genre as social ac.on: the rhetorical genre studies
TRANSCRIPT
GenreAsSocialAc.on:TheRhetoricalGenreStudies
ApproachtoGenre
MichaelBowenUniversitätRostock
RhetoricalGenreStudies
Genrehasbecomeadominantresearchobjectinanumberofscholarlycommuni>es:• literarystudies(Frye,Todorov)• systemicfunc>onallinguis>cs(Halliday)• Historicalandcorpuslinguis>cs(Biber)• EnglishforSpecificPurposes(Swales,Bha>a)• RhetoricalGenreStudies(Miller,Bazerman)
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Defininggenre(I)
ThevastmajorityofRGSscholarsdrawheavilyonCarolynMiller’sdefini>onofgenre:‘Genreistypifiedrhetoricalac>onsbasedonrecurrentsitua>ons.’(1984159)• Whatare(rhetorical)situa>ons?• Whatisrecurrence?• Whatistypifica>on?• Whatissocialac>on?• Howaregenrerelatedtothecontextofculture?• Whathappenedtoform?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Defininggenre(II)
RGStakesanapproachtogenrethatreliesoninves>ga>nghowlanguageusersperceiveandemploygenres.
Howwouldyourespondtothefollowingsitua>ons?
Ø Theprofessoroftheclassyouaretakinginformsyouthatmustwritea3000-wordtermpapertoreceiveamarkinthecourse.
Ø Youneedtomakemoneytogotouniversity,andyouseeanappropriatejobno>ceontheInternet.
Ø Youlearnthatthefatherofafriendhaspassedaway.
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalsitua>on?(I)Theterm‘rhetoricalsitua>on’wasintroducedbyLloydBitzer
inaninfluen>alpaperdeliveredin1966:Rhetoricalsitua.onmaybedefinedasacomplexofpersons,events,objects,andrela.onspresen.nganactualorpoten.alexigencewhichcanbecompletelyorpar.allyremovedifdiscourse,introducedintothesitua.on,cansoconstrainhumandecisionorac.onastobringaboutthesignificantmodifica.onoftheexigence.Priortothecrea.onandpresenta.onofdiscourse,therearethreecons.tuentsofanyrhetoricalsitua.on:thefirstistheexigence;thesecondandthirdareelementsofthecomplex,namelytheaudiencetobeconstrainedindecisionandac.on,andtheconstraintswhichinfluencetherhetorandcanbebroughttobearupontheaudience.(6)
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalsitua>on?(II)Exigence:‘athingotherthanitshouldbe’(Bitzer6);anunsa>sfactorystateofaffairscharacterizedbyurgencythatcanbemodifiedthroughdiscourse.
Audience:Thosewhosedecisionsandac>onscaneffectchangeandwhoseac>onsanddecisionscanbeeffectedbydiscourse.Theyare‘mediatorsofchange’(Bitzer8).
Constraints:Allthatwhich‘hasthepowertoconstraindecisionandac>onneededtomodifytheexigence’(Bitzer8).E.g.interests,beliefs,adtudes,sensibili>es,tradi>ons,materialcondi>ons,etc.
Ø Canyoudeterminetherhetoricalsitua.onofoneofyourcases?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalsitua>on?(II)
Bitzer’sconcep>onofrhetoricalsitua>onrigheullyemphasizes:
• Thedependentrela>onbetweensitua>onandresponse• Thewriter’s(reader’s)ac>ve,engagedstancetoward
situa>onBitzer’sconcep>onhasbeencri>cizedinRGSas:
• toolimitedtocovermanytypesofdiscourseofinteresttogenretheory
• toodeterminis>c
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrecurrence?(I)Bitzerremarksinpassingthatrecurrentsitua>onscallforthsimilarrhetoricalresponsesandtheircorrespondingforms:Duetoeitherthenatureofthingsorconven.on,orboth,somesitua.onsrecur.Thecourtroomisthelocusforseveralkindsofsitua.onsgenera.ngthespeechofaccusa.on,thespeechofdefense,thechargetothejury.Fromdaytoday,yeartoyear,comparablesitua.onsoccur,promp.ngcomparableresponses;hencerhetoricalformsarebornandaspecialvocabulary,grammar,andstyleareestablished.Thisistruealsoofthesitua.onwhichInvitestheinauguraladdressofaPresident.Thesitua.onrecursand,becauseweexperiencesitua.onsandtherhetoricalresponsestothem,aformofdiscourseisnotonlyestablishedbutcomestohaveapowerofitsownthetradi.onitselftendstofunc.onasaconstraintuponanynewresponseintheform.(13)
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrecurrence?(II)• Recurringsitua>onsengenderrecurrentresponses.
• Recurrentresponsesinturnengenderaconstraintonpossibleresponsesbecause,basedonpreviousresponsestosimilarsitua>onstheaudiencedevelopsexpecta>onsastotypicalandappropriaterhetoricalresponses.
• Similarresponsesinthepast(genre)thusconstrainandformcurrentresponses.Currentresponsesareproducedandreceivedinlightofpreviousones(intertextuality,‘contextofgenre’)
Ø Howdoesoneofyourcasesreflectarecurrentsitua>onandacurrentresponse?
Ø Howisitconstrainedbyreaderexpecta>onsofrecurrentresponses?
Ø Howmuchfreedomdoyouhavetochallengereaderexpecta>ons?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrecurrence?(III)Sincecurrentresponsesareformedinlightofpastones,theymaycallforfeatureswhichmaynotbethemostefficaciousgivenpresentexigencesandwhoseoriginsarenodoubtmostlyunknowntowritersandreaders.
Inrhetoricaltransac.ons…thepastmayabideasalivingpresence.Indeed,evenwhereimmediatecircumstancemayclearlytosolicitacertainformofrhetoricalresponse,itissome.mesadifferent,evenincompa.bleformthatcomes,throughstubbornhabitua.on,torhetoricalexpression.(Jamieson406)
Ø Aretheirfeaturesofyourresponsethatreflectantecedentresponses,andthusdonotnecessaryrespondtothecontemporarysitua.on?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatistypifica>on?(I)
CarolynMillerrejectsBitzer’smaterialistviewofrecurrence(similari>es,analogies)andconcludesthatitcanonlybeunderstoodintermsoftypifica>on(157):• ThesociologistRobertA.Strebinclaims:‘objec>vesitua>ons
areunique’andthuscannotrecur.Norcanindividualpercep>ons.
• Ourrecogni>onofrecurrenceisbasedonourconstrualofrelevantsimilari>esorganizedonthebasisofintersubjec>velyavailabletypes.Wethusdonot‘perceive’recurrentsitua>ons,we‘define’them(156)
• Weliveinaworldofmeaningfulsitua>ons.(Localsitua>onxcanonlyberecognizedasapar>cularsitua>onbecauseitisseeasanexampleofgeneraltypeaortypeb…)
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatistypifica>on?(II)Miller’sconcep>onoftypifiedsitua>onmaintainsbutmodifiestheBitzer’sno>onofexigence(unsa>sfactorystate-of-affairs),removingitsmaterialistanddeterministconnota>onsandrecas>ngitas‘socialmo>ve’.
Exigenceisaformofsocialknowledge-amutualconstruingofobjects,events,interests,andpurposesthatnotonlylinksthembutalsomakesthemwhattheyare:anobjec.fiedsocialneed.ThisisquitedifferentfromBitzer'scharacteriza.onofexigenceasa"defect"ordanger.Conversely,althoughexigenceprovidestherhetorwithasenseofrhetoricalpurpose,itisclearlynotthesameastherhetor'sinten.on,forthatcanbeill-formed,dissembling,oratoddswithwhatthesitua.onconven.onallysupports.Theexigenceprovidestherhetorwithasociallyrecognizablewaytomakehisorherinten.onsknown.Itprovidesanoccasion,andthusaform,formakingpublicourprivateversionsofthings.Ø Howdoesyourresponsereflectasocial(intersubjec>ve)mo>ve?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatistypifica>on?(III)
Ifsitua>onisseenintermsoftypifica>on,thenrela>onbetweensitua>onandresponse(genre)mustbeseenasdynamic,notunidirec>onal.Ifgenrerespondstorecurringsitua.on,thenapar.culartext’sreflec.onofgenrereflectsthatgenre’ssitua.on.Thustheactofconstruc.ngthegenre–ofclassifyingassimilartoothertexts–isalsotheactofconstruc.ngthesitua.on.(Devil20)Ifsitua>onisasocialconstructthenitcannotbeseenasseparatefromgenreinsofarasagenreembodiesandencodesitssitua>onbecausethemeaningofanindividualtextcanonlybeunderstoodintermsofthetext’senactmentofatypifiedresponsetoatypifiedsitua>on.Ø Howdoesyourresponsetextuallyconstructthesitua>on?How
doesittextuallyenactitsreader?Itswriter?Itspurpose?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalac>on?(I)
Ac>oncanonlybeunderstood‘againstacontextofsitua>onandthroughthealribu>onofmo>ves’(Miller159)• Actsarecalledforthbyasitua>onandmodifyasitua>on.• Toknowwhatactisbeingperformedweneedtoreferto
thesitua>on(context)inwhichitisembedded.• Actscannotbedescribedasphysicaleventsbecausethe
‘samemovement’wouldbeadifferentactinadifferentsitua>on.
• Forexample,swingingabaseballbatisadifferentact(andhasadifferentmeaning)duringaprac>cethaninagame.
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalac>on?(II)Ac>on(pragma>cs)fusesandencompassessubstance(seman>cs)andform(syntax).
• Anacttobeseenasanac>onmustbemeaningful(seman>cs).Anactmustalwaysbeseenasakindofac>onandthusbeopentodescrip>on(bythedoerandtheobserver).
• Anactmusthaveaform(andthusbeembodied)tobemeaningful.Ac>onrequiresformtobeac>on.
• Onlyinac>ondosubstanceandformbecomedisclosedassuch.Ac>onisaprivilegedcategory.
• Genresassocialac>onsarethesitua>on-basedfusionofsubstanceandform(Miller153).
Ø Imaginethetextualformyourresponsewouldtake?Ø Howtheformofyourresponsereflectitsfunc>onasaresponseto
itssitua>on?TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatisrhetoricalac>on?(III)
Ac>onandmo>veshouldnotbeseentohaveauncondi>onedlocusinanyofitselements(=Aristotle’senergeia)KennethBurke’spentadofac>on:
• act• scene(situa>on)• agent• agency(includesform–howac>onwasdone)• purpose(aim)
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Howisgenrerelatedtocontextofculture?
• Typifiedsitua>onsandresponsestothemarelocatedwithinlooselydefinedsystemsorganizingmaterialcondi>ons,beliefs,behaviors,conven>ons,andvalues.
• Texts,throughpar>cipa>ngingenre,enactandpromoteculturalsystems.
• Genreisanexusofindividualacts(texts)andculture
Ø Whichkindofsubject(agent)doesyourtextpresuppose?
Ø Howisthissubjectposi>onreflectedandmaintainedwithinculture?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whathappenedtoform?EventhoughRGSinsiststhatrhetoricalac>on‘fuses’substance(content)andform(linguis>cfeatures,palernsandstructures),ithastypicallyprivilegedac>onandthusthestudyofins>tu>onal,socialandculturalcontext.However,formremainsanissue(Devil28):
• Formisonlymeaningfulinrela>ontoanac>onwithinagivencontext(situa>on).
• Genreformsareopenandeverchanging(‘stabilizedfornow’)• Formsvarywithineachinstanceofagenre,buteachinstanceis
viewedinlightofcommonforms.• Apar>cularformofgenreismeaningfulinonlyrela>ontoother
genreforms.
Ø Whatkindofgenresaresimilartotheoneinwhichyourtextpar>cipates?
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
Whatdoesthismeanforwri>nginstruc>on?
• Teachforminrela>ontocontext.Showhowformfunc>onsasaresponsetositua>on.
• Encouragerhetoricalsensi>vitytolocalsitua>ons.Showhoweachsitua>ondemandsamoreorlesscrea>ve,innova>veresponse.
• Encouragegenreawareness.Helpstudentsbeawareofthefactthatrecurrentsitua>onsandresponsereflectandpromoteapar>cularculture(ideology).
• Encouragestudentstoseehowtheycaninfluenceculture(ideology)byrecas>ngrecurrentsitua>onsandresponses.Havethem‘reform’andcreategenres.
TheRGSApproachtoGenre
WorkCitedCampbell,KarlynKohrs,andKathleenHallJamieson,eds.FormandGenre:ShapingRhetoricalAc>on.FallsChurch:SpeechCommunica>onAssocia>on,1978.Devil,AmyJ.Wri.ngGenres.Carbondale:SouthernIllinoisUniversityPress,2004.Jamieson,Kathleen"AntecedentGenreasRhetoricalConstraint."QuarterlyJournalofSpeech61(Dec.1975):406-15.Miller,CarolynR."GenreAsSocialAc>on."QuarterlyJournalofSpeech70(May1984):151-67.Bitzer, Lloyd E. "The Rhetorical Situation." Philosophy and Rhetoric 1 (Winter 1968): 1-14.