansofenvis-agingthelikelypossibilityoftheresearchinterventionbeingadoptedorplacedinplanforthefuture.Additionally,theresearcherhasmadepresentationsonthePhDworkinprogressatthree(3)internationallyorganisedconferences.
Inordertomaximizestakeholderparticipationandconsentonthefindingsandsug-gestionsinplace,aworkshopof20participantsisplanned(seesection4.3).TheseshallincludemembersfromtheRIMstakeholdercategorythathasalreadybeenidentified,scholarsandprofessionalsinthediscipline.Theresearcherwillmakeapresentationontheresearchfindingsandrecommendationstodate.Thestakeholderswillthenhaveanopportunitytoreactandhaveamoreharmonizedinputintotheresearcher’sevolvedframework.Theintentionistofurtherpublicizethefindingsandrecommendationsfromtheresearchandtoaccesstheviabilityofimplementationoftheframeworkbas-ingonperceptionsofroadmaintenancemanagementstakeholdersandwithscholarsofexpertiseinthesubjectofGITsinroadinfrastructuremaintenance.
Allethicalrules,regulationsandlawsareadheredtoduringtheexecutionoftheaboveresearchmethods.
1.6.6 Data Analysis 1.6.6.1 Qualitative Data Analysis
Thegathereddatafrominterviewswasanalyzedusingcontentanalysis.Themesweredefined and coded based on interview responses and conference discussions (fromtheinternationalconferencesattended).Theobtainedcontentwasrankedaccordinglyundertheseveralthemes.Dependingonthecontentunderthedefinedthemes,itwaspossibleto;
CategorizethegapsandlimitationsintheuseofGITsforroadinfrastructuremainte-nance,and,
Hierarchically,dependingonfrequencyofappearanceinthethematiccontentanaly-sis,definearationalalgorithmicframeworkthatshouldenhancetheuseofGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenance.
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1.6.6.2 GIS Analyses
GISanalysesarebeingperformedonthedata.To-date,acombinationofdatasetswasmadethroughvectoroverlaysandrasterprocessingusingsatelliteimagery.Thiswasasanattempttoaccessthequalityofdatainuseformaintenancevisavietheindependentfieldmeasures(GPSlocationsandphotoswithembeddedGPSlocations)madebytheresearcher.Attributeandspatialquerieswereusedtogeneratestatisticalsummariesoftheroadinventoryandconditiondata.ThesefindingshavebeendiscussedinpapersIIandIII.
1.7 Scope
ThestudyisspecificallydoneinUganda,withKampalaandJinjadistrictsastheareaswherefieldworkisexecuted.Kampalawasselectedbeingthecapitalcityofthecountry,andJinjabecauseofthepoorroadinfrastructuredespiteitsmanageablesize.
TheresearchinvolvesthedevelopmentofaframeworkwithinwhichtheuseofGITsinroadmaintenanceinUgandashouldbeenhanced.TheframeworkisbasicallyanoperationalstructurewithinwhichtheorganisationsinvolvedintheactivitiesofroadmaintenancedecisionmakingcanworktogethertoboostertheuseofGITs.
AGIS-TroadmaintenancedatamodelforUgandaistobedevelopedbasingontheroadmaintenancedatarequirementsoftheseinvolvedorganisations.Asmostofthedata is spatial in nature, emphasis will be paved on the spatial data aspects. Someexcerptsof themodelwill be adopted,with scrutiny, fromexistingdatamodels ofcountrieswithsimilarroadmaintenancedatarequirements.Theresearchisparticipa-tory,involvingthestakeholderorganisationsintheroadmaintenancesectorindevel-opmentofboththeoperationalframeworkanddatamodel.
ReferencesBishop,I.,D.,Barry,M.,Mcpherson,E.,Nascarella,J.,Urquhart,K.&Escobar,F.(2002)
MeetingtheNeedforGISkillsinDevelopingcountries:Thecaseforinformalsettlements.Transactions in GIS.
Dimitriou,H.T.&Banjo,G.A.(1990)Transport Planning for Third World Cities.,Londonetc.,Routledge.
Cartright,T.J.(1993)GeographicInformationTechnologyasanAppropriateTechnologyforDevelopment.
Ehrensperger,A.,Wymannvon,S.D.&Kakridi,F.E.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnolo-giesforNaturalResourceManagement.InfoResources Focus,No3/07.
Grimaud,P.,Sserunjogi,M.L.&Grillet,N.(2007)AnevaluationofmilkqualityinUganda:ValueChainAssessmentandRecommendations.African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition
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and Development,7.Jain,K.&Sharma,V.(2005)DynamicDecisionSupportSysteminTransportation–InternetGIS.
The 8th Annual International Conference, Map India 2005.JotelTajPalace,Geomatics2005Luyimbazi,D.(2007)DeterminationofRoadMaintenanceNeeds.
Masser,I.&onsrud,H.J.(Eds.)(1993)Diffusion and Use of Geographic Information Technologies,Dordrecht:KluwerAcademicPublishers.
Mihic,S.&Ivetic,D.(2010)TowardseffectiveroadconditionstatevideobasedWebconsulting:augmentedvideodatabase.IEEE,505-509.
Mukwaya,P.(2001)UrbanSprawlandtheChallengesofPublicTransportServicesDelivery/ProvisioninUganda.
Robinson,R.&Stiedl,D.(2001)DecentralizationofRoadAdministration:CaseStudiesinAfricaandAsia.Public Administration and Development.copyright©2001JohnWiley&SonsLtd
TeresaM.Harrison,TheresaPardo,J.RamonGil–Garcia,FionaThompson&Juraga,D.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnologies,StructurationTheory,andtheWorldTradeCenterCrisis.58,2240–2254.
TheWorldBank(2002).CitiesontheMove.AworldBankurbanTransportReviewTRB(2004)TowardsafoundationforImproveddecisionmaking,GeospatialInformationInfra-
structureforTransportationOrganisations.Conference Proceedings 3.1, Transport Research Board (TRB).
TTCA,S.(2004)TransitTransportCoordinationAuthorityoftheNorthernCorridor.Invest-mentOpportunitiesintheNorthernCorridorwithEmphasisinTransportInfrastructure.Kampala,Uganda.
http://www.roadfund.ug/TransportSector.htmaccessedonMarch10th2011
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Part 2 - RESEARCH CONTEXT
Thispartofthethesisisintendedtocontextualizetheresearchbyrelatingittootherresearchthathasbeendoneinthesamearea.Asonefamiliarizeswiththeworksofpre-viousresearchers,itwillbeimportanttoappreciatethebackgroundcircumstancesofthecountriesinwhichtheseresearchhavebeenaccomplished(thatis,incomparisonwiththecountrybackgroundofthisresearchundertaking-Uganda)hencethecontextinwhichthisresearchsomewhatdiffersfromwhathasbeenaccomplishedpreviously.SincetheresearchispertainingtoGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsforRIM,abriefback-groundondecisionsupportsystemswillbeadequateasaprefacetocontextualisationoftheresearchwiththereviewedliterature.
2. 1 Decision support systems
A Decision Support System (DSS) is defined as an approach or methodology forsupportingdecision-making. Ituses an interactive, the solution for a specific semi/non-structuredmanagementproblem. Itusesdata,providesflexible, and adaptablecomputer-basedinformationsystem,especiallydevelopedforsupportinganeasyuserinterface, andcan incorporate thedecisionmaker’sown insights. In addition,DSSusually use models and are built (often in consultation with end users) during aninteractiveanditerativeprocess(evolutionaryprototypingprocess).Theyrequirehard-ware,software,informationordata,andshouldsupportallthephasesofthedecisionmakingprocess,whichinclude,intelligence,designandthechoiceandimplementa-tionphases(Turban,2001).Figure2-1diagrammaticallyshowsthisdecisionmaking/modellingprocess.
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Figure 2‑1: The Decision making / Modelling process.Source: (Turban, 2001)
This description of a DSS necessitates a couple of tools of which GITs have beenprovenasusefulinproblemsthatarespatialinnature.ThetechnologyforaDSSmustconsistofthreesetsofcapabilitiesintheareasofdata, dialog,andmodelling(theDDMparadigm)(Turban,2001).Thereshouldbeabalancebetweenthedata;dialogandmodellingforaspatialdecisionsupportsystem.ThefocusofthisresearchisontheDataaspectofthisDDMparadigm.Thisaspectconcernsitselfwithconsiderationsofdatacapture,storage,manipulation,andretrieval.Figure2-2highlightsthecompo-nentsofaSDSSinaDDMparadigm
35
Figure 2‑2: Components of Spatial Decision Support Systems: The DDM ParadigmSource: (Malczewski, 1997)
TheDataBaseManagementSystem(DBMS)containsthefunctionstomanagethegeographic data base; the Model Base Management System (MBMS) contains thefunctions tomanage themodelbase; and theDialogGenerationandManagementSystem(DGMS)managestheinterface betweentheuserandtherestofthesystem.
2.2 Previous Related Research
GeographicInformationSystems,GlobalPositioningSystems,RemoteSensingandmappingplayanimportantroleinallgeographicandspatialaspectsofthedevelop-mentandmanagementofroadinfrastructures.Ofthethree,GISseemstohaveat-tractedmostattentionandemphasis.Nevertheless,RemoteSensing isviewedasanessentialtoolforthecaptureofdatasubsequentlytobeincorporatedintotheGISandfornearreal timemonitoringofenvironmentalconditions foroperationalmanage-mentoftheinfrastructurefacilities.Remotesensingtechniquesandspatialdataanaly-sisthroughGIShavebeenusedinanumberofdisciplinesasdecisionsupporttools.
TheuseofGeographicInformationTechnologiesiswellacknowledgedinvariousstud-iesundertakenbyresearchersandgovernments.However,thesetechnologieswereonlygroundedintheearly90shencethelimitationonthescopeofliteratureonpreviousre-searchinthesame.Indiaasacountryhasgreatlyadvancedinresearchprojectsleadingtotheuseofgeographicaltechnologiesinroadinfrastructuremanagement.LiteratureonmostoftheseprojectsiswelloutlinedinproceedingsoftheMapIndiaconferences.El-Shair(2003)inacasestudyofBirkenhead,AucklandillustratedtheuseofGISandRSinurbantransportationPlanning.Heusedtwoaspectsoftransportationplanning,i.e.,busroutesandstopsfacilitiesandassumedthatforthesefacilitiestobeadequatelylocatedinBirkenheadAuckland,80%ormoreoftheresidentialandcommercialareasintheregionshouldbelocatedwithinthebufferzoneof300metersfromallroutesandstops.Hisassumptionswereexaminedusingbuffering,shapearc(writesshapefilespatialandattributeinformationtoArcinfocoverage)andidentitytoolsinArcinfo,whichproveduseful.El-Shair(2003)concludedthatGISandRScouldeffectivelybe
Geographic Database
DBMS MBMS
DGMS
Model Base
User
36
usedinurbanroadsmappingandinurbantransportationplanning.However,herec-ommendsthatanothercasestudyshouldbedefinedtoaffirmhisfindings.
Inabidtoevaluatetheexistingconditionoftheroadsandtosuggestneededimprove-mentmeasuresfortheroads,sothatcost-effectivemoderntechnologiescouldbeusedtoprovidehigherlevelserviceabilitybyapplyingregularandtimelymaintenance,Raoet al. (2006)developed a GISBasedMaintenanceManagementSystem (GMMS)formajorroadsofDelhi.Thisdevelopmentwasmadesoastobenefitfromtherealis-ticrepresentationofreal-worldentities,anorganiseddatastructureandthepowerfulanalysisandpresentationcapabilitiesofGIS.Similarly,thisresearchisaimedatdevel-opingaframeworkwithinwhichGITbenefitscanberealisedandinturnbenefittheRIMsectorofUganda.
Karandikaretal.(2003)outlinedexperiencesoutoftheirprojectonaGISbasedRoadInformationandManagementSystem(RIMS). In theirproject, adecision supporttoolforthePublicWorksDepartment,GovernmentofMaharashtrawasdeveloped.Withtheobjectiveofhavingamorescientificandsystematicapproachforthearchivalofmapsandretrievalofstatisticalinformation,astatewide,uptodatedigitaldatabaseofroadsthatinducesefficiencyandaccuracyinmonitoring,management,planningandsubsequentdevelopmentoftheroadnetworkwasdevelopedusingGIS.Theproj-ectwas successful due to collaborationbetweenMaharashtra stateRemoteSensingandApplicationCentre(MRSAC),Nagpur,SurveyofIndia(SOI)andPublicWorksDepartment(PWD).Asaresult,districtmapsusedinthecreationofrawdataforthespatialdigitaldatabasewereobtained.Updatingof this rawdatawaspossiblewiththehelpofIRSsatellite’sPanchromatic(PAN)dataof5.8meterresolutionandlinearself-scanningSensor(LISSIII)datathatwassuitablyenhancedandregisteredtoPANdata.Thisresearchclearlyraisestwoissues,therelevanceofGITaidstomaintainuptodatespatialdata,and,theneedforcooperationbetweendepartmentstoachieveGITinstitutionalization.
ForthesituationofUgandahowever,updatedsatelliteimageryisnotaffordable.Thefreelyavailablesatellite imagery isquiteoutdated.Evenforthefreelyavailable im-agery,hardlyanyuseisbeingmadefromthem.Besidesthehighresolutionimageryalreadycombinedwithancillarydata,thatisavailableinGoogleEarthtoday,thereisfreedownloadableimageryundertheGlobalLandCoverFacility(GLCF)includingthemostrecentETM+imagesofwhichthemostrecentdataarehoweveraffectedbyanerrorduetotheScanLineCorrector(SLC)sensorfailure.Thisresearchhasascer-tained2reasonssofarforthelimitedutilizationofsatelliteimageryasoneofthecom-ponentsofGITs.Firstly,thefactthattheseimageryaredownloadableformvariousgeoportals,thereisanobviouslimitationofinternetbandwidthtoaccommodatethisdownload.Secondly,interviewfindingshaveregisteredadeficiencyintheavailableex-pertisetoaffectthevariousanalysesonsatelliteimagery.TheongoingresearchhoweverhasattemptedtodevelopaframeworkthatcanbeusedtoenhancetheuseofGITsinroadinfrastructuremaintenance.Otherwise,Karandikaretal.(2003)’sresearchdem-onstratedthatwithreadydataavailability,GITs,GISinthiscaseisareliabledecisionsupporttool,which,withroadinfrastructuremaintenance,cannotbeanexception.
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The evaluation of accident black spots on roads using GIS was successful in India(MandloiandGupta,2003).Dataontheroadinfrastructureofthestudyareacouldbereadilyavailedwithsuchattributesas:
• Numberoflanesineachdirection,
• Approximatenumberofvehiclesperday,
• Typeandwidthofroad,amongothers
Eachoftheattributeswasassignedweightsrangingfrom0-10withthefactorstendingtoincreasetheprobabilityofaccidentshavinglowerweights.Forthe11factorsused,thetotalweightwascomputedas;Totalweight=(IndividualWeights)x100andthenassignedtorangesaccordingTable2-1.
Table 2‑1: Prioritization Scheme
Final Weight (%) Accident Prone Level
80-100 VeryLow
60-80 Low
40-60 Medium
0-40 High
Source: (Mandloi and Gupta, 2003)
The need for a similar model in the situation of Uganda cannot be under looked.However,giventhebackgroundtothisresearch,itisclearthatwithoutthepracticeofusingtheseGITtoolsfordecisionsupport,evensuchamodeldevelopedatthispointintime,noticingtheproficiencyoftheroadtransport’sadministrationmaybemoreofabookshelfinvention.
Adatamodel(acollectionofconceptualtoolsfordescribingdata,datarelationships,datasemantics,andthedataconstraints)foranobject-relatedgeodatabaseforIranianroadsnetworkwaspresentedbyDodgeandAlesheikh(2003).Dodge&Alesheikh(2003)’smodelprovidesacontextwithinwhichaGIScanquicklyandeasilyaccepttheinputthatawiderangeofusersneedtoaccomplishtheirtransportationmanage-mentgoals.Themodel’sintentionisaninitialstructuringoftransportdataandwasspecifiedintheUnifiedModellingLanguage(UML).Thereare3categoriesofGIS-T(GeographicalInformationSystemparametersspecificforTransportation)models;Network,ProcessandObjectdatamodel,allastheirnamessuggest:Networkmodelsarethoseconcernedwiththetopologyofconnectionsandintersectionsofnodesandarcsofatransportationsystem.“Insteadoffocusingonanysingleelementofatrans-portation procedure, process models seek to organize many elements into a modelthatdefinesaprocessbywhichsometransportationplanningormaintenanceactivitycantakeplace.Objectmodelsarethosethatseektoidentifyorenumerateasmanytransportationobjectsaspossibleandto logicallyorganizetheminsuchawaythattheycanbemostprofitablyused”(DodgeandAlesheikh,2003).Dodge&Alesheikh(2003)’s researchdefinedadatamodelon thebasisofwhicha transportationgeo-databasewouldbecreated.InrelationtoDodge&Alesheikh(2003)’sresearch,the
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ongoingresearchisspecificallydealingwithroadmaintenancedata.AproposalforadynamicsegmentationGIS-Tdatamodelforroadmaintenancedatahasbeenmadebasedonitsobviousadvantages.Dynamicsegmentationenablestheprovisionofroadsegmentswithpreciseandhighvaluespatialresolutionbasedontheirattributesimi-larity.Itallowsforthelocationofmultipleeventsandstorageoflinearlyreferencedattributeswithoutanyduplicationwithroutegeometry.Italsooffersthepossibilityforsharingofnetworkinfrastructureofdifferentapplicationswithintheroadmainte-nancesubsector.
Siddeswar(2003) illustrates theuseofGIS intransportmanagementspecifically inthemanagementoftrafficcongestion.HehighlightsthebenefitofeffectivetransportplanningusingGISas;easeoftrafficmovement,lessertimeonroads,reducedtemperswithdriving,increasedpersonalsafetyandeffectivetransportplanning.ThesebenefitshavenotbeenrealizedinUgandadueofthe lackofemploymentoftheAutomaticVehicleLocation(AVL)technology.InSiddeswar(2003)’sstudy,GPStechnologyiseffectivelyusedforAVL,withvehiclesbeingequippedwithaGPSthatgivesitsac-curatepositioninlatitudeandlongitude.Withthesedetailsreceivedatacentraltrafficcontrolroom,severalanalysesonvehiclelocationarepossible.Incasesoftrafficjam,thesystemcanbemadeintelligenttogeneratealternateroutes.Also,someofthesedatacanbeminedtobeveryusefullateronforvariousactivitiesoftrafficplanningandmanagement.ThisaspectofminingdataisinharmonywiththeKnowledgeBasedSystem(KBS)assuggestedbyTsouetal.(2000).
RemoteSensinghasbeenusedasanapplicationintheextractionofroadinformation.Inhisstudyofapplyingremotesensingforextractionofroadinformation,Manzuletal.(1999)establishedthatallcommerciallyavailablesatellitebasedsensorsatthattimewere appropriate for identifying roadsnot less than35mwide.Therefore,ADEOSMulti-spectralandLANDSATTMcouldnotbeusedforidentifyingaroadhavingforexample,awidthof15morless.However,today,Landsat-7ETMhas15mresolu-tioninthepanchromaticband,meaningthatroad’sdetailscanbestudiedevenmuchbettertodate.InthestudyundertakenbyManzuletal.(1999),thespatialresolu-tionofdatawasfoundtocontributemoretotheclarityoftheroadthanthespectralobservationcapability.Inaddition,thesurroundingenvironmentalongtheroadwasconsideredtobeaninfluentialfactorinaffectingthedifferenceinreflectanceoftheroadhenceaffectingtheclarityoftheroadinthesatelliteimagery.Foradevelopingcountry like Uganda, where the cost of up-to-date remotely sensed imagery is notaffordable,researchshouldprimarilyfocusoninventingamoresustainableandcosteffectivemethodofobtaininguptodatedataonroads.Howeverifthesatelliteimagecanbeobtainedbyanymeans,therestofthedataextractiontechniquesaretheroutinefunctionalitiesofGISandremotesensingsoftware,whichatthemoment,arealsoarestrainttocomebyduetotheallegedlimitedexpertiseinthetransportsectorofthecountry.ThisstillputstheongoingresearchinperspectiveinargumentthereisneedforaframeworkthatcanstrategiseonhowalltheseenvisagedchallengesinusingGITcanbedealtwith.
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Mohammad et al. (2009)havedesigned a roadmaintenancedatamodelusing thedynamicsegmentationtechnique.ThisdatamodelhasbeenimplementedontheIra-nianroadnetwork.TheresearchersbasetheirargumentonthefactthatdevelopingasuccessfulGISforroadmaintenanceapplicationsishighlydependentonthedesignofawell-structuredroadmaintenancedatamodel.Despiteitslimitations,thetraditionalarc-nodedatamodelwasbeingusedintheirjurisdiction.Inthismodel,roadsarerep-resentedaslinearfeaturesbetweentwonodeswithassociatedattributes.Theattributesare integratedsuchthat theyarerestrictedtoarcswithsimilar lengthand location.Thesemodelsdonotpresentconcentratedandpreciseroadsegmentsefficiently.Thearc-nodedatastructurehandlesthelinearfeatureasanarcusingaCartesiancoordi-natesystemwithwhichitisnotpossibletopresentroaddatavaryingindifferentpartsofarc.Theresultinganalysesareineffectinefficientandnotbasedonrealitywhenitcomestoroadmaintenancedata.Objectivethree(3)oftheongoingresearchseekstoproposearoadmaintenancedatamodelbasedonthemaintenancedatarequirementsintheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesectorofUganda.Similarly,researchquestion3isaccessingthenatureofthedatausedinroadmaintenancedecisionmakingandresearchquestion4addresseshoweffectively thedatacanbe represented inaGIS.Becauseroadmaintenancedataisbasicallydealingwithroadcondition,whichiscon-stantlychangingduetoseveralfactorsaffectingtheroad,thisdynamicsegmentationdatamodel isobviouslyunique inaddressing roadmaintenancedata requirements.Similar toMohammadetal, (2009) isChouetal. (2000)’s implementationofdy-namicsegmentationforaPavementManagementInformationSystem(PMIS)attheUniversityofToledoincooperationwiththeCityofToledo,inNorth-westernOhio,UnitedStates.Dynamic segmentation in that researchwas still anecessary tool forthePMISsinceitallowedformultipleattributesassociatedwithpavementsegmentstobestoredanddisplayedefficiently.(FilipovandDavidkov,2006,andWeigangandGuiyan,2009)havealsoperformedresearchonroaddatamodelling.
Torelateevenmorecloselywiththeongoingresearch,Ehrenspergeretal.(2007)stud-iedtheapplicationsofGeographicalInformationTechnologiesforNaturalResourceManagement.TheyarguethatGITsareaprerequisite fornatural resourcemanage-mentandameansofspatialanalysis.ThefocusoftheirresearchwascentredonthepotentialofGeographicInformationTechnologiestobetterinformandinvolvefarm-ers,communitiesandgovernmentsaswellasinternationalpanelsinplanningandne-gotiationprocesses.Theyinvestigatedhowthesetechnologiessupportstakeholdersinsustainable-orienteddecision-makingandtheconcernsthathavetobecarefullytakenintoconsiderationwhenusingGeographic InformationTechnologies indevelopingcountries.TheydiscussthepotentialsofGITsforvariousapplicationsrangingfromalocaltoglobalscale,highlightingissuesofintegratingknowledgeatthelocalscale,addingspatialdimensionstonationaldevelopmentplans,coordinatingandmonitor-ingtransnationalcooperation,assessingglobaltrendsaswellasformulatingstrategies.TheresearchissummarizedbykeyissuesinGITimplementation.Ehrenspergeretal.(2007)’sinputonthesekeyissueshasadirectrelationshipwiththegapsandchallengesthathavealreadybeendiscoveredaslimitingtheGITimplementationinRIM.They
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includerelevanceofcontent,appropriatenessoftechnology,bridgingpowergaps&digitaldividesandtheinstitutionalisationofGIT.
Brodnig andMayer-Schönberger (2000) attempt to stipulate the roleof spatial in-formationtechnologiesasagapbridgingmechanismintheintegrationoftraditional(local)environmentalknowledgeandWesternScience.TheireffortsareinlinewithAgenda211’schapterontheroleandimportanceofinformationforsustainabledevel-opment.Directlytheyarefocussingontheprovisionsmadeforharnessingthepoten-tialofICTforstrengtheningthecapacityfortraditionalinformation.GITsarespe-cialisedICTtoolsforcollecting,managinganddisplayingofspatialdata.BrodnigandMayer-Schönberger(2000)acknowledgethatthedevelopmentsinthesespatialinfor-mationtechnologiescannotbeseparatedfromthegeneraltrendsinICT.Theirfieldof emphasis is environmentalmanagement for sustainabledevelopment.Theyhaveendeavouredtomatchvariousapplications inthisfieldwithdatarequirementsandappropriatetechnologiesrequiredtobridgethesegaps.BycomparingtheTraditionalEcologicalKnowledge(TEK)withWesternScience(ICTtools),theyhaveconcludedthatthetwoshouldbecomplementaryinordertoachievesustainabledevelopment.
Acontentanalysisof39articlesselectedfrommajorGISandinformationsystempub-licationswasmademyCroswell(1989).HisintentionwastoassesscommonproblemsandapproachesforovercomingproblemsinGISsystemimplementationactivities.Hecombinedthiswithanexaminationofotherliteratureplushisownexperienceinnu-merousinformationsystemsdevelopmentefforts.Withthismethodology,hemanagedtoanswerthequestion;whatapproachesshouldbetakentoincreasechancesofsuccessandtherealisationofthebenefitsthatGIStechnologyshouldprovide?Inthisresearch,inadditiontointerviews,theapproachofreviewingliteraturetodevisestrategiesofsuccessfulGIT implementation ishowevergreatlywith stakeholder involvement inordertodevelopaframeworkmodelthatcanbeadoptedwithlimitedornoresistance.
InstitutionalizationofGITsisproposedasaparadigmforstudyingtheimpactandef-fectivenessofGITsbyEricdeMan,(2000).(Leitneretal.,1998,OnsrudandPinto,1993,AndersonCarrieS.,1996,Goodchild,2000,Sieber,2000)allhavetheirpub-lications dealing with some aspects of GITs, either with their adoption, successfulimplementationordiffusionmechanismswhichinclinetthebasicoutputexpectedbytheendofthisresearch.
2.3 Concluding Remarks
Majorityofthepreviousresearchintheareaofgeospatialtechnologiesasdecision-supporttoolshavefocussedonthedevelopmentofcustomizedGITmodelsandsys-1Agenda21isanactionplanoftheUnitedNations(UN)relatedtosustainabledevelopment
andwasanoutcomeoftheUnitedNationsConferenceonEnvironmentandDevelopment(UNCED)heldinRiodeJanerio,Brazil,in1992.Itisacomprehensiveblueprintofactiontobetakenglobally,nationallyandlocallybyorganizationsoftheUN,governments,andmajorgroupsineveryareainwhichhumansdirectlyaffecttheenvironment.(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agenda_21)
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temapplicationsinseveraltransportdivisions.Forexample,Kumaretal.(2003)inthedesignofanIntelligenttransportsystem(ITS)usingGIS,theavenueprogrammingandscriptinglanguageforArcViewGIS3xwasusedtocustomizethepackage,witheachscriptusedforaspecifiedpurpose(Citybusroutes,closestfacilityandshortestpath).Also,theapplicabilityofGISandGPSforassetmanagementofroadsandrail-waytransportation,andevaluationofaccidentblackspotsonroadsinIndiawereallcustomizedresearches.Inalltheseattempts,datahasbeenreadilyavailedor,ifnot,couldeasilybeavailedorcollected(usingthetargetGITs)fortherespectivestudyar-eas.Thisresearchhoweverhasitsfocusondevelopingasustainableapproachtousinggeospatialtechnologiesforroadinfrastructuremaintenanceinasituationwheredataisnotreadilyavailableandhenceanapproachneedstobedevisedtoaccentuatetheac-quiringup-to-datedataandavailingitforbetterdecisionmaking.Thisisthedilemmafacing road infrastructure planners and managers in Uganda. The most immediateprobleminUgandaarenotmodelsandsystemsbutthecapabilitytoutilizeGITsforthebasicsofdatacollection,managementandanalysis.Nevertheless,itisappreciatedthatifdataisreadilyavailed,GITsthroughcontextspecificmodeldevelopments(aspreviouslydiscussedinthereview)willbemoreapplicableasdecision-supporttools.Siddeswar(2003)’sillustrationofGITusewasspecificallytargetingtrafficmonitor-ing,while,thisresearchisexploringroadinfrastructuremaintenanceallfallingintheumbrellaofroadtransportmanagement.FromEl-Shair(2003)’sstudy,thisresearchhasdefinedyetanothercasestudytoUgandaandwillinturnaffirmthefindingsthatGISandRScaneffectivelybeusedinroadsmappingforsustainabledecisionmaking.
WithintheCollegeofEngineering,Design,ArtandTechnology(CEDAT)ofMak-erere University, under the theme, “SustainableTechnological Development in theLakeVictoriaRegion,Uganda”, the research ison theonehand inharmonywithBagampadde(2005)’s investigationsofstrippingpropensityofbituminousmixturesandmoisturedamagerelatedbehaviourofbituminousmaterials.Bituminousmixtureisamaterial forsurfacingroadsandtheunderstandingof itschemicalbehaviour isaprerequisitetoitsappropriatedecisionforuse.Ontheotherhand,itisrelatedtoMusinguzietal.(2007)’sassessmentofGISdatainteroperabilityinUganda.Musin-guzietal.,(2007)discussthewayforwardtohavingGISdataoperateflexiblybetweenorganisations.Itisthenormtohaveorganisationswithinthesamesectormanagingthesamedatatype(roadsnetworkdatainthiscase)butwithdifferentstructuresandsemantics.Likewise,thisresearchisdealingwiththepotentialofusingGITstocaptureroadinfrastructuremaintenancedata,particularlyconditioninventory,whichinturnshouldeffectivelybeusedfordecisionsupport.Effectiveuseofthesedatawillrequireresolvingconcernsofdatasemanticsandinteroperability.ThekeyissuestoconsideronimplementationofGITsincludeappropriatetechnologyspecificallythepossibilityto integratemultidisciplinarydata fromotherutilityorganisations.Theseare suchaspectsthatrequireGISdatainteroperabilityinterventionsasdiscussedby(Musinguzietal.,2007)
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ReferencesAndersonCarrieS.(1996)GISDevelopmentProcess:AFrameworkforConsideringtheInitiation,
Acquisition,andIncorporationofGISTechnology.URISA Journal/ Refereed WASHINGTON DC,10-26.
Bagampadde,U.(2005)InvestigationsonMoistureDamage-RelatedBehaviourofBituminousMaterials.KTH,Civil and Architectural Engineering.Lindstedtsvägen26,Stockholm.
Brodnig,G.&Mayer-Schönberger,V.(2000)BridgingtheGap:TheroleofSpatialInformationTechnologiesintheIntegrationofTraditionalEnvironmentalKnowledgeandWesternsci-ence.The Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries (EJISDC),1,1-5.
Chou,E.Y.J.,Mathias,J.L.&Wang,C.(2000)ImplementationofDynamicSegmentationforaPavementManagementInformationSystem.Presented and Published at the 81st Annual meet‑ing of the Transportation Research Board.Washington,D.C.
Croswell,P.L.(1989)ObstaclestoGISImplementationandGuidelinestoIncreasetheOpportu-nitiesforSuccess.URISA,43-57.
Dodge,S.&Alesheikh,A.,A.(2003)TransportationDataModelImplementationforIranianRoadsNetwork..The Geo spatial Resource Portal.GISDevelopment.
Ehrensperger,A.,Wymannvon,S.D.&Kakridi,F.E.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnolo-giesforNaturalResourceManagement.InfoResources Focus,No3/07.
El-shair,I.,M.(2003)GISandRemoteSensinginUrbanTransportationPlanning:ACaseStudyofBirkenhead,Auckland.Map India Conference 2003.,GISDevelopment.net.
EricdeMan,W.,H.(2000)InstitutionalizationofGeographicalInformationTechnologies.Cartog‑raphy and Geographic Information Science,Vol.27,pp.139-151.
Filipov,L.&Davidkov,B.(2006)DevelopmentofnetworkdatamodelforurbantransportationsysteminGISenvironmentforthecityofPlovdiv,Bulgaria.International Conference on Car‑tography and GIS.Borovets,Bulgaria,DepartmentofCartographyandGIS,SofiaUniversity“St.KlimentOhridski”,Bulgaria.
Goodchild,M.F.(2000)CommunicatingGeographicalInformationinaDigitalAge.Association of American Geographers,90,344-355.
Karandikar,V.S.,Amit,P.,Nbindu,P.S.&Prashant,N.(2003)GISbasedRoadInformationandManagementSystem:ADecisionSupportToolforPublicWorksDepartment,GovernmentofMaharashtra.Map India Conference 2003.GISDevelopment.net.
Kumar,P.,Dhanunjaya,R.&Varun,S.(2003)IntelligentTransportationSystemUsingGIS.Map India Conference2003.GISDevelopment.net.
Leitner,H.,Mcmaster,R.,Elwood,S.,Mcmaster,S.&Sheppard,E.(1998)ModelsForMakingGISAvailableToCommunityOrganisations:DimensionsOfDifferenceandAppropriate-ness.Paper presented to the NCGIA specialist meeting on Empowerment, Marginalization and GIS, Santa Barbara CA,October1998.
Malczewski,J.(1997)Unit127-SpatialDecisionSupportSystems.NCGIACoreCurriculuminGeographicInformationScience.InMalczewski.,C.B.J.(Ed.)All commercial rights reserved.
MandloI,D.&Gupta,R.(2003)EvaluationofAccidentblackspotsonroadsusingGeographicalInformationSystems(GIS).Map India Conference2003.GISDevelopment.net.
Manzul,K.H.,Kiyoshi,H.,Lal,S.&Shunji,M.(1999)ApplicationofRemotesensingforEx-tractionofRoadInformation.ACRS 1999GISDevelopment.
MohammadRezaJelokhani-Niaraki,AliAsgharAlesheikh,AbbasAlimohammadi&Sadeghi-Niaraki,A.(2009)DesigningRoadMaintenanceDataModelUsingDynamicSegmentationTechnique.ICCSA,5592,442-452.
Musinguzi,M.,Bax,G.&Tickodri-Togboa,S.(2007)AssessmentofGISDATAInteroperabilityinUganda.Proceedings of the conference on the collaborative Research for Technological Develop‑ment: Kampala Uganda
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Onsrud,H.J.&Pinto,J.K.(1993)EvaluatingCorrelatesofGISAdoptionSuccessandtheDeci-sionProcessofGISAcquisition.URISA / Refereed,Fall1993,16-39
Rao,I.P.,Kanchan,P.K.&Nanda,P.K.(2006)GISBasedMaintenanceManagementSystem(GMMS)forMajorRoadsofDelhi.Map India 2006.
Siddeswar,P.H.R.(2003)UseofGISinTransportationManagement.Map India Conference 2003.GISDevelopment.net.
Sieber,R.E.(2000)GISImplementationintheGrassroots.URISA,20(1),15-29.Tsou,K.-W.,Chang,Y.-L.&HUNG,Y.-T.(2000)Acase-basedurbanplanningsupportsystem
usinganintegratedcombinationofGeographicalInformationSystemsandRemoteSensing,GIS & Data Integration.GISdevelopmentproceedings,ACRS,2000..
Turban,E.A.(2001)DecisionSupportSystemsandIntelligentSystems.India:PrenticeHallofIndia.
Weigang,Z.&Guiyan,J.(2009)ANewExtendedArc-NodeDataModelofDynamicSegmenta-tionTechnologyinUrbanGIS-T.IEEE,WorldCongressonSoftwareEngineering,208-212.
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Part 3 - Papers
3.1 Introduction to the papers
Paper I:Thispaperwaspublishedduetotheneedtocreateawarenessaboutthecur-rentresearchinthecountryatthetimetheAfricaGIS2009conferencewasheldinKampala,Uganda.Atthatinstance,ithadalreadybeenascertainedthattherewasadigitaldivideamongthestakeholdersinvolvedintheRIMprocesses.Bydigitaldividehereismeantthedifferencesinperception,awarenessandunderstandingofGITsandtheirpotential.ThecontractorcategoryofstakeholdersinRIMwashardlyknowledge-ableofwhatGITswereletalonetheadvantagesassociatedwiththeirusage.Inwritingthispaper,theauthorsaimedatcreatingawarenessabouttheresearchdevelopmentsunderGITinthecountryandAfricaatlarge.Consideringthatthetechnicalprofes-sionalsemployedintheRIMorganisationsarepurelycivilengineersthispaperservedasadisclosuretothatbracketofstakeholdersofthepotentialandavailabilityofGITs.ThepapergivesabackgroundonGITsanddiscussesthechallengesfacedbytheRIMsectorinadoptionofthesetechnologies.Itproceedstodiscussroadmanagementdata,particularlyroadconditionspatialdataanditsinclinationtoGITs.Considerationsoftheframeworkthatwasthentobedevelopedduringtheresearcharealsohighlighted.Acosteffectivemethodofcapturing thevisualconditionof the road isbrieflydis-cussedtogetherwiththeexamplesofOpenSourceandFreewarethatcouldsupportinthedisplay,manipulationandanalysisofthecaptureddatasets.
TherestofthepapersII,IIIandIVareafollowupofpaperIandaddressingsectionsoftheresearchobjectivesandquestionsstatedinpartoneofthethesis.
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Paper II:PaperIIlargelydiscussesthefindingsthataddressobjective1oftheresearch.ItdiscussesthegapsintheuseofGITsintheroadinfrastructuremaintenanceprocessofUgandaandthelimitationsexperiencedinaccessingthesetechnologies.
Paper III:ThefocusofpaperIIIisonthealgorithmicapproachtoaccentuatingtheuseofGITsinRIM.Sincetheaudiencetoallthepublishedpapershadbeensomewhatdifferent,itwasimperativetogiveabackgroundtotheresearch.Inthisbackground,GITswereintroduced;roadmaintenancedata,activitiesinvolvedandtheactorswerealsobrieflydiscussed.AnoverviewofthegapsandlimitationsfrompaperIIwassimi-larlymade.
Paper IV:Thispaper ispresentingpreliminaryfindings fromfieldmeasurements intheindependentsurveyingofroadinventoryandvisualconditioninthestudyarea.Inplanningforthefieldwork,theauthorshadanideaofrecommendingacosteffectivemethodofcapturingroadinventoryandvisualconditiondataforroadmaintenancedecisionsupportpurpose.TheplanwastoflyoverthestudyareausingalowflyingparamotorwhiletrackingwithaGPSandfilmingtheroadwithbothanordinarycolorandamodifiedconsumercameratomeasureinfrared.Theintentionwastocapturetheroadshouldersbesidesthecarriagewaywhichordinarilywouldnoteffectivelybereg-isteredwithaRGBcamerabecauseofthevegetationinterference.However,forsafetyandsecuritymeasures,itwasnotpossibletogetclearancefromCAA,Ugandatoaffecttheflight.Instead,themethodologydiscussedinthepaperwasadopted.Suggestionstoenhancethefindingsarementionedinthediscussionwithinthepaper.
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PAPER IGEOINFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES AS DECISION
SUPPORT TOOLS IN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE IN UGANDA
Lydia.K.N.Mazzi,MakerereUniversity,Uganda
Tickodri.S.Togboa.MakerereUniversity,Uganda
GerhardBax,BlekingeTechnicalUniversity,Sweden
AfricaGISConference2009ABSTRACT
RoadtransportinUgandaisbyfarthemostdominantmodeoftransport.Thesectorcarrieswellover90%ofpassengerandfreighttraffic.Itthusservesastruebackbonetosupportthecountry’seconomy.RoadsprovidetheonlymeansofaccesstomostoftheruralcommunitiesandeffectivemaintenanceofthisassetisvitaltotheGovernmentofUganda’s(GoU)strategyforeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyeradication.Itisofrecent,thatpreventivemaintenanceisbeingappreciatedinUgandaandplansofmak-ingitapriorityarebeingputinplace.Thespatialdata,onwhichRoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM)actionsarebased,arenotcomprehensiveenough.However,Geo-graphicalInformationTechnologies(GITs)areknowntoenableassetmanagementtofunctioninthecollection,storageandanalysisofdatafordecisionmaking.ThisisanongoingresearchexpectedtodevelopanintegralframeworkforenhancingtheuseofGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsinthemaintenanceofroadsinUganda.ThepapergivesabackgroundonGITsanddiscussesthechallengesfacedbytheRIMsectorinadap-tiontothesetechnologies.Itproceedstodiscussroadmanagementdata,particularlyroadconditionspatialdataanditsinclinationtoGITs.Considerationsoftheframe-worktobedevelopedarealsohighlighted.Acosteffectivemethodofobtainingroadconditionparametersisdiscussedtogetherwiththeexamplesofthefreewareusedtomanipulatethedatasets.
Key Words:RoadInfrastructureMaintenance,GeographicalInformationTechnologies.
1 BACKGROUND
1.1 Road Infrastructure and Management in Uganda
ThetransportsectorinUgandaconsistsoffourmajormodes;i.e.,air,road,railwayandinlandwatertransport.Roadtransportisbyfarthemostdominantmodeoftrans-portwithinthecountry,carryingwellover90%ofpassengerandfreighttrafficandservingasatruebackbonesupportingthecountry’seconomyUgandaNationalRoadsAuthority,TermsofReference,UNRA-TOR,(2007).Roadsprovidetheonlymeansofaccesstomostoftheruralcommunitiesmakingitseffectivemanagementvitalto
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theGovernmentofUganda’s(GoU)strategyforeconomicdevelopmentandpovertyeradication.TheroadtransportinfrastructureinUgandacomprisesabout64,558kmofroad,includingabout10,500kmintheNationalRoadsnetwork,22,300kmofDis-trictRoads,2,800kmofUrbanRoadsand30,000kmofCommunityAccessRoads.About2,200kmoutofatotalof10,500kmofNationalRoadsarebituminized(tarma-cked)andtherestaregravel(murram).Governmentiscurrentlyimplementingapro-grammeofcontinuousupgradingofkeygravelroadstobitumenstandard.Theseroadsare characterizedbybad road surfaces,potholes,poor roaddesigns and inadequateroadfurniture.ThegovernmentstructureofUgandaiscomposedof2tiers,namelyCentralGovernment(GoU)andLocalGovernment(LG).TheGoUexecutesitsfunc-tionsthroughMinistrieswhichreceivetheirmandatefromparliament.TheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT)isresponsiblefortheplanning,developmentandmaintenanceoftheclassifiedroadnetworkinUganda.TheLGstructureconsistsofdistrictsgovernedbyautonomousdistrictcouncilsandurbanareasgovernedbyau-tonomousurbancouncils.ThelocalgovernmentactofUgandawaseffectedin1997todecentralizefunctions,powersandresponsibilities,includingthedevolutionofroadmaintenanceservicesofrural,district,urbanandcommunityroadstolocalandurbanauthorities.Thedistrictandurbanauthoritiesareresponsibleforthemaintenanceofthedistrictandurbanroadsrespectively.Eventhoughthisactallowsdistrictstofullyimplementroutineandperiodicmaintenanceactivities,rehabilitationisstillhandledbythecentralgovernmentthroughtheMoWT.Asafurtherdecentralizationstrategy,theMoWTisplanningonissuingoutOutputPerformance-BasedRoadContracts(OPRC)wherethecontractordecideswhattodo,whentodoit,howtodoitandwheretodoitinordertoachievetheclientprescribedservicelevels.
1.2 Geo Information Technologies as Decision Support Tools
GeoInformationTechnologies(GIT)areasetofspecializedInformationandCom-municationsTechnologies(ICT)whichhelptocollect,manageandanalysedataabouttheresources,landscapefeatures,andsocioeconomiccharacteristicsofanareainbothspaceandtime(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007,Eprenspergeretal.,2007).Theyprovidean important feature for communication,disseminationandknowledge sharingonaccountoftheircapabilitytofacilitatedisplayandvisualisespatialdata.GITincludesfourbasicspatialtools,namely,GeographicalInformationSystems(GIS),GlobalPo-sitioningSystems(GPS),RemoteSensing(RS)andweb-basedtoolssuchasGoogleearthwhichprovidenewwaysofsharinginformationandvisualizingnearrealtimedata (Ehrensperger et al., 2006, Eprensperger et al., 2007). GIS facilitates storage,managementandanalysisofgeographicallyreferenceddata,integratingcommonda-tabaseoperationswithuniquemeansofvisualizationandthegeographicanalysispo-tentialofmaps.GPSaresatellitebasedpositioningsystemsforcapturinglocationsofsamplepointssuchasroadjunctions,potholesorlargerfeatures(landmarks)ontheroad.Theselandmarksmaylaterbeusedtoreferencesatelliteimagesorotherspatialdatalayers.RemoteSensingontheotherhandisthedetectingoftheearth’ssurfacefromsatellitesandairplanesbymakinguseofthepropertiesofelectromagneticwaves
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emitted,reflectedordiffractedbythesensedobjects.Itprovidesimagesoftheearth’ssurfacethatcanbeusedtoidentifyespeciallydifferenttypesoflandcover.AdvantagesassociatedwiththeuseofGITsareimprovedmapping,greaterefficiencyinretrievalofinformation,fasterandmoreextensiveaccesstothetypesofgeographicalinforma-tionimportanttoplanning,improvedanalysis,bettercommunicationtothepublic,andspeederaccesstoinformationforvariousapplicationprocesses(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).
(Mazzi,2007)observedthatforthecaseofUganda,thereislowusabilityofGITsandspatialdataintransportplanning.Thereasonsforlowusabilityofspatialdatarangefromthelackofadatasharingframeworkbetweenorganisations,questionabledataquality,absenceofdatadocumentationandtheabsenceofclarityinproblemdefini-tion(inconformitywith(Ramasubramanian,1999)).However,iftherightcombina-tionsofdataalgorithmsormodelsaremadeforagivenapplication,andassuranceofdataqualityisguaranteedtheworthofGITscanbeachieved.Eventhough(Hunteretal.,2003)seemtoarguethatperfectdatamaybeararity,thefactremainsthattherearecertainfundamentalelementsthatneedtobepresentininformationforittobecon-sideredsufficientlyuseableforthepurposesathand.Theaimofthisresearchistoin-vestigatehowRoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM)managerscanexploittheGITsavailabletotheminthecollectionanduseoftheserelevantdatafordecisionmaking.
2 RESEARCH CONCEPT
2.1 Problem
DimitriouandBanjo(1990)haveidentifiedroadproblemsinthirdworldcountriesofwhichUgandastillfacestodate.Theyinclude;trafficcongestion,highroadaccidents,weak institutional support leading topoordefinitionof theproblem,anddifferingtechnologytransferprioritiesinproblemresolution.InUganda,severalcasesofpoortransportservicesaredocumentedin((Grimaudetal.,2007); (TTCA,2004);and(Luyimbazi,2007)).Respectively,theseinclude;thestillinsufficienttransportinfra-structure,thepoorconditionofthenortherncorridorduetoinadequatemaintenanceandthepotholescharacterizingmostoftheroads.AlmostallroadsinKampalacityarecontinuouslybeingrepairedaconsequenceofwhichthecityisfacingcolossaldust,which,besidesbeinganinconveniencetopeople,iscausingseveraldiseasesasaresultofpollution.Therepairedroadshardlylastayearbeforetheneedforanotherrepairofthesameroadsection.Thisislargelyattributedtoimpromptudecisionmakinginher-entinsituationswheredecisionsupporttoolsarelackingandpatternmatchingaswellasvisualinspectionaredominate.Thedecisiononwhichroadsbearmaintenancepri-orityhasprovedtobeadhoc.Inmanysituationsroadsareupgradedalmostimmedi-atelyafterbeingrepaired.However,GITscangoalongwayinaidingdecisionmaking.Dataonthebasisofwhichmaintenancedecisionsaremadecanbegathered,analysedandupdatedcontinuouslytoallownearrealtimeknowledgeoftheexistingsituationofroads.Theexistingdata,onwhichdecisionscouldbebased,arenotcomprehensive
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anduptodate.ItisinthisaspectthatGITscanbeemployedtobasemeasuresofroadmaintenanceonreliablespatialdata.
Atthemoment,GITsarebeingunderutilizedinRIMdecisionmakingprocesses.Thedesire touseGISby theMoWTin themanagementofnationalanddistrict roadsisevidencedbythecommissioningofaprojectknownasManagementInformationSystems (MIS) fordistrict roads in2006.TheMISwas intended toapplyGIS formonitoringcross-cuttingissuesintheRoadSector.Todate,itappliedmainlyforre-portingvariousattributesforroadmaintenance.TheUgandaNationalRoadsAuthor-ity(UNRA),anauthoritychargedwiththemanagementofnationalroads,alsousesGISbasicallyforreporting.ThisresearchisworkingtowardsdefiningaframeworkthatshouldenhancetheuseofGITsparticularlytowardsachievingandmanagingup-to-datespatialinformationthatwillfacilitateevidencebaseddecisionmakinginRIM.
2 Research Objectives and Design
Themainobjectiveoftheresearchistodevelopanintegralframeworkforincorporat-ingGITsasdecisionsupporttools inRIMworksinUganda.Toachievethis,threespecificobjectivesaredefined,1.ToidentifygapsintheuseofGITsintheRIMproc-essofUgandaandidentifythelimitationstoenhancingtheuseofthesetechnologies,2.TodevelopanalgorithmicframeworktoincorporateGITsasdecisionsupporttoolsinRIMactivitiesinUganda3.Todevelopadatamodelforroadmaintenancedatabasingontheroadmaintenancedatarequirements.ThestudyisbasedinUgandawithKampalaandJinjaasthestudyareas.RIMisthespecificfieldofstudy.Weareusingamulti-methodapproachwhichinitiallyinvolvedathoroughidentificationofallstake-holdersintheRIMsector.Toensuresynchronizationoffindings,thedatacollectionmethodsarecrosscuttinginvolvinginterviews,observationsandfieldmeasures.
3 DISCUSSION
3.1 GIT Challenges
Fromtheon-goingfieldvisitsanddiscussions,fivechallengeshavesofarbeenidenti-fiedasaffectingtheuseofGITtechnologiesfordatacollectioninroadmaintenance.First is the absence of explicit data collection policies. Data collection policies aremeanttodescribeatahighlevelthetypeofdatatobecollected,itsfrequencyanditslevelofdetail.Theyshouldalsodescribetheprocessbywhichdatawillbecollected,i.e.,inhouseorbycontract,theequipmenttobeusedandanyotherdetailthatcouldenhancetheuseofthedatatobecollected.Secondlyisthepreviouslyhighcostsofsatelliteimagesandyetbudgetswere(andstillare)notalwaysavailedfordatacollec-tion.ThereisanoteddigitaldivideamongthestakeholdersinRIM.Aproposalfrommanagementofoneorganisationforexample,isthatatechnologylikeremotesensingcouldassistinthepredictionofsuitablematerialresourceforpotholefixingsuchasgravel/laterite/crashstonewhichseemtohaverunoutinthecountry.Management
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isoftheviewthatremotesensingwouldreduceonthecostofprostratingconsideringthehighcostsofthesematerialsaltogether.Anothercategoryofstakeholders,theroadcontractorsareatanotherlevelofthinkingwithlimitedknowledgeofthepotentialofGITsforRIM.Staffarenotproperlytrainedandmonitored.Remotesensingspe-cialistsforexampleareunavailableinmanyoftheseorganisations.Thedataqualityassuranceproceduresareeithermissingorareinadequate.Similarly,GISasanalreadyadopted technology within the road management organisations faces challenges ofkeepingthedatacurrent(uptodate),implementingstandards(datastandards)andpromotingthesharingofdataamongagencies(SDIIssues)
3.2 Road Management Data
Roadmanagementdataiscomposedof;roadinventory,pavement,structures,traffic,finance,activityandresourceselements,eachofwhichhasvariousaspects(Paterson&Scullion,1990).Thefocusofthisresearchhoweverlieswiththenetwork/locationaspectoftheroadinventoryelementandthepavementconditionaspectofthepave-mentelement.Thedifferencebetweeninventory(physicalelementsofthesystem)andconditiondatalieswiththefactthatinventorydatadoesn’tchangeremarkablyovertime.Itistypicallymeasuredinoneoffexercisesandupdatedasneedarises.Conditiondataontheotherhandchangesovertimeandrequiressomekindofmonitoring(Ben-nettetal,2006).Duringdatacollectionitisalwaysconfusingtodecideonwhatdatatocollect.Itishoweveradvisableto;collectonlythedatathatisneededforthepresentpurpose, collectdata to the lowest level ofdetail sufficient tomake an appropriatedecision,collectdataonlywhentheyareneededandusepilotstudiestotesttheappro-priatenessoftheapproach.AccordingtoBennettetal.,(2007)thesurveyfrequencyindicatesthat,inventorydataisupdated/verifiedevery5yearsandpavementcondi-tiondataformainroadsarecollectedevery1-2years,whileforminorroads,every2-5years.HoweverinUganda,thisisnotthecase.Asmentionedearlier,theroadsareinacontinuousstateofrepairandupgrade.Thisimpliesthatdatashouldalwaysbecol-lectedpriortoanupgradeorrepairscheduleinordertoprioritizeworks.Theamount,typeanddetailoftherequireddatashouldthenbethefocusduringthedatacollection.
Unlessreferenced,allthesedatawhencollectedwillbeoflimiteduse.Therearetwoelementsofreference,thelocationandtheaddressusedtoidentifythelocation.Thethreeimportantcomponentshereare1.theidentificationofaknownpoint,2.direc-tion,and3.distancemeasurement.Thereferencingiseitherlinear(measuredinkmsfromaknownpoint)orspatial(measuredinlatitudeandlongitudeusingGPS).InUganda, the known referencepoint for linear referencing is thepost office locatedonKampalaroad.ItisofrecentthatspatialreferencingisbeingadaptedinUganda.Originally,onlyGPSlocationsofthestartandendofaroadsectionwouldbecap-tured.To-date,theUNRAdatacollectionsheetshavebeendesignedwithanattributeofGPScoordinatesforeverychainageforwhichdataiscollected.
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3.3 Framework Development
WiththeadvancementinGITsforspatialdatacollectionanddecisionmaking,itisnecessarytousesomelogicalconstructinformofaframeworktodefineanintegra-tionofthesetechnologiesinthedecisionmakingprocessofRIM.Therearepersistentchallengeshowevertointegratinginstitutionalandtechnicalsolutionstooptimizetheutilisationofthesetechnologiesandtheresultingspatialdata.InUganda,themajorof thesechallenges is foundtobe institutionalorpolitical (policy)tobeexact.Thenecessary framework components are in the process of being generated by; assess-ingthepotentialofGITsthroughunderstandingthemthoroughlyintermsoftheirweaknesses,strengths,andrequirementsforadoptionwithintheRIMdiscipline;re-viewingliteratureonhownewtechnologiesinotherdisciplinesareincorporatedintoorganisations;identifyingemergingissuesfrominterviewsandfieldvisitsanddefiningmethodstoaddresstheseissuesandfinally;definingaframeworkthataddressestheseissuesandproposesinputs.Animportantpointtonotehoweveristhenon-uniformityoftheGIS-Transportation(GIS-T)datamodelsbythedifferentassetmanagementor-ganisations.DuekerandButler(1999)advocateforacommondatamodelthatholdstransportationfeaturesastheobjectofinterest,andthatattributesoftransportationfeaturesarerepresentedas linearandpointeventsthatarelocatedalongthefeatureusinglinearreferencing.Thisthencallsfordynamicsegmentationdatabasedesignforroadmaintenancedataintheresponsibleorganizations.
3.4 Film and Photograph
Roadconditiondataincludesmainlyroaddistresssurveyswhichprovideinformationonthevariousdistresstypes,theirlocations,severity,andextent(Miller&Bellinger,2003).Thesesurveysaretraditionallybasedonextensivefieldobservationsbytrainedexperts.Theyevaluatethepavementconditioninsituconsideringavarietyofdistresstypes andaggregate the information into aPavementCondition Index (PCI).Thisindexisasingleroadperformanceindicatorwithascaleusuallybetween0and100andthehigherthevaluethebettertheconditionoftheroad.Thisextensivemethodoffieldobservationsisacknowledgedasexpensiveby,forexample,Heroldetal.,(2004).Theirconclusionhoweverwasbasedonacomparisonwithroadconditionmappingwithhyperspectralimageremotesensing.Likewise,wehavedevelopedatechniqueofcosteffectivelycarryingout thesedistress surveys.This isbyfilmingtheroadbymountingavideocameraontoavehicleandsettingupaGPSloggerwithinthesamevehicle.Thevehiclemovesataconstantspeedwhichtogetherwiththewidthoftheroadbeingfilmedisrecorded.GPScoordinatesalongsectionsoftheroadareregis-teredduringthefilming.Forveryevidentdistresses,photographsarecapturedwithhighresolution(13.5megapixels)GPSembeddedcamera.Howwiththiscosteffec-tiveinventioncanroad/pavementconditionparametersbeextractedtosupportthecurrentpracticeinRIM?Thefilmsandphotographsofsectionsofroadsinthestudyareaareavailableforthesemeasurementstobeextractedwithassistancefromaroadmaintenanceexpert.
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3.4.1. Film and Photograph visualization
Itisimportanttoappreciatethatbesidesobtainingtheroadconditionindicators;thereisalsoneedfortheirvisualization.Thereisavailablefreewarethatcanbeusedtoma-nipulate the video and photographs to best visualize the road condition indicatorsneededfordecisionmaking.
Routemapper:RoutemappervideosurveyingsystemshavebeenusedbyhighwayandrolltollauthoritiesinseveralcountriesliketheUK,Ireland,USAandCanadaforvari-ousapplications.Theseinclude;assetmanagement,planningstudiesandinfrastructureplacement.Underassetmanagement,ithasbeenpossibletomeasureassetdimensionsand export them to external asset management systems and GIS applications. Theabovementionedfilmcanbemanipulatedwithroutemappertovisualizeroadcondi-tionstatusandthenexportedintotheGISapplicationinuse.Otherinterestingfea-tureswithroutemapperarethepossibilityforintegratingvideoandGISmappingandthe availabilityofdesktopandwebapplication software.The routemapperdesktopbrowserintegrateshighresolutiondigitalvideoimagery,accuratelocationreferencing,GISmappinganddatastorageintooneapplication.Userscannotonlydigitizeandreviewassetinformationheldinthesystem,butalsoload,viewandeditmanydifferentengineeringandGISbaseddatasets.Clientspecificnetworkreferencingsystemscanbeimportedintothesoftwarethusallowinguserstouseaknownreferencetoquicklynavigatethroughthevideo.
Opticks: Opticsisacollectionofsoftwaretoolsthatenableanalyststodevelopintel-ligenceproducts.Itgeneratestheseproductsbyanalyzingsignaturesanddatasetscol-lectedfromspecifictechnicalsensors.Thesedatasetsandsignaturesarepresentedtotheanalystusingimagesandplots.Theanalystthenusestheseviewstomanipulatethedataandrunalgorithmstogenerateintelligenceproducts.Itisanopensourceremotesensingapplicationanddevelopmentframework,supportingtraditionalimagery,mo-tionimagery,SyntheticApertureRadar(SAR),multi-spectralandothertypesofre-motesensingdata.ItsupportsmanyremotesensingfileformatsincludingENVI,Ge-nericRAW,ESRIshapefile,MPEG,JPEG,GIF,PNG,BMP,TIFF,GeoTIF.ItisalsopossibletoconnecttogeodatabaseswithESRIArcSDEintegration.Withopticksonecanpan,zoom,rotate,andgeoreferencespatiallylargevideo.Forsoftwaredevelopers,italsoallowsforplug-ins.
GeoSetter: GeoSetter is a freeware tool for windows for showing and changing geodataofimagefiles(e.g.,imagestakenbydigitalcameras).Itoffersseveralfeatureslikereadingpictureformats(e.g.,JPEG,TIFFaswellascameraRAWformats),showingexistinggeocoordinatesandtracksonembeddedGooglemaps.WithGeoSetter,itispossibletosetgeodatabyembeddedGooglemapsorbyenteringknownvaluesforcoordinatesandaltitudedirectly.ThedisadvantageofusingtheGooglemapsisthataninternetconnectionisrequiredwhichisoftenadrawbackwithdevelopingcountieswherethebandwidthisneverguaranteed.Italsoallowsforthesynchronizationoftrackfileswithalreadygeotaggedimages(e.g.,betweenRAWimagesandtheircorre-spondingJPEGimages).Figure3-1showsthemainwindowoftheGeoSetterinterfaceandgeotaggedphotographsofJinja(Bujagaliroad)inthedisplay.
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Figure 3‑1: A Snapshot of the Geosetter Main Window
4 CONCLUSION
ThechallengesfacingtheuseofGITsinRIMhavebeenfoundtoprimarilyrelatetoknowledgecapacityandbudgetaryissuesandthefactorslimitingtheirintegrationaremajorlypolicyrelated.Thedatarequirementsforroadmaintenancethoughbasicallyvaluesintermsofindices,visualsurveysforinventoryandconditionwouldrequireGITservices.TheseindicescanalsobederivedfromGITproducts.Furthertoo,thelocationreferenceofboth inventoryandconditiondatacanonlybeaccuratelyob-tainedbyuseofGITs.Theresearchisworkingtowardsrecommendingacosteffectivemethod of collecting road condition data as it advances towards development of aframeworktointegratingGITsinRIM.ThishasprogressedbyfilmingtheroadwithordinaryvideocameraanduseofGPS logger thatcapturesGPScoordinatesalongsectionsoftheroad.ThiscoupledwiththeavailabilityofOpenSourceandfreewareformanipulationofthecollecteddatacangoalongwayingroundingGITsinRIM.FurtherexploringofthepotentialoftheGITsandimplicationsoftheirintegrationintothedecisionmakingprocessofRIMwillhaveaninputintotheframeworktobedeveloped.
5 REFERENCESBennett,C.R.,H.deSolminihac,&Charmoro,A.(2006).Data collection Technologies for Road
Management. Transport Notes. Roads and Rural Transport Thematic Group.TheWorldBank,WashingtonDC.TransportNoteNo.30
Bennett,C.R.,Charmoro,A.,Chen,C.,H.deSolminihac,&Flintsch,G.W.,(2007).Data collec‑tion Technologies for Road Management.EastAsiaPacificTransportUnit.WashingtonDC:TheWorldBank.
Dimitriou,H.T.&Banjo,G.A.,(1990).TransportplanningforThirdWorldcities.Londonetc.,Routledge.
Instance at which photograph was taken
GPS Coordinates of above instance Photograph of
the road showing extent of distress
taken
ofdistress
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Dueker,J.K.,&Butler,J.A.,(May1999).GIS-TDataSharingIssues,DiscussionPaper99-02,CenterforUrbanStudies,PortlandOR97207-0751,PortlandStateUniversity,HamiltonCounty,Tennessee
Ehrensperger,A.,Wymannvon,S.D.,&Fani,K.E.,(2007).GeographicInformationTechnologiesforNaturalResourceManagement.InfoResourcesFocusNo 3/07.
Grimaud,P.,Sserunjogi,M.L.,&Grillet,N.(2007).AnevaluationofmilkqualityinUganda:valuechainassessmentandrecommendations.AfricanJournalofFoodAgricultureNutritionandDevelopment.7(5).ISSN:1684-5374.
Herold,M.,Roberts,D.,Smadi,O.,&Noronha,V.,(2004).RoadConditionMappingwithHyperspectralRemoteSensing.
Hunter,G.J.,Wachowicz,M.,&Bregt,A.K.(2003).UnderstandingSpatialDataUseability.DataScienceJournal(spatialdataUsabilityspecialsection)Vol.2:79-89
Luyimbazi,D.(2007).DeterminationofRoadMaintenanceNeeds.PowerpointPresentation.MinistryofFinanceworkshoponRoadmaintenanceRequirements.MinistryofFinanceplanningandEconomicDevelopmentpublications.
Mazzi,L.K.N.(2007).Balancing Information Requirements with Data Availability: A case of Trans‑port Planning, Kampala, Uganda.InternationalInstituteforGeo-InformationScienceandEarthObservation.Enschede,Netherlands.MscDegree(Geo-InformationManagement).
Paterson,W.D.O.,&Scullion,T.,(1990).Informationsystemsforroadmanagement:draftguidelinesonsystemdesignanddataissues.InfrastructureandUrbanDevelopmentDepart-mentReportINU77.WashingtonDC:TheWorldBank.
Ramasubramanian,L.(1999).GISImplementationinDevelopingCountries:LearningfromOr-ganisationalTheoryandReflectivePractice.TransactionsinGIS3(4):359-380.
TRB,(2004).Towards a foundation for Improved Decision Making: Geospatial Information Infra‑structure for Transport Organization.ConferenceProceedings3.1,TransportResearchBoard(TRB).
UNRA,(2007).TermsofReferenceforNationalRoadsDataCollectionandSettingupaRoadsManagementSystem.UgandaNationalRoadsAuthority
ftp://popo.jpl.nasa.gov/pub/docs/workshops/04_docs/Herold_et_al_aviris_2004_web.pdfaccessedon3rdAugust2009
http://www.routemapper.net/accessedon20thAugust2009https://opticks.ballforge.net/accessedon20thAugust2009http://freegeographytools.com/2007/geosetter-the-best-free-photo-geotagging-appaccessedon
20thAugust2009
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PAPER IIAN OVERVIEW OF THE GAPS AND LIMITATIONS IN THE
UTILIZATION OF GITs FOR ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE IN UGANDA
LydiaMAZZIKayondo1,UgandaProf.S.STickodriTogboa2,Uganda
Prof.GerhardBax3,Sweden
SUMMARY
ThispaperispartofongoingresearchontheuseofGeographicalInformationTech-nologies(GITs)asdecisionsupporttoolsinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceinUgan-da. Itdiscusses thegaps in theuseofGITs in the road infrastructuremaintenanceprocessofUgandaandthelimitationsexperiencedwhileenhancingtheuseofthesetechnologies.RoadmaintenanceorganizationsusingGITs are often facedwith theneedanddesiretosolvesimilarandcross-cuttingtechnicalproblemsthatarerepetitiveinnature.However,theircurrentinstitutionalarrangementsdonotpermitforgingoflastingpartnerships,useofstandardizeddataandoperatingunderacoordinatedGISinfrastructure.Theyalsolackstandardizedfundamentaldatasetstoaddresskeynation-wideandlocalmaintenancerequirements.ChallengestocoordinatinghowgeospatialdataareacquiredandutilizedarethenorminUganda.Similarly,collectionofdupli-catedatasetsatthelocalandnationallevelsisacommonscenario.WefinallyidentifythelimitationstoaccessingGITsinthesectoras;lackofinfrastructuretosupportuti-lizationofgeographicdatasets,unavailabilityofandlimitedaccessibilitytogeographicdata,limitedgeospatialcapacityatindividualandorganizationallevelsandthedigitaldivide.Aboveall,therearenopoliciesforaccessibilityandstandarduseofGITs.
Keywords:GeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs),RoadInfrastructureMain-tenance(RIM),Data,Uganda
1. INTRODUCTION
Theunderstandingofgeographictechnologies,effectiveuseofgeographicalinforma-tionand theknowledgeof their advantages is critical to theplanninganddecisionmakingprocessforassetmanagementdepartments.Aroadnetworkanditswellbeingforexamplearevery important for theeconomicdevelopmentof thenation.RoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM)isthereforeaprerequisiteforthemanagementofroads.Geographicinformationcollected,managedandanalyzedusingGeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs)isveryusefulindecisionmakingforRIM.GITsarecommonlyreferredtoasICTtoolsusedinthecollection,management,maintenance,manipulationandpresentationofgeographicdataandorinformation(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).Theuseofthesetechnologiesisknowntosimplifydecisionmakingto
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anontechnicallevelandtosupportthestakeholdersinsustainable-orienteddecisionmaking.However,thesetechnologiesareunderutilizedforRIMinUganda.
UgandaisbeyondthefirstappearancesofGIT,whenonlyhighlyqualifiedprofession-alscouldhandlethem.Today,advancesintechnologyaretremendous(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).AwiderangeofGISisavailablerangingfromhighcostserverbasedtolowcostuser-friendlydesktopsoftware.Thesectorhasnotedtheincreaseintheavail-abilityofspatialdata.Thespatialandtemporalresolutionofremotesensingdatahasimpressivelyincreased,andmoredataarenowfreelyavailable.ThemostoutstandingadvancementhasprobablybeenthedevelopmentoftheinternetandwebGISwhichhaveopenedupnewopportunitiessuchasaccesstorealtimemaps,cheapandfre-quentdataupdatesandworldwidesharingof spatial information.Throughgraphicrepresentationandspatialanalysis,theuseofGITshelpstomakeRIMprocessesun-derstandabletodecisionmakersandlaypersons(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).
UseofGITsisincreasinglyshiftingfromreferencetoolstodynamicdecisionmakingtools.Thisshifthasbeentriggeredby,amongotherfactors,emergencysituationssuchastheWorldTradeCentre(WTC)attacksofSeptember11200l(TeresaM.Harrisonetal.,2007).ThisattackbecameacatalystforchangeintheuseofGITsforalmostallrelevantdisciplinestransportationinclusive.ThispaperoutlinestheRIMorganizationinUganda,theactorsinvolvedaswellastheirroles.ItdiscussesthegapsthathavebeenidentifiedintheuseofGITsforRIMinUgandaandthelimitationsassociatedwithenforcingtheuseofthesetechnologies.
2. GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES - THE PROB-LEM
GeoInformationTechnologies(GIT)areasetofspecializedInformationandCom-municationsTechnologies(ICT)whichhelptocollect,manageandanalysedataabouttheresources,landscapefeatures,andsocioeconomiccharacteristicsofanareainbothspace and time (Ehrensperger et al., 2007). They provide an important feature forcommunication,disseminationandknowledge sharingonaccountof theircapabil-itytofacilitatedisplayandvisualisespatialdata.Morerecently, ithasbecomeclearthatGIS,togetherwithGlobalpositioningsystems(GPS),aerialphotography,remotesensing techniques, and other spatially related tools for decision making, comprisealargerarrayofcomplementarytoolsthatcanbegroupedtogetherunderthemorecomprehensive rubric of “geographic information technologies” (GIT) (Teresa M.Harrisonetal.,2007). According toEhrenspergeretal. (2007),GIT include fourbasicspatialtools,namely,GeographicalInformationSystems(GIS),GlobalPosition-ingSystems(GPS),RemoteSensing(RS)andweb-basedtoolssuchasGoogleearthwhichprovidenewwaysofsharinginformationandvisualizingnearrealtimedata.GIS facilitates storage,management and analysis of geographically referenceddata,integratingcommondatabaseoperationswithuniquemeansofvisualizationandthegeographicanalysispotentialofmaps.GPSaresatellitebasedpositioningsystemsfor
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capturinglocationsofsamplepointssuchasroadjunctions,potholesorlargerfeatures(landmarks)ontheroad.Theselandmarksmaylaterbeusedtoreferencesatelliteim-agesorotherspatialdatalayers.RemoteSensingontheotherhandisthedetectingoftheearth’ssurfacefromsatellitesandairplanesbymakinguseofthepropertiesofelectromagneticwavesemitted,reflectedordiffractedbythesensedobjects.Itprovidesimagesoftheearth’ssurfacethatcanbeusedtoidentifyespeciallydifferenttypesoflandcover.TheadvantagesassociatedwiththeuseofGITsinclude;improvedmap-ping,greaterefficiencyinretrievalofinformation,fasterandmoreextensiveaccesstothetypesofgeographicalinformationimportanttoplanning,improvedanalysis,bet-tercommunicationtothepublic,andfasteraccesstoinformationforvariousapplica-tionprocesses(Ehrensperger,2006).UgandahasnotfullybenefitedfromtheaboveadvantagesandasMazzi(2007)observed,thismanifestedinunderutilizationofGITsandspatialdataintransportplanning.However,itisimportanttonotethateffortsarenowemergingtotakeadvantageofthebenefitsofGITs.ThedesiretouseGISbytheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT)inthemanagementofnationalanddistrictroadsasevidencedbythecommissioningofaprojectknownasManagementInfor-mationSystems(MIS)fordistrictroadsin2006isoneofsuchefforts.TheMISwasintendedtoapplyGISformonitoringcross-cuttingissuessuchasgender,occupationalhealth,HIV/AidsandenvironmentintheRoadSector.Todate,theMISisstillbeingappliedmainlyforcapturingandreportingvariousattributesforroadmaintenance.Similarly,theUgandaNationalRoadsAuthority(UNRA),anauthoritychargedwiththemanagementofnational roads, alsousesGISprimarily for reportingpurposes.WhereasitisthedesireofUNRAandotherinstitutionstoutilizeGISintheiractivi-ties,thereisageneralrequirementthatlimitsutilizationofGITs.Thelimitationessen-tiallyoriginatesfromtheinherentnatureofGITs.TheuseofGITsrestsontheabilitytoaccesscoredatasetsanduniformorinteroperablespatialreferencesystemthatcanserveasfoundationforthedevelopmentofsubsequentapplicationsthatdependonsharinggeospatialinformationacrossregionsandintegratinggeospatialinformationwithotherrelevantdatasets(WehndeMontalvo,2002)ascitedby(TeresaM.Har-risonetal.,2007).ThemajorproblemthereforeistheunderutilizationofGITsintheRoadInfrastructureMaintenanceprocessofUganda.ThemainobjectiveistoidentifythegapsintheuseofGITsandlimitationstoenforcingtheiruseforRIMinUganda.
3. METHODOLOGY
ThisstudycoveredKampalaandJinjadistrictsasthestudyarea,seefigure3-2.Theprojectadoptedamulti-facetedapproach.Inthisapproach,theinitialstageinvolvedthe identificationofall stakeholders/actors intheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesector.Thiswasfollowedbyareviewofdocumentationdescribingtheroadmainte-nanceprocess. Key informant interviewsusingan interviewguidewereconductedwiththeroadengineers,managersandGISspecialistsintheidentifiedorganizations.Furthermore,otherknowledgeablepersonnelinvolvedintheroadmaintenanceactivi-tieswerealsointerviewed.Insummary,acombinationofexpertandsnowballsamplingtechniqueswereusedtoidentifypersonswithknowledgeanddemonstrableexperience
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andexpertise inGITs.Thesamplingframecomprisedofmanagers inroadmainte-nanceorganisationsanddepartmentsandthesamplesizewaslimitedto3personsperorganization.Theresultwasthatatotalof23personswereinterviewedacrossalltheorganisations.Inadditiontotheabovemethods,participantobservationsandfieldmeasuresweretriangularlyemployedtoensurecomplimentarilyoffindings.Finally,anindependentmappingoftheroadsasachecktotheexistinggeodatabaseswasdone.
Fromacombinationofinterviews,documentreviewandothertechniquesasoutlinedabove,gapsintheuseofGITswerederived.Lateronduringtheparticipantobserva-tionandfieldmeasurephases,thesegapswereconfirmedandthisservedasabasisforderivinglimitationstoenhancingtheiruse.Tounderstandthenatureoftheidentifiedgapsandlimitationsfurther,itwasconsiderednecessarytoevaluatetheorganizationsandtheirprocesses.Forthispurposetherefore,moredatapertainingtothefollowinginstitutionalaspectswascollected; theorganizational structureofRIMcomponent,activitiesundertakeninthemaintenanceprocess,actorsinvolvedintheseactivities,thegoalsandregulationsthatgoverntheactivities,andthedocumentsthatarecreatedduringthemaintenanceprocess.Thefindingsaredocumentedinthefollowingsec-tionsofthepaper.
Figure 3‑2: Map of Uganda Showing Kampala and Jinja Areas
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4. FINDINGS
4.1 Road maintenance Activities and Actors
TheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT),UgandaNationalRoadsAuthority(UNRA),consultantsandcontractorswereidentifiedasthekeystakeholdersinRoadInfrastructureMaintenance(RIM).Localgovernmentsanddonorsalsoplayapartinsomecircumstances.MoWThastheconstitutionalmandatetosetpolicy,regulate,setstandards,andprovidetechnicalguidanceandmonitoringtotheconstructionindus-try.Uganda’sroadnetworkcomprisesabout78,000kmofroadofwhich21,000kmarenational,22,500kmaredistrict,4,500kmareurbanand30,000kmcommunityaccessroads.TheUgandaNationalRoadsAuthorityisresponsiblefordevelopmentandmaintenanceofnational roads.Thedistrictandurbanauthoritiesareresponsi-bleforconstructionandmaintenanceofthedistrictandurbanroadsrespectively.Alldistrictsarestaffedwithengineers,plannersandsurveyors.InKampalaforexample,KampalaCityCouncil(KCC),alocalgovernmentorganization,ischargedwiththeresponsibilityofmaintainingdistrictroadswithinthecity.Dependingonthesizeofroadandthescopeofworksrequired,KCCnormallydecideswhetherornottoper-formmaintenanceworksusinginhouseequipmentandpersonnelorcontractbasedroadmaintenance. In the lattermethod,aprivatecontractor isoftenprocuredandhiredtoperformtheworksunderdirectorindirectsupervisionbyKCC.Underindi-rectsupervision,aprivateconsultantcompanyisassignedsupervisoryroleonbehalfoftheclientandthisnormallydependsontheprojectsizeandavailabilityoffunds.Thecommunityaccessroadsarearesponsibilityofthelowerlocalgovernmentsandtheirmaintenanceisoftencommunitybased.
4.2 Gaps in GIT utilization
ThegapsandlimitationstousingGITsinRIMhavebeenbasedononeguidingprin-ciple thatorganizational standaloneGITusage iscostlyandtimewasting.Onthebasisofthisprinciple,thegapsidentifiedhavebeengroupedinfourbasiccategoriesasdiscussedinthefollowingsection.
(i)GITs are not integrated into the working procedures of any of the involved organizations.InordertobuildupthecapacityandinfrastructureinGITs,theirusehastobeincor-poratedintheongoingpracticesoftheorganizations.ThesustainabilityofGITusagewillbederivedfromtheirfrequentuseforplanning,reportinganddecisionmakingoftheroutineandperiodicmaintenanceactivities.However,itisobservedthatGITusageisonprojectbasisandconvenience.KCCforexampleistaskedwiththerespon-sibilityofmaintainingtheroadswithinKampala,however,theGISdataavailablewithKCCto-datewereobtainedduringthecapacitybuildingprojectin2003.Thesehavenotbeenupdatedsincethen.Similarly,theuseofsatelliteimagerybyconsultantsisonprojectbasis.Alloftheprojectsthatuseimageryhavethespecificationsstipulatedinthetermsofreferenceandthisendsatprojectlevel.However,thereisanongoingconsultancy“RoadInventoryStudy”whoseprincipalobjectiveistoassistUNRAtoestablishaNationalRoadsDatabankandAssetManagementSystem.Thesearetobe
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usedasadecision-makingsupporttoolforannualandmulti-annualmaintenanceandinvestmentworkplansandreportingonroadandbridgesinthecountry.Thefuturesustainabilityofthesystemisfundamentalandthestrategyadoptedbytheconsultantduringtheassignmentisthereforedirectedatthisobjective.Assuchtrainingoftheclient’sstaffandtechnologytransferareimportant,UgandaNationalRoadsAuthorityTermsofReference(UNRA-TOR,2007).
(ii)The current institutional arrangements are not inclined to lasting partnerships, stand‑ardized data and a coordinated GIS infrastructure.AsobservedfromtheorganizationalstructureoftheRIMprocess,theorganizationsinvolvedarenotstandalone.Forin-stance, in one project the contractor reports to the consultant who also reports toUNRAwhothenfinallyreportstotheministry-MoWT.However,thisworkflowisoftenorganizedforaparticularprojectonanad-hocbasis.Incasethesameconsult-antandcontractoraretoworktogetheronanotherproject,adifferentinstitutionalarrangementmaybedefined.Onceprocessesandinstitutionalarrangementschangeasaresultofchangesinprojectreportingarrangements,thedataformatandstandardschange.Consideringthattheseinvolvedorganizationsusesimilardatasetsinresolvingroutineandperiodicmaintenanceproblems,itisarequirementthatthesedatasetsarestandardizedandthattherelationshipbetweentheorganizationsisformal.Inessence,ithasbecomedifficulttoarchivethesedata inacoordinatedGISinfrastructureforRIM.
(iii)Lack of data sharing and collaboration.Theemphasisontechnicalratherthanin-stitutionalanddata-relatedissueswasearmarkedby(MartinRalphsandWyatt,1998)asoneofthecommonproblemsthatGISapplicationsencounter.DatasharingandcollaborationisvitalinavoidingduplicationofeffortsfortheorganizationsinvolvedinRIM.ThereisanumberoffundamentaldatasetsusedinallGISprojects.Mostofthedatausedinthemanagementofsuchprojectsissharedamongutilitydisciplines.Theseincludewater,power,telephonelines, landuse,etc.However,thereis lackofcollaborationamongtheutilitycompanies.Majorityoftheutilitycompanies(NWSC,UEB,UMEME)forexamplehaveestablishedGISunitsthroughwhichcollaborationwouldbenefittheroadsectorandfurthertheestablishmentofitsGISunit.TheUnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO,2003)arguesthatlongstandingchallengestodatasharingandintegrationneedtobeaddressedbeforethebenefitsofgeographicinformationsystemscanbefullyrealized.Theproblemsleadingtothisgaphavebeenidentifiedtoinclude;insufficientknowledgeofwhoownswhatdataandthestatusofthedata,differencesinreferenceframes,datapricingirregularities,copyrightandpri-vacypolicies,dataqualityaspectsandtechnologicalissuesrelatedtoincompatibilityofsoftwareplatforms.However,collaborationhasbeenprovedtoallowforthepoolingofresourcesandbetteruseofsynergies(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).Thisinturnsleadstomotivationamongthetechnicalstaffastasksbecomemorediversifiedandinteresting.
(iv) There is lack of a data foundation to address key national and local maintenance requirements.InitiativesforestablishingaSpatialDataInfrastructure(SDI)-aframe-work for connecting all users of Geographical Information (GI) to the producers(ordata) throughanefficient infrastructure (Nebert,2004)arenot forthcoming in
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Uganda.InWashington,Update(2001),recognizesasimilargapwhichisstatedasthelackofacommondatafoundationtoaddresskeystate-wideandlocalpolicyis-sues.Thisinturnhasbeenfoundtodeprivetheorganizationsofgeospatialdata.Itiswidelyrecognizedthatcollectingdatamultipletimesforthesamepurposeiswastefulandinefficient.GeospatialdatacollectedtomeettherequirementsofdistrictroadsforexampleisusefultoUNRAinthemanagementofnationalroads. Thisisbasicallybecausesomesectionsofnationalroadsqualifyasdistrictroads.However,theuseofthesedataforthetwopartiesisonlypossibleifthedatameetasetofbasicandcon-sistentguidelinesandprotocols.Inturn,thiswillrequiretheexistenceofpoliciesandstandardsgoverningdatacollectionandmanagement.
4.3. Limitations in GIT usage
Basingonthesameprinciplehighlightedabove,thelimitationstoenforcingtheuti-lizationofGITsinRIMhavebeencategorizedintofivecategoriesasdiscussedbelow.
(i)Absence of policy on the standard use of GITs:Oneoftheprincipalinputsforeffec-tiveroadmanagementiswelldefinedobjectivessuchaswouldbestatedinapolicyframework.Usually,policiesprovideguidelinesofuseandsetforththeprinciplesthatgoverntheuseofthesettechnology.AbsenceofapolicythatencouragestheuseofGITsinRIMandsetsforththestandardstobefollowedisafundamentallimitation.100%oftheroadcontractorsforinstancearguethattheyhavenoreasontoinvestinGITapplicationsiftheirusehasnotbeensetasmandatory.
(ii)Budget Limitations:Besidesthecostsofequipmentanddatacollection,buildingGITcapacityandinfrastructurealsorequireapredefinedbudget.LackofdurabilityofGITbasedprojectsisoftenduetoinsufficientbudgetsfortheinvolvedactivities.IthasbeenthetraditionthatbudgetsandprogramsforroadworksinUgandahavebeenpreparedonahistoricalbasis.Thisimpliesthateachyear’sbudgetisbaseduponthepreviousyearwithanadjustmentfor inflation.It isarequirementthatbudgetsbepreparedbasingonobjectiveneeds-basedapproachestoincorporateknowledgeofthecontent,structureandconditionoftheroadsbeingmanaged.TheGISprojectinKCCin2003isstillreferredtotodayforitsprematureendingwithnobenefitrealiza-tionsimplyduetobudgetarylimitations.Justlikeanyothertechnology,GITusagerequiresongoingimprovedcapacitytohandlethefastgrowingtechnology.Thistoorequiresabudgetfortrainingtheresponsibleprofessionals.Eventhoughsatelliteim-ageryisfreelyavailableto-date,theimagesfaceachallengeofbeingold.Theuptodateimageryisquitecostlytobeprocuredbytheorganizations.Likewise,theinitialcapitalforGISestablishmentisquitehigheventhoughtheoperationalcostsaremanageable.Allthecontractorsinterviewedmadeitclearthattheirrevenueisnotworththeinvest-mentinthesetechnologies.
(iii)Lack of infrastructure to support use of geographic datasets:Effectiveuseofgeograph-icdata requires that thesedata are collected,maintained andupdatedon a regularbasis.Decisionmakingfortransportmaintenancerequiresaccesstodatafrommul-tiplesources.Tothiseffect,sisterorganizationsusingsimilardatasetsshouldbeina
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position to share thesedatawhenneeded.Theuniversallyaccepted frameworks forgeographicdatamanagement inUgandaare stillunderdeveloped.Data structures,formats,syntax,andterminology,whichconstitutesemanticcontentorqualitystand-ards,donotexist.ThiscoincideswithNationaletal.(2002)andKittyHancockandFletcher(2004)thatthereisnouniversallyacceptedframeworkforgeographicdatamanagementinAfrica.Theacceptableinfrastructurerequiresefficienttelecommunica-tioninfrastructures.Atthemoment,accesstogeographicdatathroughtheinternetislimitedashighconnectioncostandlowbandwidthrestrictdatasharing
(iv)Geospatial capacity at individual, organizational and societal levels:Theprofessionalsthatworkinthefieldofroadmaintenancehavediverseresponsibilities.However,theministryhasadepartmentthat isresponsibleforplanning,designing,constructing,andmaintainingthetransportationinfrastructure.Theprofessionalschargedwiththistaskaremajorlycivilengineers,trainedintheareasofdesignandconstruction.Asaresult,challengestocoordinatinghowgeospatialdataareacquiredandusedarethenorm.Collectingduplicatedatasets,atthelocalandnationallevelsisacommonsce-nario.However,parametersrelatedtotheinventoryandconditionofroadsrequiresaninputfromgeographicdata.Decisionstorepairgivenroadsaredependentonthem.ThisthenrequiresthatGITprofessionalsarethusanecessityinthesaiddepartment.However,inthiscase,theseprofessionalsareavailedonprojectbasis.Thisusuallycre-atesagapatthecloseoftheprojectlivingalottobedesired.
(v)Digital divide:TheimplementationofGITsandtherelateddataconversionacrossthecountryisstilluneven.Thegovernmentorganizations(MoWT,UNRAandKCC–LocalGovernment)unlikeprivatecompanies(thecontractorsandconsultants)’are‘richer’,oftendonorfunded.Theyarefastgrowingandexperiencingarapidlyincreas-ingdemandforservices.TheyarethereforeoftenabletoaffordthefundstosupportthedevelopmentofrobustGITs.Theconsultantandcontractorcommunitieschangemoreslowlyandgenerate less revenue.Thesignificantupfrontcostsof staffingandimplementingGITs(satelliteimagery,dataconversion,hardware&software,training,etc)haveimpededtheadoptionofthesemoreefficientandproductivecomputerizedsystemsinthiscategoryofstakeholders.Thishasresultedintothecontinueduseofmanual andhardcopymethodsandmaterials inmostof the spatial applicationsoftheseorganizations.ThiswerefertoasthedigitaldividebetweenUNRA,theMinistryandtheLocalGovernmentandthecontractorsandconsultants.
5. CONCLUSION
ThepaperhasdiscussedthegapsintheuseandlimitationstoaccessingGITsforRIM.Thesehavesofarbeenfoundtobebothsocialandtechnicalinnature.Thegapsinus-ingthesetechnologiesinclude;thelackofanintegrationofGITsintheorganizations’workingprocedures,inadequateinstitutionalarrangementthatshouldallowforlast-ingpartnerships,absenceofstandardsfordataandacoordinatedGISinfrastructure,absenceofdatasharingandcollaborationandthelackofadatafoundationatnationalandlocallevels.ThelimitationstoaccessingGITsinRIMinclude;theabsenceofa
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policy on standard use of GITs, budget constraints, inadequate geospatial capacityat all levels and the digital divide between the involved organizations. Apparently,researchintheroadmaintenancesectorisyettotacklevariouswaysinwhichGITscanbeusedtofurthertheirperformanceasdecisionsupporttools.Aproposalforarational algorithmic incorporationofGITs inRIM inUgandawillbepresentedatthe2ndAdvancedEngineeringTechnologies’(AET)conferenceinFebruary2010inKampala,Uganda.
6. REFERENCESUnitedStatesGeneralAccountingOffice(GAO)(2003)GeographicInformationSystems:
ChallengestoEffectiveDataSharing.TestimonyBeforetheSubcommitteeonTechnology,InformationPolicy,IntergovernmentalRelationsandtheCensus,CommitteeonGovernmentReform,HouseofRepresentatives.
Ehrensperger,A.(2006)Potentials,LimitationsandRisksofGeo-InformationTechnologyforSustainableDevelopmentApproachesinKenya..
Ehrensperger,A.,Wymannvon,S.D.&Kakridi,F.E.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnolo-giesforNaturalResourceManagement.InfoResources Focus,No3/07.
KittyHancock&Fletcher,D.R.(2004)GeographicInformationSystemsforTransportation,CommitteeonSpatialDataandInformationScience,A5015.
MartinRalphs&Wyatt,P.(1998)Theapplicationofgeographicandlandinformationsystemstothemanagementoflocalauthorityproperty.Property Management.16:2,83-91.
Mazzi,L.K.N.(2007)BalancingInformationRequirementswithDataAvailability:AcaseofTransportPlanning,Kampala,Uganda.International Institute for Geo‑Information Science and Earth Observation.Enschede,Netherlands.
NationalAcademyofSciences(2002)DownToEarth:GeographicalInformationforSustainableDevelopmentInAfrica.The National Academics: Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine.
Nebert,D.D.E.(2004)Developingspatialdatainfrastructures:theSDIcookbook:version2.0.CapeTown,GlobalSpatialDataInfrastructureAssociation(GSDI).
TeresaM.Harrison,TheresaPardo,J.RamonGil–Garcia,FionaThompson&Juraga,D.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnologies,StructurationTheory,andtheWorldTradeCenterCrisis.58,2240–2254.
StrategicPlanUpdate(2001)TheGeographicInformationChallenge.WAGIC DRAFT Working Document
WehnDeMontalvo,U.(2002)Thedistributionofspatialdata.InR.Mansell(Ed.),Insidethecommunicationrevolution:Evolvingpatternsofsocialandtechnicalinteraction.Oxford: Oxford University Press.,186-203.
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BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES AND CONTACTS
1Ms. Lydia Mazzi Kayondo is aLand surveyor andGeographical Information systemsmanager.SheholdsanMSc.inGeoinformationManagementfromITCnowtheFac-ultyofGeoInformationScienceandEarthObservations,Netherlands.Shehaspar-ticipatedinanumberofGISconsultanciesandprojectswithinUgandaintheMinistryofWorksandTransportandwetlandmanagementdepartment.SheiscurrentlyanAs-sistantLecturerintheDepartmentofSurveying,MakerereUniversity,P.O.Box7062Kampala,Email:[email protected]
2Prof. Sandy Stevens Tickodri‑TogboaisanEngineeringScientistandaProfessorofEngi-neeringMathematics,withbackgroundinElectricalEngineeringandTelecommunica-tionsandwideexperiencesinInformationCommunicationTechnologyandstatisticaldataanalysis.Hehasalsobeen involved inresearch into the impactsof InformationCommunicationTechnology (ICT) and Geographic Information Systems (GIS) ap-plicationsinenhancingsustainableruraldevelopment.HehasbeenUniversityadmin-istratoratthelevelsofHeadofDepartment,DeputyDeanofFacultyofTechnology.Currently he is the DeputyVice Chancellor (Finance and Administration) of Mak-erere University and he is also the Chairman, Board of Directors, Uganda Electric-ity(UEGCL)GenerationCompanyLimited. HehasundergoneseveraltrainingsinBusinessAdministration andCorporateGovernance,ProjectManagement,ResearchManagementandAdministration,PhDSupervision,andonInnovationSystemsandInnovativeClustersFacilitation.MakerereUniversityP.O.Box7062Kampala,Email:[email protected]
3Prof Gerhad BaxisprofessorofEarthSciences.HehasworkedwithUppsalaUniversity,wherehewasheadofGeoinformatics,andiscurrentlyaffiliatedtoBlekingeInstituteofTechnologyinSweden.Prof.Baxhasmorethan20yearsexperienceofresearchandsupervisioninGISandRemoteSensing,withhundredsofstudentsthatarenowactiveinabroadrangeofGISbranchesinandoutsideSweden.Heisalsoaprofessionaline-learningandhasbeenguestprofessorinGIS,RemoteSensingandE-learningattheUniversityofHeidelberginGermany.HisresearchcoversawiderangeofapplicationsinGeoinformatics, includingfieldwork indifferentpartsofEurope, theArctic, theHigherHimalayasandAfrica.PresentlyheisworkingonaWorldBankprojectmap-pingthegeologyofUgandaandtrainingthestaffoftheGeologicalSurveyandMinesinnewdigitalmappingtechniques.Hehasbeenamemberofnumeroussteeringboards,severaltimesaschairman,oforganizationspromotingtheuseofICTandGISinthepublicsector.BlekingeTechnicalInstituteP.OBox214,S-37424Karlshamn,Sweden,Email:[email protected]
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PAPER IIIALGORITHMIC INCORPORATION OF GEOGRAPHICAL
INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES IN ROAD INFRASTRUCTURE MAINTENANCE IN UGANDA
MazziLydiaKayondoAssistantLecturer,DepartmentofSurveying,MakerereUniversity,P.O.Box7062,Kampala,Uganda.Correspondingemail:[email protected];Lndandiko@yahoo.
co.uk.
TickodriTogboaS.S,Professor,DepartmentofComputerEngineering,MakerereUniversity,P.O.Box7062,Kampala,Uganda
GerhardBax,Professor,SchoolofTechnoculture,HumanitiesandPlanning,DivisionofTechno-scienceStudies,BlekingeInstituteofTechnology,P.O-Box214,S-37424Karlshamn,Sweden
ABSTRACT
GeographicalInformationTechnologies(GITs)areunderutilizedforRoadInfrastruc-tureMaintenance(RIM)inUganda,thusthenecessitytorationallyincorporatetheiruseasdecisionsupporttoolsintheparticipatingorganizations.GITshereinincludeRemoteSensing,GlobalPositioningSystems(GPS),GeographicalInformationSys-tems(GIS)andwebbasedtoolssuchasGoogleearth.Thispaperisrootedinresearchundertaken toassess theuseofGITsasdecision support tools inRIM inUganda.Basingonresultsfrominterviews,fieldvisits&measuresandparticipantobservations,thegapsandlimitationstotheusageofGITsforRIMinUgandaarebrieflydiscussed.Thedata requirements forRIMarehighlighted.Thepaper suggests analgorithmicapproachtoaccentuatetheusageofGITsintheRIMprocess.Thisapproachinvolves:apolicyondatacollectionguidelinesemphasizingtheuseofGPS,satelliteimageryandGIS, capacitybuilding in thebenefitsofusingGITsand the science involved,establishmentofalocalspatialdatainfrastructureforroadmaintenanceandsettingasideyearlybudgetsforthedefinedactivities.ThedynamicsegmentationdatamodelisidentifiedasasuperiordatastoragestrategyforroadmaintenancedatawithintheGIS.
Keywords:GeographicalInformationSystems(GIS),GeographicalInformationTech-nologies(GITs),RoadinfrastructureMaintenance(RIM),Uganda
1 INTRODUCTION
The understanding of Geographic Information Technologies (GITs), effective useofgeographicalinformationandtheknowledgeoftheiradvantagesiscriticaltotheplanninganddecisionmakingprocesses forassetmanagementdepartments.Awellmaintained roadnetworkasset is very important for the economicdevelopmentofthenation.Therefore,Road InfrastructureMaintenance (RIM) is aprerequisite forthemanagementofroads.TheuseofGeographicInformation(GI)thatiscollected,managedandanalyzedusingGITsisveryusefulindecisionmakingforRIM.GITsarecommonlyreferredtoasInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT)toolsusedinthecollection,management,maintenance,manipulationandpresentationofgeo-
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graphicdataandorinformation(Ehrenspergeretal.,2007).Theuseofthesetechnolo-giesisknowntosimplifydecisionmakingtoanontechnicallevelandtosupportthestakeholders insustainable-orienteddecisionmaking.Embracingandcontinuingtodevelopaflexible,methodologicalframeworkfortheintegrationofdecision-support-ingtechnologieswithinfrastructureisfundamentaltosupportingeffectiveincorpora-tionofspatialdataindecision-making(Cartright,1993).However,GITsinUgandaareunderutilized.Thereisnocomprehensivemethodologyorframeworkforaddress-ingboththetechnicalandnon-technicalissuesaffectingGITimplementation.ThispaperhighlightsdatarequirementsforRIM,theorganizationoftheRIMprocessandthegapsandlimitationsinutilizationofGITsinRIMinUganda.Finally,itsuggestsanalgorithmicapproachinformofaframeworktoaccentuatetheuseofGITsinRIM.
2 METHOD
ThisstudycoversKampalaandJinjadistrictsas thestudyarea. Itadoptedamulti-facetedapproach.Inthisapproach,theinitialstageinvolvedtheidentificationofallstakeholders/actorsintheroadinfrastructuremaintenancesector.Thiswasfollowedbyareviewofdocumentationdescribingtheroadmaintenanceprocess.Keyinform-antinterviewsusinganinterviewguidewereconductedwiththeroadengineers,man-agersandGISspecialists intheidentifiedorganizations.Furthermore,otherknowl-edgeablepersonnelinvolvedintheroadmaintenanceactivitieswerealsointerviewed.Insummary,acombinationofexpertandsnowballsamplingtechniqueswereusedtoidentifypersonswithknowledgeanddemonstrableexperienceandexpertiseinGITs.Thesamplingframecomprisedofmanagersinroadmaintenanceorganisations.Thesamplesizewaslimitedto3personsperorganizationandtheresultwasthatatotalof23personswereinterviewedacrossalltheorganisations.Inadditiontotheabovemethods,participantobservationsandfieldmeasurementsweretriangularlyemployedtoensurecomplimentarilyoffindings.Finally,anindependentmappingoftheroadsasachecktotheexistinggeodatabaseswasdone.Fromacombinationofinterviews,documentreviewandothertechniquesasoutlinedabove,gapsintheuseofGITswerederived.Lateronduringtheparticipantobservationandfieldmeasurementphases,thesegapswereconfirmedandthisservedasabasisforderivinglimitationstoenhanc-ingtheiruse.
3 ROAD MAINTENANCE ACTIVITIES AND ACTORS
ThekeystakeholdersintheRIMprocessare;TheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT),UgandaNationalRoadsAuthority(UNRA),consultantsandcontractors.Localgovernmentsanddonorsalsoplayapartinsomecircumstancesasoutlinedbe-low.TheMinistryofWorksandTransport(MoWT)hastheconstitutionalmandatetosetpolicy,regulate,setstandards,andprovidetechnicalguidanceandmonitoringtotheconstructionindustry.TheUgandaNationalRoadsAuthority(UNRA)isre-sponsiblefordevelopmentandmaintenanceofnationalroads.Thedistrictandurbanauthoritiesareresponsibleforconstructionandmaintenanceofthedistrictandurban
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roadsrespectively.Alldistrictsarestaffedwithengineers,plannersandsurveyors.InKampala forexample,KampalaCityCouncil (KCC),a localgovernmentorganiza-tion,ischargedwiththeresponsibilityofmaintainingdistrictroadswithinthecity.Dependingonthesizeofroadandthescopeofworksrequired,KCCnormallyde-cideswhetherornottoperformmaintenanceworksusinginhouseequipmentandpersonnelorengagecontractbasedroadmaintenance.Inthelattermethod,aprivatecontractorisoftenprocuredandhiredtoperformtheworksunderdirectorindirectsupervisionbyKCC.Underindirectsupervision,aprivateconsultantcompanyisas-signedsupervisoryroleonbehalfoftheclient(KCCinthiscase)andthisnormallydependsontheprojectsizeandavailabilityoffunds.Thecommunityaccessroadsarearesponsibilityofthelowerlocalgovernmentsandtheirmaintenanceisoftencom-munitybased.
4 ROAD MAINTENANCE DATA
Roadmanagementdata is composedof; road inventory,pavement, structures, traf-fic,finance,activityandresourceselements,eachofwhichhasvariousaspects(Pater-sonandScullion,1990).Table3-1showsthecompositionofroadmanagementdatagroupedinelementsanddataaspectsofeachelement.Thefocusofthisresearchhow-everlieswiththespatialdatarelatingtothenetwork/locationandpavementconditionaspectsoftheroadinventoryandpavementelementsrespectively.Thedifferencebe-tweeninventory(physicalelementsofthesystem)andconditiondatalieswiththefactthatinventorydatadoesn’tchangeremarkablyovertime.Itistypicallymeasuredinoneoffexercisesandupdatedasneedarises.Conditiondataontheotherhandchangesovertimeandrequiressomekindofmonitoring(Bennettetal,2006).
Table 3‑1: Elements of Road Management
Element Aspects
Roadinventory Network/Location,Geometry
Pavement Pavementstructure,Pavementcondition
Structures Structuresinventory,Bridgecondition
Traffic Volume,Loadings,Accidents
Finance UnitCosts,Budget,Revenue
Activity Projects,Interventions,Commitments
Resources Institutional,Materials,Equipment
Source: Paterson and Scullion (1990)
GITsarecapableofeffectivelymonitoringtheseuntimelychanges.AccordingtoBen-nettetal.,(2007)thesurveyfrequencyindicatesthat,inventorydatashouldbeveri-fiedevery5yearsandpavementconditiondata formainroads shouldbecollectedevery1-2years.Forminorroadshowever,surveyfrequencyshouldbeevery2-5years.However,inUganda,thisisnotthecase.Theroadsareinacontinuousstateofuncoor-
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dinatedrepairandupgrade.Thisimpliesthatdatashouldalwaysbecollectedpriortoanupgradeorrepairscheduleinordertoprioritizeworks.Theamount,typeanddetailoftherequireddatashouldthenbethefocusduringthedatacollection.
5 GAPS AND LIMITATIONS IN GIT USAGE IN RIM
ThegapsandlimitationsinGITutilizationarebasedononeguidingprinciplethatorganizationalstandaloneGITusageiscostlyandtimewasting.Inconsequence,thesegapsandlimitationsarecategorizedinto4and5groupsrespectively.
5.1 Gaps in GIT Utilization
5.1.1 GITs are not integrated into the working procedures of any of the involved organiza‑tions:ItisobservedthatGITusageisonprojectbasisandconvenience.InordertobuildupthecapacityandinfrastructureinGITshowever,theirusehastobeincorpo-ratedintheongoingpracticesoftheorganizations.ThesustainabilityofGITusagewillbederivedfromtheircontinueduseforplanning,reportinganddecisionmakingoftheroutineandperiodicmaintenanceactivities.
5.1.2 The current institutional arrangements are not inclined to lasting partnerships, standardized data and a coordinated GIS infrastructure:Fromthecurrentorganizationalstructure,thestakeholdersintheRIMprocessarenotstandalone.Despitethis,theirworkflowisorganizedonprojectbasisinanad-hocway.Onceprocessesandinstitu-tionalarrangementschangeasaresultofchangesinprojectreportingarrangements,thedataformatandstandardschange.Inessence,itisincreasinglybecomingdifficulttoarchivethesedatainacoordinatedGISinfrastructureforRIM.
5.1.3 Lack of data sharing and collaboration:Theproblemsleadingtothisgaphavebeenidentifiedtoinclude;insufficientknowledgeofwhoownswhatdataandthestatusofthedata,differencesinreferenceframes,datapricingirregularities,copyrightandpri-vacypolicies,dataqualityaspectsandtechnologicalissuesrelatedtoincompatibilityofsoftwareplatforms,alsoinharmonywithMusinguzietal.,2007andMazzi,2007.
5.1.4 There is lack of a data foundation to address key national and local maintenance requirements:InitiativesforestablishingaSpatialDataInfrastructure(SDI)-aframe-workforconnectingallusersofGeographicalInformation(GI)totheproducers(ordata)throughanefficientinfrastructure(Nebert,2004)arestillnotforthcominginUganda(Musinguzietal.,2007).
5.2 Limitations in GIT usage
5.2.1 Absence of policy on the standard use of GITs:Oneoftheprincipalinputsforeffec-tiveroadmanagementarewelldefinedobjectivessuchaswouldbestatedinapolicyframework(Robinson,1998,PatersonandScullion,1990).However,thereisnosuchpolicythatencouragestheuseandsetsforththestandardstobefollowedintheuseofGITsinRIM.
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5.2.2 Budget Limitations:IthasbeenthetraditionthatbudgetsandprogramsforroadworksinUgandaarepreparedonahistoricalbasis.Thisimpliesthateachyear’sbudgetisbaseduponthepreviousyearwithanadjustmentforinflation.LackofdurabilityofGITbasedprojectsisoftenduetoinsufficientbudgetsfortheinvolvedactivities.Besidesthecostsofequipmentanddatacollection,buildingGITcapacityandinfra-structurealsorequireapredefinedbudgetwithamorelongtermperspectivefornon-annualinvestments.
5.2.3 Lack of infrastructure to support use of geographic datasets:TheuniversallyacceptedframeworksforgeographicdatamanagementinUgandaarestillunderdeveloped.Datastructures, formats, syntax, and terminology, which constitute semantic content orqualitystandards,donotexist.Anacceptablegeographicdatainfrastructurerequiresefficienttelecommunicationinfrastructures.Atthemoment,accesstogeographicdatathroughtheInternetislimitedandhighconnectioncostandlowbandwidthrestrictsdatasharingonanationallevelinUganda.
5.2.4 Geospatial capacity at individual, organizational and societal levels:Theprofession-alsthatworkinthefieldofroadmaintenancearemajorlycivilengineers,trainedintheareasofdesignandconstruction.Asaresult,challengeswiththeacquisitionandcoordinationofgeospatialdataarefartoocommon.
5.2.5 Digital divide: The implementation of GITs and the related data conversionacrossthecountryisstilluneven.Thegovernmentorganizations(MoWT,UNRAandKCC–LocalGovernment)unlikeprivatecompanies(thecontractorsandconsultants)areoftendonorfunded.TheyarethereforeoftenabletoaffordthefundstosupportthedevelopmentofrobustGITs.Theconsultantandcontractorcommunitieschangemoreslowlyandgenerate less revenue.Thesignificantupfrontcostsof staffingandimplementingGITshaveimpededtheadoptionofthesemoreefficientandproductivesystemsinthiscategoryofstakeholders.
6 ALGORITHMIC ACCENTUATION OF GIT USAGE IN RIM
The algorithmic approach proposed is an operational framework within which theroadmaintenancesectorcouldaccentuatetheuseofGITinRIM.Itisnotsequentialbutiterativeinthesensethattheoutlinedstrategiesdependonandsupporteachotherasdiscussedinthefollowingsections.Thisthereforequalifiesitasanondeterministicalgorithm.
6.1 Policy on GIT usage for RIM
ThesettingupofapolicyontheobligatoryuseofGITsbyallstakeholdersinRIMcould be the first step towards enhancing the use of the mentioned technologies.Supportstructuresdonotemergeanddonotcontinuetoexistautomatically.Theyneedpoliticalcommitment(Yeh,1991,SundeepSahayandWalsham,1996,HeatherCampbellandMasser,1995).Thispoliticalcommitmentshouldbeinformofpoli-cies.Thepolicy could statedata collectionguidelines emphasizing theuseofGPS,
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aerialphotographs,satelliteimageryandGIS.Inthelongrun,GITsinselfcouldbeusedinroutinesupportofpolicymaking.EventhoughGITprojectshaveendedupinfrustrationfortheorganisationsinvolved,itisadvisablethatthewholeconceptionbeginswithasimilarsettingwhichatthemomentisworkingwellforUNRAundertheprojectofsettingupaNationalRoad’sdatabank.MandatoryprojectrequirementfortheinstitutionalizationofGITsisadvocatedforbyEricdeMan(2000).Theuseof consultants to guideorparticipate in feasibility study is recommended (OnsrudHarlanJandPintoJeffreyK,1991).Theuseofconsultantsisdesirabletoreviewor-ganizationalgoals,assessneeds,offeralternatives,anddevelopstrategy.
6.2 Capacity building in GITs
Withapolicyinplace,capacitybuildingonthebenefitsofusingGITsandthesci-enceinvolvedwouldthenbenecessary.Inthepresentstudy,ithasbeenobservedthat,thecontractorcategoryoftheinvolvedstakeholdershaslimitedknowledgeableofthebenefitsofGITsletalonethefunctionalitiesofthetechnologiesthemselves.Capacitybuildingforthiscategoryofstakeholderscouldbeginwithdiffusion“theprocessofcommunicationofaninnovationtoandamongthepopulationofpotentialuserswithanaimofthemadoptingit”Zaltmanetal,1973in(OnsrudHarlanJandPintoJeffreyK,1991).Thecapacitybuildingcouldthenproceedasfollows;
6.2.1 Continued Professional Development (CPD):CPDshouldbecomeanintegralpartof the processes of enhancing geospatial capacity in RIM. Organizations that pro-videprofessionaltrainingongeographicinformationsciencessuchasuniversities,andprivatecompaniesshouldbestrengthenedandlinkedtotheorganisationsinRIM-amovetowardsthetriplehelixconceptofgovernment,academiaandindustrywork-ingtogetherforsustainabledevelopment.Thisdefinitelyrequiresabudgetaswillbediscussedinthesection6.5.
6.2.2 University collaboration:PublicuniversitiesshouldinitiallybecomeafocusforcapacitybuildingincludingtrainingandresearchinGITs.Induecourse,privateuni-versitieswiththemeanscouldpartnerwiththeparticipatingorganizationsaswell.Thestakeholders’organizations–theMinistryinthiscaseshouldcoordinatetheeffortsoftheseuniversitiestoachievethisgoal.BasingonthewillbeadvancementofGITus-ageinthesector,arecommendationofprioritiesforresearchshouldbemadebythestakeholders.Moreso,theseuniversitiesshouldbeincludedinthevariousdataman-agementandusagenetworks,whichareasteptowardstheestablishmentofaLocalSpatialDataInfrastructure(LSDI)forthesector(seesection6.3).Theevaluationofcurriculumdesignandcontentshouldbeanongoingactivitybasingontheadvance-mentofGITusage in the sector.According to (Ghose,2001,Leitner et al.,1998,HelgaLeitneretal.,2000,Leitneretal.,2000),universitypartnershipsaredeemedadvantageousinseveralrespectsincludingeasieraccesstotherichpotentialsourcesofGISexpertiseattheuniversity.TheabilitytofocusonthespecificdataandapplicationneedsofthepartneringorganizationandthelowercostsoflearningandmaintainingtheGITsystemwillinduecourseberealized.
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6.2.3 Systematic Research:Adoptsystematicresearchonfactorsandprocessesaffectingthediffusion,utilizationand impact assessmentofGITsby considering thevarietyofconceptualandmethodologicalproblems(OnsrudHarlanJandPintoJeffreyK,1991).Theobserveddigitaldividewilleventuallybeaddressedintheprocessofat-tendingtotheresearchrecommendations.
6.3 Establishment of a LSDI for road maintenance data
Sustainablemanagementoftheroadinfrastructurecallsfortheintegrationofstake-holdersfromdifferentdecisionmakinglevelsinplanning.Theuseofspatialinforma-tionmanagementtoolswillinthiscasesupportmultistakeholderandthemultilevelapproachesintheroadmaintenancefield.Therefore,bystartingfromlocalperspec-tivesandknowledge,andsubsequentlyintegratingexternalviews,multi-stakeholderapproaches shouldbeused for theproblemdefinitionandpriority settingstagesofanyproject.TheestablishmentofaLSDIisproposedfortheabovereasons.Aspatialdatainfrastructure(SDI)isaframeworkofspatialdata,metadata,usersandtoolsthatareinteractivelyconnectedinordertousespatialdatainanefficientandflexibleway.Local inthesensethatit isspecificfortheRIMsectorasthecountrysubsequentlyintegratesexternalviewsintoaNationalSDI.
6.4 Promoting collaboration and data sharing amongst the stakeholder organiza-tions
Like all technologies, GITs encompass technical and non technical issues (Eric deMan,2000).It is therefore importanttorealizethatsuccess isnotnecessarilyguar-anteedby a perfect technical tool (AndersonCarrie S., 1996) but also by address-ingthesocialaspectsthatrequirecollaborationbetweenorganizations.Inpromotingorganizationalcooperation,emphasis shouldbeplacedon fostering innovationandthetransferofgeographicdataandtechnologythrough;1.Partnershipsandresearchnetworksamonggovernmentagencies,researchandtraininginstitutions,theprivatesectorandthenongovernmentsectorand2.Advocatingforinternationalcollabora-tionandcooperationbetweendevelopedanddevelopingcountries
6.5 Setting aside yearly budgets for the defined activities
AcrucialaspectofsuccessfulGITimplementationisaccessibilitywhichincludescostsofhardware, softwareanddata (Ehrenspergeretal.,2007). It is advised that fund-ingopportunitiesareidentifiedandthegovernmentorganisations,theMinistryandUNRAinthiscase,aggressivelypursueapplicationforthosemonies.Thisshouldbewithparticularemphasisonaddressingdigitaldivideissuesandframeworkpriorities.Forsustainability,theusageofGITsshouldbeintegratedintotheworkingproceduresandbudgetsofalltheinvolvedorganisationsinRIM.
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6.6 Adoption of the dynamic segmentation data model
ThereisnoexistingdatamodelusedfortheGIS-T(GISforTransportation)inUgan-da.ThetraditionalarcnoderelationaldatastructureisusedtomaintaindatawithintheGIS.However,thedynamicsegmentation(DynSeg)datamodel isconsideredasuperiordatastoragestrategywithintheGIS-T.DynSegistheprocessoftransforminglinearlyreferenceddata(alsoknownasevents)thathavebeenstoredinatable,intofeaturesthatcanbedisplayed,queriedandanalyzedonthemap(Jelokhani-Niarakietal.,2009)throughcomputations.ItiswidelyusedinGIS-Tasanefficientmeasuretomanagetheheterogeneousattributesalongtheroadswithoutanyredundantdatastorage(EddieY.etal.,2002).Thisinturnallowsforlessstoragespace,quickerdataprocessing,andmoreinformationstorage.Theusefulnessofroadmaintenancedatacanbegreatlyenhancedbyapplyinga segmentationprocedure toproduce sectionsthatareuniformandconsistentwiththeroadcondition.
7 CONCLUSION
ThepaperhasdiscussedtheroadmaintenanceorganizationinUganda,thedatare-quiredforroadmaintenance,andthegapsandlimitationstousingGITsintheRIMprocess.IthasinturnsuggestedaframeworkthroughwhichtheRIMsectorwoulden-hancetheuseofGITsforroadmaintenance.Thisframeworkisnotlinearbutiterativesinceallstrategiesdiscussedaredependentandsupportiveofeachother.Thestandardrequirementswhichcomprisea successful institutionalGITmodel include;draftedandpassedpolicies allowing for long termuppermanagement commitment to theGITprojects,sufficientallocationofresources,adequatestaffingintermsofnumbersandskills/competencies,timelyandsufficienttrainingandorganizationalcommuni-cationtosmoothenthetransitiontofullutilization.Ontheadoptionofaninstitu-tionalGITmodel,itisrecommendedtodevelopeffectiveframeworksforevaluatingtheutilizationofGITs.TheseframeworksarecriticaltothelongtermefficacyofGITs.
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8 REFERENCESAndersonCarrieS.(1996)GISDevelopmentProcess:AFrameworkforConsideringtheInitiation,
Acquisition,andIncorporationofGISTechnology.URISA Journal/ Refereed WASHINGTON DC.
EddieY.,J.Chou,J.L.M.&Wang,C.(2002)ImplementationofDynamicSegmentationforaPavementManagementInformationSystem. Transport Research Board (TRB) Annual Meeting, Washington DC.
Ehrensperger,A.,Wymannvon,S.D.&Kakridi,F.E.(2007)GeographicInformationTechnolo-giesforNaturalResourceManagement.InfoResources Focus,No3/07.
EricDeMan,W.,H.(2000)InstitutionalizationofGeographicalInformationTechnologies.Car‑tography and Geographic information Science,Vol.27,pp.139-151.
Ghose,R.(2001)UseofInformationtechnologyforCommunityEmpowerment:TransformingGeographicInformationSystemsintoCommunityInformationSystems.Transactions in GIS,5,141-163.
HelgaLeitner,SarahElwood,EricSheppard,SusannaMcmaster&Mcmaster,R.(2000)ModesofGISProvisionandtheirAppropriatenessforNeighbourhoodOrganizations:ExamplesfromMinneapolisandSt.Paul,Minnesota.Journal of Urban and Regional Information Systems As‑sociation12:,43-56.
Leitner,H.,Mcmaster,R.,Elwood,S.,Mcmaster,S.&Sheppard,E.(1998)ModelsforMakingGisAvailabletoCommunityOrganizations:DimensionsofDifferenceandAppropriateness.Paper presented to the NCGIA specialist meeting on Empowerment, Marginalization and GIS, Santa Barbara CA,October1998.
Leitner,H.,SarahElwood,EricSheppard,SusannaMcmaster&Mcmaster,R.(2000)ModesofGISProvisionandtheirAppropriatenessforNeighbourhoodOrganizations:ExamplesfromMinneapolisandSt.Paul,Minnesota.Journal of Urban and Regional Information Systems As‑sociation12:,43-56.
Mazzi,L.K.N.(2007)BalancingInformationRequirementswithDataAvailability:AcaseofTransportPlanning,Kampala,Uganda.International Institute for Geo‑Information Science and Earth Observation.Enschede,Netherlands.
MohammadReza,J.-N.,AliAsghar,A.,Abbas,A.&Abolghasem,S.-N.(2009)DesigningRoadMaintenanceDataModelUsingDynamicSegmentationTechnique.Proceedings of the International Conference on Computational Science and Its Applications:PartI.Seoul,Korea,Springer-Verlag.
MusinguzI,M.,Bax,G.&Tickodri-Togboa,S.(2007)AssessmentofGISDATAInteroperabilityinUganda.Proceedings of the conference on the collaborative Research for Technological Develop‑ment: Kampala, Uganda
Nebert,D.D.E.(2004)Developingspatialdatainfrastructures:theSDIcookbook:version2.0.CapeTown,GlobalSpatialDataInfrastructureAssociation(GSDI).
OnsrudHarlanJ&PintoJeffreyK(1991)DiffusionofGeographicalInformationinnovations.International Journal of Geographic Information Sciences,5:,447-467.
Paterson,W.,D.,O.,&Scullion,T.(1990)InformationSystemsforRoadManagement:DraftGuidelinesonSystemDesignandDataIssues.Infrastructure and Urban Development Depart‑ment Report,INU77,TheWorldBank.
SundeepSahay&Walsham,G.(1996)ImplementationofGISinIndia:organizationalissuesandimplicationsInternational Journal of Geographic Information Systems,10,385-404.
Yeh,A.G./O.(1991)TheDevelopmentandApplicationofGeographicalInformationSystemsforUrbanandRegionalPlanningintheDevelopingCountries.International Journal of Geograph‑ic Information Systems,5,5-7
http://www.ncgia.ucsb.edu/varenius/ppgis/papers/leitner.pdf.(Accessedon13thAugust2010)
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PAPER IVLOW COST GIT BASED TECHNOLOGY FOR PRELIMINARY
ROAD MAINTENANCE DECISION SUPPORT
MazziLydiaKayondoAssistantLecturer,DepartmentofSurveying,MakerereUniversity,P.O.Box7062,Kampala,Uganda.Correspondingemail:[email protected];Lndandiko@yahoo.
co.uk.
TickodriTogboaS.S,Professor,DepartmentofComputerEngineering,MakerereUniversity,P.O.Box7062,Kampala,Uganda
GerhardBax,Professor,SchoolofTechnoculture,HumanitiesandPlanning,DivisionofTechno-scienceStudies,BlekingeInstituteofTechnology,P.O-Box214,S-37424Karlshamn,Sweden
ABSTRACT
ThispaperpresentsalowcostGITbaseddatacollectiontechnologythatissimilartotheROadMaintenanceDataAcquisitionSystem(ROMDAS). It is composedof avehicle,twodigitalvideocameras,2GPSreceiversandanotebookcomputer.Twodif-ferentcamcordersusedforcomparisonpurposes(onerealcolorandtheotheramodi-fiedconsumercameratoregisterinfrared)aremountedatthefrontofthevehicleusingahomemadegyromounting.TheGPSreceiversareplacedatthedashboardofthevehicle.ThenotebookcomputerandGPSreceiversareconfiguredtorecordtheposi-tionofthevehicleasitmoves.TheGPSlogfilesmaintainrecordingsofthelatitude,longitude,time,speedandaltitudeofthevehicleposition,astheresearcherannotatesamapdocumentintheArcGIS9.3softwarewithlocationreferencingdetailsandvari-ousroadattributes.ThisdatacollectiontechnologyisaimedatexposingthepotentialofGITtechnologyinperforminginventoryoftheroadcondition.Thecaptureddatamaybeusefulforavarietyofapplicationsrelevanttoroadinventoryandmaintenance.It is basically recommended for preliminary road maintenance diagnosis for whichindepthroadsectionanalysismayproceedfortheaffectedroadsections.Withthistechnology,itispossibletomaproadmarksandotherarchitecturealongtheroadandprovideamapimmediatelybytheendofthesurvey.Inconclusion,dataminingofthespatialvideodatabasestofacilitateroutineandperiodicmaintenancedecisionsandthepossibilitytomodifyconsumercamerasforresearchpurposesisrecommended.
Keywords:Geographical InformationTechnologies (GIT), roadmaintenance,video-log,ROMDAS
1 INTRODUCTION
Theconductionofacomprehensive setof roadsurveys suchasLocationReferencePoints(LRPs),Roughness(IRI-InternationalRoughnessIndex),andGlobalPosition-ingSystems(GPS)surveysisvitalforwellorganizedroadassetmanagement.Numer-ousdatatypesneedtobecollectedtosuccessfullyapplyaRoadAssetManagementSystem(RAMS).Theseincludeinventoryandconditiondataamongothers.Varioustechnologiesareavailabletoprovideinformationtoassetmanagers,policymakersand
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fundingagenciesconcerningtheirroadnetwork(Fawcettetal.,2002).Thisinforma-tionisintendedtofosterinformeddecisionmaking.Besidesknowledgeofthemerenetwork,i.e.inventorydata,informationrelatingbutnotrestrictedto,thespatialloca-tionoftheroads,theircondition,pavementtype,trafficandfeaturesthatarelocatedalongtheroadincludingbridges,signpostsandculvertsarealsoquiterelevanttotheassetmanagementdepartments.
Often,datacollectionattemptsforroadmaintenancerequirementsarespearheadinabigway.AteamofroadengineersissentouttocollectInformationQualityLevel1(IQL-1)1dataonawholeroadnetworkofsay500km.Inrealityhowever,onlysectionsofthisnetworkcoveringforexample<30%oftheroadisusuallyinneedofimmediateattention.ThelowcostGITbasedtechnologydiscussedinthispaperisintendedtointroducetheconceptofpreliminarydatacollectionofroadconditiononthewholelengthofthetargetedroadfromwhichdetaileddatacollectioncanproceedalongtheidentifiedcritical sections. Thedata levels recognizedby theWorldBankPatersonandScullion(1990)weretakenintoaccountwhilecollectingdatawiththistechnol-ogy. The data collected was only appropriate for the planned use, which as earliermentionedwas topreliminarilyhighlightmaintenancerequiredsections for furtheranalysis.ThetechnologycollecteddataatIQL-3,whichdatacouldthenbeusedinpreliminaryscreeningstudiesforfurtherroadmaintenancedecisionmaking.Itisin-tendedthatinthisscreeningstudy,sectionsthatwarrantmoredetailedinvestigationcanbeidentifiedandanalyzedmoretechnicallyandatdepth.Thisisbasicallytoavoiddetaileddatacollectionontheentirelengthofroad,especiallyinfinancialstringentsituations,whichdataendsupnotbeingconsideredforprioritymaintenanceactions.
Thistechnology iscomposedofavehicle, twodigitalvideocameras,2GPSreceiv-ers and anotebook computer. It involved video logging the road and storingGPScoordinatesofthevideo-log.Video-logdatacollectiontechnologiesarequitepopularofrecent.Thisispartlybecause,thetimespentinacquiringthevideo-logsandGPSsignalsinthefieldisveryshort.Theunprocessedvideoisquiteinformativeatonsetascomparedtocumbersomemanualdatacollectiontechniquesthatobviouslyrequireprocessingbeforetheycanmakesensetothedecisionmaker.Eventhoughaugmentingthevideocapturedistimeconsuming,thisprocesshappensintheoffice/laboratoryfarfromtheuncertainfieldconditions(Silvaetal.,2003).InSilvaetal.(2003),alistofplatformsforacoupleofnavigationandmappingsensorshasbeendiscussed.Vansand trucks aremajorlyused,but also, cars, trains andaircrafts, todevelop thevasttypesofequipmentforthisnavigationandmapping.Digitalcompasses,GPS,gyros,andodometerswereusedfornavigationwhile,anumberofCCDdigitalcameras,ana-loguecamerasanddigitalcamcorderswereusedformapping.Thesemobilemappingsystemshavevariousnamesasdecideduponbythevariousdevelopers.DetailscanbeobtainedfromSilvaetal.(2003).1HighresolutionandprecisiondataisreferredtoasHighInformationQualitylevel)data.These
informationqualitylevelsrangefromIQL-1toIQL-5intheorderofreducingresolutionandprecision.Thisisoftenagreeduponbyrelatingthehierarchyofneedsaswellastheanalysismeth-ods.IQLisaveryfundamentalconsiderationtoavoidcollectionofdatainmuchmoredetailthanisactuallyrequiredbytheanalysis.
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Thetwomainobjectivesofdefiningthetechnologyare,1.TorecommendtheuseoflowcostGITconceptstoobtainaninventoryofroadconditiondataforpreliminaryroadmaintenancedecisionsupport,and2.ToprovidearoadconditioninventorybasemapoftheroadnetworkThisdevelopmentispartofanongoingresearchtargetingtheaccentuationofGITuseintheroadinfrastructuremaintenancedivisionofKampala,Uganda.
2 THE ROMDAS TECHNOLOGY
Themostcommonvideosurveyingtechnologyinusetodateisthewell-knownROadMeasurementandDataAcquisitionSystem(ROMDAS).TheROMDASwasdevel-opedasagenericsystemforcollectingdataonroadconditionandtraveltime(RashidandTsunokawa,2006).WithROMDAS,itispossibletoconductroughnesssurveys,traveltimeandcongestionsurveys,conditionrattingsurveys,inventorysurveys,mov-ingtrafficsurveys,transverseprofile/ruttingsurveys,videologgingsurveys,collectingGlobalPositioningSystems(GPS)data,recordingthelocationofdigitalphotographs,andcreatingvoicerecordswhichareassociatedwithroadattributes(Sodikovetal.,2005,HunterandPorter,2005,Fawcettetal.,2002).ROMDASisoneofthefewdatacollectionsystemsthathasbeenspecificallydesignedfordevelopingcountriestobeusedbylocalroadcontrollingagencies(Fawcettetal.,2002).InUganda,theProjectManagementandEngineeringConsultancy(PROME)isusingROMDAStocollectdatatopopulatethenationalroaddatabankandlaterdesignanassetmanagementsys-tem.Thisdataistobeusedasadecision-makingsupporttoolforpreparingannualandmulti-annualmaintenanceandinvestmentworkplansandreportingingeneral.Thesystemconsistsofavideocameraandseveralmeasuringdevicesincludingagyroscope,GPSreceivers,odometer,etc,mountedonavehicle,togetherwithsoftwarethatproc-essesthemeasurements.Asthevehiclemoves,thevisualroadconditionisrecordedbythevideocamera.Meanwhile,theROMDASmaintainssynchronizationbetweenthevideodataandthediscretedataacquiredbytheseveralmeasuringdevicesmentioned(DraganIveticetal.,2010).It isaflexiblewelldocumentedsystemthat involves3modules(survey,record,andplayback)andiseasytotransport.Fawcettetal.(2002)provideanelaboratearchitectureoftheROMDAS
Regardless of its obvious advantages, the ROMDAS collects so much data that inmanysituationsremainsuselessbesidescreatingstorageandanalysisproblemsfortheroadmanagementdepartments.TheLowcostGITbasedtechnologythatisproposedinthispapersuggestspreliminarydatacollectionforthetargetedroadsections.Theresultsofthispreliminarysurveythenleadtomoredetaileddatacollectionwithindepthanalysis,probablywiththeaidoftheROMDAS.Theproceedingdatacollec-tionandanalysisphasesshouldthenbeaimedathigherIQLdatafromthislowcostrecommendedtechnology.
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3 LOW COST GIT DATA COLLECTION TECHNOLOGY
ThislowcostGITdatacollectionmethodologyissimilartotheROMDAStechnolo-gy.ThetechnologyhasbeenprototypedforselectedroadsinJinjadistrictofUgandainEastAfrica.ThemainobjectiveofthisROMDASlikenedtechnologyis,todevelopalowcostGITbaseddatacapturemethodologyfortheroadcondition,whichtechnol-ogythatcanbeusedbyroadmanagersindecisionmakingpositionsbyhighlightingmaintenancerequiredsectionsforfurtheranalysis.Itiscomposedofavehicle(guardedwith railsat the front), twodigitalcamcorders (aCanonHF11andaSonyHDRCX520VE),2GPS receivers (DG-100GPSData logger+ receiver andBT-359SBluetoothGPSreceiver), andanotebookcomputer (PanasonicToughbookCF-U1runningwindowsXP).TheSonycamerawasmodifiedtorecordIRandtheCanonwasmaintainedwithrealcolor.Thereasonfortheuseofthese2cameraswasforcom-parisonofrealandinfraredimageryofthecapturedroadsections.Thiscomparisonisbrieflydiscussedunderthediscussionsection.Thedigitalcamcordersaremountedatthefrontofthevehicleontheguardrails,seeFigure3-3.TheGPSreceiversareplacedatthedashboardofthevehicle.ThenotebookcomputerandGPSreceiversareconfig-uredtorecordthepositionofthevehicle,itstime,speedandaltitude.Thevisualroadconditionisrecordedbythecamcorderasthevehicletraversestheroad.Meanwhile,theGPSloggersaresynchronizedwiththeGISonthenotebookcomputertoallowfortrackingofthevideopathandmakingofannotationsatLRPsandimportantfeatures-roadarchitecturealongtheroadsection.
ThistechnologyisapositiontowardsIntelligentTransportationSystems(ITS).ITSin-tendtouseexistingInformationCommunicationsTechnologies(ICT)capacitymoreeffectivelybycollectingdetailed spatial and temporaldataabout the transportationnetworkandusingthisinformationintransportationsystemmanagement.Theac-complishmentmadewiththistechnologyisinitiallyanawarenessofthepotentialofGITsintheroadinfrastructuremanagementsector.
Figure 3‑3: Cameras clamped on the vehicle guard rail
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Itisalsopointertotheroadmaintenanceorganisationsthatpreliminarydatacollec-tionisarequirementbeforehigherIQLdatacanbecollected.Besidestheexpenseofdatacollection,thesehighIQLdatarequiretechnicallyinvolvinganalysistechniquesthatshouldnotbeunnecessarilyperformedonthewholelengthofaroad.
3.1 Methodology
The network was prior divided into manageable sections that began and ended atknownLRPs.Thefollowinghardwarecomponentswereused;Avehiclepickupcabinwithfrontguardrails,2GPSreceivers(the2ndhandsetwasforbackuppurposes),twodigitalvideocameras(SonyHDRCX520VEandCanonHF11)andanotebookcomputer.Thetwocamerasweremountedontotheguardrailofthevehicle.TheCanonHF11usedvisiblelightfilmsthatwererecordedinfullHD1080p2(1920*1080).TheSonyHDRCX520VErecordedin1080iandwasmodifiedtoNearInfra-red(NIR).Forpurposesofcalibration,initially,two(2)B+W093filterswereplacedinfrontofthelensoftheSony,tofilteroutthevisiblelight(VIS).ThiswasbecauselightwassointenseatthetimeofthesurveyandtheautomaticexposuremeasuringinthecameraisonlycalibratedtoVIS.Anequivalentofastronggreyfilterwasplacedoutsidethelensaslightcontinuedtobeintense,seeFigure3-3.FullychargedcamerasandGPSreceiversweremaintainedwithreadymemoryspace.
Atthestartofthesurveyforaparticularroadsection,linknodeswerepredeterminedforlocationreferencing.Actuallocationreferencingwasperformedduringthecourseofthesurvey.Thecomponentsqualifyinglinearreferencingmethodswereprofession-allydealtwithinthefollowingmanner;
1. Identificationofaknownpoint.ThesepointscomprisedofKMposts,bridgesandjunctionsandatsuchpoints,digitalphotosweretaken.TheywerealsoannotatedinthemapdocumentasGPSloggingwastakingplace.
2. Direction.Theresearchernarratedinthefilmthecurrentlocationofthesurveyvehicleandthedirectionthatthevehiclewasheadingto.Sketchesofthisinforma-tionwerealsomadetothemapdocument.
3. Distancemeasurement.Thevehicleodometerwasusedtomakedistancemeasure-ments.
Nofieldsignagewasinstalledforthissurveyexercise.Insteadthenetworkwasbrokendownintolinksandsections.Datacapturebeganfromjunctiontojunctionanddis-placementsweremeasuredfrom0metresatthefirstnodeintheincreasingdirectionofthemovingvehicle.Sectionsthenbeganandendedatmoreclearlyfixedbenchmarks.
TheGPSreceiverswereplacedatthedashboardofthevehicle.ThePanasonicTough-bookCF-U1runningwithwindowsXPandArcGIS9.3hasaninbuiltGPS.ItwasalsoconfiguredandsynchronizedtogetherwiththeDG-100GPSDatalogger+re-2Thepstandsforprogressive,meaningthateveryrowofeveryframeisrecordedincontrasttothe
1080i,istandingforinterlaced,wherelines1,3,5...ofthefirstframearerecorded,and2,4,6...ofthesecondframe,and1,3,5...ofthethirdframeandsoon.
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ceiverandBT-359SBluetoothGPSreceivertorecordthepositionofthevehicleasitmoved.Onthenotebookcomputer,theresearchermaintainedanannotatedshapefileofthepathtakenbythevehiclewithaLandsatETM+imageatthebackground.AtLRPs,theresearchermaderemarksinformofdrawingsanddescriptionsasannota-tionstotheshapefileseeFigure3-4.Featuresrelatingtoroundaboutlocations,taxiparks,waterfalls(Bujagalifallstobeprecise),railwaycrossings,airfieldsandthegolfcourselocationweredemarcatedontheshapefile.NotethatthesearereferredtoaseventswhenmodelingtransportationdatainGISandassuch,arevitaldatarequire-ments.
Figure 3‑4: Field Base Map Document
Figure 3‑5: GPS data as an excel sheet
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3.2 Discussion
Therearenumerousprovidersofthestateoftheartdatacaptureequipmentforroadnetworksurveys(Fawcettetal.,2002).ThisparticularlowcostGITbasedtechnologycollects 2basic categories of information; spatial coordinates usingGPS and videologging for inventory and condition records.The software comingwithGlobal satGPSallowssavingtheGPSlocationsindifferentfileformats.Figure3-5showsasnapshotoftheGPSdatainanexcelsheet.TheattributestothecapturedrecordsareDate,Time,Latitude,Longitude,Speed(Km/Hr)andAltitudeinMeters.Figure3-6showsasnapshotoftheGoogleEarthcoveragefromtheKMLfile.Thepegsalongtheroadindicatethevehiclepositionsduringthesurvey.
Figure 3‑6: KML plot of the GPS log
Twocameraswereusedandloggingwasdonealongboththefromandtodirections.Aneventpointordetailontheroadcanthereforebeseenfromseveralpositionsofthevideo-log.Ifanalysisinonepositionwasnoteffective,thensuccessivepositionswouldbeusedformoreinformativeanalysis.Figure3-7showsasnapshotofthevideo-logofthesamepositioncapturedbythetwodifferentcamerasatthesametimeinstance.
a. Canon (real color) camera b. Sony (Infrared) cameraFigure 3‑7a&b: Sections of Bujagali road captured at 10am
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It is imperativetohighlightthedifferencesinthevideo-logsfromthetwodifferentcamerasandtheircauses.Thecamerasweremountedatthesamesideofthevehicle.Intheforwarddirectionofthevehicle,thecanonwasclampedontheleftandtheSonyontheright(furtheroutward).Thisexplainsthedifferenceintheportionoftheroadthatisvisiblefromeachcameraatthesametimeinstance.
WhenrecordingfrominbuiltBluetoothGPS,theuserpresetstherateatwhichrecord-ingshouldbemade.Thiswouldnaturallybeinclinedontheavailabilityofsatellitesandthestrengthofthesignals.Initially,theGPSlocationswerecapturedeverysecond.Thiscreatedalaginthebasemapbeingannotated.Thiswasthenresetto5secondswhichprovedexactintracingthevehicleaccordingtoitsspeed.AscomparedtotheROMDASrecommendedspeed,theaveragespeedofthevehicleforthesampledatasetis56.535km/hr.ThisclearlyshowsthatthetechnologyadvocatedisstillwithintheguidelinesofthewelldocumentedandrecognizedROMDAStechnology.Acompari-sonoftheROMDASandthislowcostGITtechnologyissummarizedinTable3-2.
3.2.1 Challenges and their effects
ThislowcostGITtechnologyisnotwithoutchallenges.Itisaffectedmainlybythreeissues;Rainfall-sincethecamerasareclampedoutsidethevehicle,nosurveycanbedoneduringtherain, -extremesunshineespeciallywiththeSonymodifiedcamera.Thiswasirrespectiveofthefiltersused.Moderationofspeedwasalsoofconcerncon-sideringthefactthatitismajorlydonebythedriverofthevehicle.
Table 3‑2: Comparison between the Traditional ROMDAS and the GIT Based Technology
Compari-son param-
eterROMDAS Augmented technology
Calibration• Odometer,Bumpinte-
gratorandvideocamera(tweaksandadjustmentsforframespersec,autofocusdisabled.)arepriorcalibrated
• Seefilterplacementundermethodology,• Fullychargedbattery,• Readilyavailablememoryspace
LocationReferencing
• Mainlyperformedasanindependentactivity.
• LRPsdefinedanddocumentedpriortothesurvey
• Sectionslinksandnodesdecideduponpriortothesurvey,
• LRperformedduringthesurvey,Pic-turesofreferencepointstakentogetherwithnarrationatstartandendofvideo-log,
• LRPannotationsmadeonthemap
Speed • Maintainedat<=60km • Managedbythedriverdependingonfirmnessofthedigitalcameras.
• Averagefortheseparticularsurveyswas56.535Km/hr
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Collecteddata
Speed,IRI,GPSlocations,video-log,etc.
• GPSlocations,speed• Video-log,i.e.Visualsurfacecondition
ofcrackingandpotholing• Transverseprofile• Trafficdensity-canbeobservedfrom
thevideo-log
Thesnapshotinfigure3-8isofthesamelocationasthatoffigure3-7.Thelogoffigure3-7wascapturedinthemorningwithaclearday’ssky.Thatoffigure3-8wascapturedon the samedaybutafter some rain in theafternoon.Notice thatvideosfrombothcamerasregisterbetterimagerywithaclearsky.Therealcolorimagehow-evershowslimitedcontrast.FortheIRimage,thelogcapturedshortlyaftertherainisremarkablyofbetterclaritythantheonecapturedduringhighrisesunshine.Thisjustifiestheneedfortheextragreyfilterespeciallyatmaximumsunshine.Thespectralnatureoflightisknowntoinfluenceimagingandimageproperties.Itisthereforerec-ommendedthatforthebestvideo-log,thesunshouldnotbehighabovethehorizon,forwheninthatposition,thesunlightsdirectlyintothepotholeslimitingcontrastsinthecapturedvideo.Althoughthedifferencesaresometimesnegligible,betterimagesareproducedintheearlymorningsorlaterintheevenings.Eveniftrafficcountsarerecommendablewiththistechnology,itisadvisabletosurveyatlowtraffictimestoallowformorevisibilityoftheroadcondition.
a) Real color image b) IR image
Figure 3‑8a&b: The same section of Bujagali road as in figure 3‑7, captured after rainfall
3.2.2 Sony HDR CX 520 VE and Canon HF 11 cameras compared
Themajordifferencebetweenthetwocameraproductswasasaresultoftheimagestabilizing system.TheSonyhas a farbetteroptical image stabilizing system.Bothweremountedatthesameholder,theSonyevenfurtherout,whichwouldmeanmoremovementinbumps.However,thevehiclebumpingaffectedthecanoncameramuchmorethantheSonycamera.Additionally,theSonyhasanadvantageoftheinbuiltGPSshowingthecoordinateswhenplayedfromthecamera.Despiteitspoorimagestability,thecanonHF11hasthebestimagequalityavailable.Inthiscase,thesensi-
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tivityofacameraisinverselyproportionaltoitsimagestability.ItrecordsoninternalRAM32GigaByte,alternativelyonaSDcardwhichgivesmorehoursoffilmingandquitelongbatterytime.Arecommendationfortheimagestabilitywouldbe,tomountthecameras1.attherearofthevehicleor2.atthewindshield,asmuchaspossibletowardstherotationalcentreofthevehicletominimizetheengine’sbumpingeffect.
InNovember2010,MicrosoftreleasedtheKinectXbox360videogameconsole.Nu-merousdevelopersareresearchingpossibleapplicationsofKinectthatgobeyondthesystem’sintendedpurposeofplayinggames.TheKinecthas2videorecordingdevices,theRGBcameraand3Dvideosensorswhich isbasicallyscanningthevicinityandproducing depth models. The authors are currently investigating working with thekinecttocapturevisualroadcondition.Withthekinect’sdepthmeasurementpossibil-ity,thesizeandextentofpotholescanbecalculatedforpurposesofestimatingmaterialrequiredforpotholefixing.Thesuggestionistomountitdownwardonthebackofacartoregistersurfaceroughnessoftheroad.Thiscouldevenproducebetterresultsduringthenightastheirritatingsolarradiationtogetherwiththetrafficisobviouslyeliminated.
4 CONCLUSION
Thetechnologyprovidesbothapracticalandflexiblesolutionforkeepinguptodatewithroadinventoryandconditionparameters.Thecapturedvideo-logandGPSdataprovethatthislowcostGITbasedtechnologyisaneffectiveapproachtoinspectingroadpavementconditionandtomappingroadstreetfurnitureandotherimportantfeaturesalongtheroads.Itprovidesforfullvisualandspatialreferencedroadcondi-tion.Thesedetailsarequite importantfordecisionmakingintheplanningofroadmaintenanceworks.ThemainqualityoftheGITmethodologyisthecompleteness,accuracyandeffectivenessofacquiringthefielddatainashorttime.Itsmajorcon-tributionistheabilitytoimmediatelyprovideanmxddocumentofthesurveypathwith annotations explaining the roadparameters as observedduring the survey.Attheproceedingsurveysfromthispreliminaryfinding,incrementintheinformationqualitylevel(IQL)ofthedatacapturedisrecommended.Thisisbecauseforfurtheranalysisontherecommendedsectionsforprioritymaintenance,moretechnicalandin-depthdataanalysisisrequired.Thisresearchproposesdataminingofspatialvideodatabasestofacilitateroutineandperiodicmaintenancedecisions.Additionally,thereareadvancementsincameramodelsonthemarketwhichcanbemodifiedandadoptedforscientificstudies.Amodificationofthevarieties,beyondtheirintendedpurpose,shouldbeconsideredforscientificresearchofthisnature.
Eventhoughdatacollection isconsideredexpensiveandtimeconsuminginseveralroadmanagementstudies,thisvideologgingtechnologylikeallothersiseffectiveinmanagingthischallenge.Sincetheplatform(avehicleinthiscase)carriesallthehard-wareandsoftwareinjustoneroute,then,incompliancewiththeappropriatesam-plinginterval,andtheIQLstandards,allpossibledatathatcanbecollectedshouldbecollectedforeachroute.Whethertousethedatawilleventuallydependonmanage-
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mentrequirementsatthattime.ThisishoweverincontrastwithBennettetal.(2007)’sadvocateforcollectionofonlythedatathatisneededforthepresentpurpose.
5 REFERENCES
Bennett,C.R.,Chamorro,A.,Chen,C.,Solminihac,H.D.&Flintsch,G.W.(2007)DataCol-lectionTechnologiesforRoadManagement.The World Bank, East Asia Pacific Transport Unit, Washington, D. C,Tech.Rep,TRN-30.
Draganivetic,Mihic,S.&Markoski,B.(2010)AugmentedAVIvideofileforroadsurveying.Computers and Electrical Engineering,169–179.
Fawcett,G.A.,Bennett,C.R.&Ollerenshaw,D.G.(2002)FlexibleLow-CostDataCaptureTechnologyForRoadNetworks.Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Road and Airfield Pavement Technology.MWHNewZealandLtd.
Hunter,P.K.&Porter,H.A.(2005)ROMDASforWindowsUser’sGuide.Data Collection Lim‑ited, Motueka 7161, New Zealand.
Paterson,W.,D.,O.,&Scullion,T.(1990)InformationSystemsforRoadManagement:DraftGuidelinesonSystemDesignandDataIssues.Infrastructure and Urban Development Depart‑ment Report,INU77,TheWorldBank.
Rashid,M.M.&Tsunokawa,K.(2006)PavementConditionSurveyinKagawaPrefectureusingROMDAS.Departmental Bulletin Paper,149-151.
Silva,J.O.F.C.D.,Camargo,P.D.O.&Gallis,R.B.A.(2003)DevelopmentofaLow-CostMobileMappingSystem:ASouthAmericanExperiencePhotogrammetric Record,18,5-26.
Sodikov,J.,Tsunokawa,K.&Ul-Islam,R.(2005)RoadSurveywithROMDASSystem:AStudyinAkitaPrefecture.Departmental Bulletin Paper,149-151.
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Part 4 - CONCLUSION
4.1 Summary and Discussion of the Papers
4.1.1 Paper I
Despitethedigitaldivideintheroadmaintenancesector,stakeholderorganisationslikethenationalroadauthority,theministryandprojectsupportedconsultanciescanalreadybenefitfromtheavailablefreewareandOpenSourcesoftware.Theseorganisa-tionsareequippedwithbasicstaffqualificationstomanipulatecapturedspatialvideoandphotographs tobestvisualize roadconditionwhich isa requirement formain-tenancedecisionmaking.For softwaredevelopers, someof these freewareallowforplug-inswheneverthereisneedtocustomizetheirapplications.Andbesides,theuseofOpenSourcesoftwareisoftenagatewaytomoreadvancedoperationswithenhancedsoftwarecapabilities.
4.1.2 Paper II
ThegapsinGITuseintheRIMsectorhavebeenfoundtobemajorlysocialbutalsotechnicalinnature.Socially,thesegapsinclude;,theinadequateinstitutionalarrange-mentthatshouldallowforlastingpartnershipsandtheabsenceofdatasharingandcollaboration.Technically,GITsarenotintegratedintheworkingproceduresoftheorganizations,therearenostandardsforthegeographicaldataandineffectthiscan-notleadtoacoordinatedGISinfrastructure.Thereisalsolackofadatafoundationat
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nationalandlocallevels.ThelimitationstoaccessingoftheseGITsinRIMinclude;theabsenceofapolicyonthestandarduseofGITs,budgetconstraints,inadequategeospatialcapacityatalllevelsandthedigitaldividebetweentheinvolvedorganiza-tions.OtherthantheprinciplethatorganizationalstandaloneGITusageiscostlyandtimewasting,theapproachtoassessinggapsandlimitationswasbasedontheprincipleofcausality.Thisistheprinciplethateverythingshouldhaveacauseandthatthecausemustprecedeitseffect.Thelimitationsandgapsrelationshipisthereforeacausalityrelationshipwherethelimitationsarethecauseandthegapsaretheeffect.
As the backbone to the gaps and limitations facing the usage of GITs in the roadmaintenance sector is the absenceof apolicy governing custody anduse of spatialdata.ThisabsenceofapolicydoesnotonlyaffectGITusageinRIMbutalsoseveralotherdepartments that relyon theuseof spatialdata throughout thecountry.TheUgandanationalICTpolicyframeworkofMay2002recognisesthatICTplaysabigrole in the stimulationofnational development and globalizationof the economy.However, this ICT policy does not yet recognise the role of geo-information. It isenvisagedthatiftherightpoliciesareinplace,thentheissueslikebudgetandGITinclusionintheworkingproceduresofdepartmentswillbewellcateredfor.Otherwisefornow, theuseofGIS inUganda canbe characterised asuser-orproject-driven,andnotduetoanyspecificgovernmentpolicyimplementation.Thereisnocentralbodychargedwithimplementationormandatetoco-ordinateGISorSDIactivities.UgandahasalottolearnfromtheexperiencesofsomeAfricancountrieslikeEthiopia,Sierra Leone, and South Africa, among others, which have enacted acts for spatialdatainfrastructuredevelopment.Thesecountrieshavegonestepsaheadindevelopingpoliciesforthemanagementandutilizationofgeographicdata.OthercountrieswithrelevantSDIexperienceswhichcouldprovidebestexampleforUgandainclude;NewZealand, Canada, Croatia, EU INSPIRE, Netherlands, Sweden and United Statesof America. These countries have established a wide range of policies, agreements,geodata, institutional frameworks,humanresourcedevelopmentstrategies,financialarrangements and monitoring activities from which Uganda can draw examples todevelopitsNSDI,aninfrastructurethatwilleventuallyboostthedevelopmentofGITusageinallrelevantsectorsinthecountry.Presently,theongoingNSDIinitiativehasmadearecommendationtotheUgandaBureauofStandards(UBOS)togetherwiththeNationalPlanningAuthority(NPA)/theNationalInteragencySpatialDataInfra-structureCommittee(NISDIC)toadoptopenstandardsfortheSDI.Theexistenceofcommonstandardsenablesefficientdataintegrationandexchangeofdataamongstakeholders.SuchthatastheNSDIisyettobeachieved,thesestandardscanstillbeusedbythestandaloneGITuserstofurthertheirknowledgebaseddecisionmakingusingGI.However,therearestillunresolvedissuesontheNSDIfunding,leadership,legalframework,technology,andpolicycoordination.
4.1.3 Paper III
Thedocumentedalgorithmisnondeterministic,meaningthatitisnotsequentialbutiterativeinnature.Thisisbecausethedevisedstrategiesaredependentonandsupport-
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iveofeachother.ThegreatestadvocateistheneedforapolicytobacktheuseofGITsinceitisidentifiedasthebackbonetoallthegapsandlimitationsthatwerefounddominantinthesector.Itisalsonotedthatinthelongrun,GITswouldinselfbeusedinroutinesupportofpolicymakingaspragmaticfromtheiradvantagesoffacilitat-inginformeddecisionmaking.EmbarkingonthediffusionofGITstothecontractorcategoryofthestakeholdersissimilarlyquitefundamentalinthisprocessofenhancingusabilityofGITsinthesector.
ThestandardrequirementswhichcompriseasuccessfulinstitutionalGITmodelarefoundtoinclude;draftedandpassedpoliciesallowingforlongtermuppermanage-mentcommitmenttotheGITundertaking,sufficientallocationofresources,adequatestaffingintermsofnumbersandskills/competencies,timelyandsufficienttrainingandorganizationalcommunicationtosmoothenthetransitiontofullutilization.Datasharingandcollaborationthroughpartnershipsandresearchnetworksbetween;gov-ernmentagencies, researchandtraining institutions, theprivatesectorandthenongovernmentsectorarealsoknowntoboostinstitutionalizationoftechnologyadvance-ments.Thisthenevolvesintothetriplehelixconceptofproblemsolving.Thisconceptinvolvesharnessingandleveragingthecomplementaryexpertiseofacademia,industryandgovernmenttofacilitateinnovationandnovelcollaborativeprocessesforcreativedevelopment.InhiswayforwardcommunicationoftheNDP2010/11-2014/15,thepresidentofUgandaurgedtheprivatesector,thecivilsocietyandacademiatoworkto-getherwiththegovernmentinordertorealizetheobjectivessetintheplan.DuetothecostofmaintainingstandaloneGITinitiatives,theinstitutionalizationofGITsinthesector,aconceptthatrequirespriordiffusionmechanismsforpurposesofbridgingthepresentdigitaldivide,isanapproachthatshouldbeadopted.Internationalcollabora-tionandcooperationbetweendevelopedandundevelopedcountriesalsocomebywithabittolearnfrom.OnadoptionofthedevisedstrategiestoenhanceGITuseinRIM,there will be need to develop effective frameworks for evaluating the utilization ofGITs.Theseframeworkshavebeenfoundcriticaltothelong-termefficiencyofGITs.
4.1.4 Paper IV
Despitethefactthatroadinfrastructuresareconstantlychangingduetovariousfac-tors,therearehardlyanystrategiesforthecontinuousupdatesoftheroadinventoryandconditiondata.Thisisattributedtothecostlyventuresconcerningthedatacol-lectionphaseoftheroadmaintenanceaspect.PaperIVisintroducingalowcostGITbasedmethodologyforroadconditiondatacollectionthatcanbeusedforpreliminarydecisionmaking.Withthismethodology,theideaistoidentifytheroadsectionsthatneedurgentattentionformaintenanceandit’sonlyalongthesesectionsthatindepthdatacollectionandanalysis ismade toplan for roadmaintenance implementation.Inaddition,thefurnitureandarchitectureoftheroadinsurveycanbeupdatedandavailedbothasGPScoordinatesandinformofamapdocument.
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ThemaincharacterofthisproposedlowcostGITmethodologyistheaccuracy,com-pleteness,andeffectivenesswithwhichfielddataiscollected.Theabilitytoprovideamapdocument,alreadyattheendofthesurvey,showingthesectionsofthetargetroadinneedofurgentmaintenanceisamajorcontributionofthetechnology.
ItissuggestedthatinadditiontotheordinaryROMDAShardwareandsoftwareap-plications,excerptsofthismethodologybeincludedtoguidefurtheranalysisofthecollecteddata.ThereishoweveracontrastwithBennetetal.(2007)’sguidelinesondatacollection.Bennetetal.(2007)urgethatbecauseofthecostandeffortsrequiredtocollectroadmanagementdata,onlydatarequiredforthepurposeathandshouldbecollected.However,thistechnologylikeothermobilevideologgingsurveyequip-mentcandootherwise.Dependingonthenumberandsizeofequipment that thesurveyplatformcanhold,itispossibletocollectasmuchdataaspossible.Thestorageandanalysisofthisdatawouldthenbetheconcern.Themethodologyiseffectiveinconductingperiodicandroutinevisualroadinspectionandpresentingittoadmin-istratorswhousuallyperceivemorebyseeingthanreading.Intheconceptionofthistechnology,itisdiscoveredthatthereareavarietyof“good”consumercamerasonthemarketmanyofwhichcouldpossiblybemodifiedforresearchpurposesaswitnessedwiththeSonyHDRCX520VEandKinectxbox360thatwillbeusedinextendingthistechnology.
4.2 Research Contribution
Sustainabledevelopment inUganda is guidedby adherence to theMDGsand theNationalDevelopmentPlan(NDP)2010/11–2014/15ofUganda.Thisresearchisalignedwithgoal8oftheMDGswhichstrivestomakeavailablethebenefitsofnewtechnologies,especiallyinformationandcommunicationstechnologiesindevelopingaglobalpartnershiptodevelopment.Unlessinitiatedatalocallevelachievingglobaldevelopmentisratherdifficult.EnhancingGITuseinthetransportsectorisabottomupapproachtowardsavailingaccessibilitytoICTforsustainabledevelopment.Objec-tive5oftheNDPofUgandaistopromotescience,technology,innovationandICTtoenhancecompetitiveness.ThisresearchisaddressingthelowapplicationofscienceandtechnologykeybindingconstraintoftheNDP.
Apparently, research in the road maintenance sector is yet to tackle various waysinwhichGITs canbeused to further theirperformance asdecision support tools.Throughthisresearchhowever,ithasbeenbroughttobookthegapsandlimitationsthatarechallengingtheinstitutionalizationofGITintheroadinfrastructuremain-tenance division. It has created an awareness of the potential of GITs in the RIMthroughinteractionwithstakeholdersinthesectorandpresentationofresearchfind-ingsandprogressatacoupleofconferences.
AnondeterministicalgorithmicframeworkfortheaccentuationofGITusageinroadinfrastructuremaintenanceinUgandahasbeenrecommended.Inthismodel,strate-giesaregivenforwhichtheRIMsectorcanpursueinordertoadoptinstitutionaliza-tionofGIT.
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Itisobviousthatenormousamountofmoneyisrequiredtomaintainuptodatedatainventoryoftheconditionofroadssoastokeepabreastwiththerightmaintenancerequired decisions. This research proposed a low cost GIT based methodology forpreliminaryRIMdecisionsupport.Insteadofundertakingtheroutineroadcondi-tiondatacollectionforevery2-3oreven5yearsdependingontheclassofroad,thistechnologyservestoindicatewhichsectionsofroadsrequireurgentmaintenanceat-tention.Itisthenforthesesections,thatindepthdatacollectionandanalysisshouldproceed.
4.3 Way Forward
Eventhoughacoupleofpapershavebeenpublishedabouttheongoingresearch,thereare analyses that are accomplishedduring the forthcoming stages of the remainingPhD.studies.
1. TheGISanalysesontheindependentmappingoftheroadsvisaviewhatisbeingusedforroadmaintenanceisstillon-going.Indepthanalysisoftheseindepend-entlycollecteddataisstillrequired
2. Thedynamicsegmentationdatamodelhasbeenrecommendedforroadmainte-nancedataoftheRIMdivision.Aprototypemodelistobedevelopedandtestedwiththedivision’sdatainUganda.
3. Aworkshopisplanned(seesection1.5.5)whereapresentationtotheparticipantsshallbemadeoftheframeworkdevelopmentsto-date.Theintentionistohaveafullyparticipatoryapproachtotheframeworkdevelopmentbyhavingamorestakeholderinvolvementintheresearch.Thedevelopedframeworkhasevolvedwithconsultationwithjustarepresentativefraction(athird(1/3)ofthestakeholdersintheRIMsector.Forthisnatureofdevelopmenthowever,inputfromagenerouslyproportionedstakeholdercommunityishighlyrecommended.
4. Manuscriptsdealingwiththefollowingsubjectsarepresentlyunderpreparation; i.Thenatureandrequirementsforroadmaintenancedata,
ii.Thedynamicsegmentationprototypedatamodel, ii.Detailedguidelinestoimplementthedevelopedframework
4.4 Final Remarks
BasingontheobjectivesandresearchquestionsthatweresetforthePhDresearch,theresearchhassofarmanagedto,establishthegapsandlimitationsintheGITusageforRIM,recognisethesuperiorityoftheGIS-TdynamicsegmentationdatamodelforroadmaintenancedataanddevelopthealgorithmicframeworkforaccentuationofGITinRIM.Additionallybutnotdirectlyinlinewiththeresearchobjectives,alowcostGIS-Tdatacollectionmethodologyforpreliminaryroadmaintenancedecisionsupporthasbeencommended.ThistechnologyistobeextendedusingtheMicrosoft’sKinectXbox360videogameconsoletogobeyondthekinect’sintendedpurposeofplayinggames.Similarly,thereisneedtodevelopaprototypedynamicsegmentation
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datamodelforroadmaintenancedatainthecountry.Itisalsoarequirementtofurtherharmonisethedevelopedframeworkwithamorerepresentativefractionofstakehold-ers andother researchers in the sector throughaworkshop tobe scheduled induecourse.Inaddition,anexpansionontheguidelinesfortheRIMorganisationstoadaptthisalgorithmicframeworkispending.
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