genetic and environmental influences essay plan web viewtitle . discus aetiologies of schizophrenia....

TitleDiscus aetiologies of schizophrenia

Controversial QuestionWhich approaches – biological or psychological – give us the best explanation of the origin of schizophrenia

A01 Physiological Aetiologies

Explain the influence of Genes Based on: Twin, Family and Adoption Studies

Explain the Dopamine Hypothesis(Focus on one, mention the other)

A02 Research

Describe Study Findings

Counter-argument

Alternative explanations for findings?

A01 Psychological Aetiologies

Behaviourist/Psychodynamic Explanations

Cognitive Explanations

AO2

Problems with explanations

Research Findings

ConclusionFocus on Diathesis-Stress Model and Holistic/Interactionist explanations

TitleDescribe and evaluate treatments for schizophrenia

Controversial QuestionIs there a “best” treatment for schizophrenia one that is effective and risk-free?

A01 Physiological Treatment

Explain how chemotherapy works:

Conventional anti-psychoticsAtypical anti-psychotics

A02 Research

Effectiveness

Atypical V Conventional

Side Effects

Blocks search for psychological solutions?

ECT (why is this AO2?)

Counter-argument

Can we risk NOT using drugs for schizophrenia?

A01 Psychological Treatments

CBT

AO2

Effectiveness

CBT Alone?

Appropriateness?

Conclusion

TitleDiscuss issues of bias in diagnosis of mental disorder.

Controversial Question

Is bias in diagnosis caused by genuine differences across groups or by problems in the way psychologists view different sections of the population?

A01

Define Cultural bias in diagnosis and gender bias in diagnosis.

Describe explanations for Cultural Bias in diagnosis

A02

Evaluate explanations for Cultural Bias in diagnosis

AO1

Describe explanations for Gender Bias in diagnosis

A02

Evaluate explanations for Gender Bias in diagnosis

Conclusion

Is bias in diagnosis the fault of inefficient psychologists or are there real differences across groups? Or is there a more complex answer?

DISCUSS THE AETIOLOGIES OF DEPRESSION. REFER TO PSYCHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE IN YOUR ANSWER (25)

AO1 = 10 (4 INDIVIDUAL POINTS FOR EACH EXPLANATION)

AO2 = 15 (5 INDIVIDUAL POINTS (FOR EACH EXPLANATION)

PHYSIOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONS

AO1 (1) AO1 (2) AO1 (3) AO1 (4)THE MOLECULAR GENETICS EXPLANATION FOCUSES ON HOW GENES ARE ASSOCIATED WITH THE DEVELOPMENT OF DEPRESSION.AN EXAMPLE GENE IS THE (SEROTONIN TRANSPORTER GENE )

(ADD IN THE DESCRIPTION OF THE GENE)

ADOPTION STUDIESLOOKS AT THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GENETICS AND DEPRESSION

DESCRIBE WENDER(1986) ADOPTION STUDY

FAMILY AND TWIN STUDIES LOOK AT GENETIC SIMILARITIES

MZ AND DZ TWINS

DESCRIBE GOTTESMAN’S FAMILY STUDY

DOPAMINE HYPOTHESISURINE TESTING (ADD DESCRIPTION)PET SCANS – LINDSTROEM ET AL(DESCRIBE THE STUDY)

AO2 AO2 AO2 AO2PROBLEM WITH ADOPTION STUDY

Not all environmental influences removed

STUDY RESULTS

Problem of generalising from a sample of adopted people

GENETICIf schizophrenia was entirely genetic MZ twins would have 100% risk rather than a

PROBLEMS WITH FAMILY STUDIES

Don’t completely remove environmental influences

FOUND THAT I-DOPA IS TAKEN

UP QUICKLY

IN SCHIZOPH

RENICS.

PROBLEMRADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES MAY LEAD TO CANCER THEY ALSO DONT SHOW THE DEFICITS IN THE BRAIN

48% risk

PSYCHOLOGICAL EXPLANATIONSAO1 (1) AO1 (2) AO1 (3) AO1 (4)Beck and Reckner proposed a cognitive theory explaining that neurological differences in SZP patients cause attention and communication problems. This causes them to attribute some internal cognitive processes (such as the ‘inner voice’) as due to external forces (the voices are someone else talking to them.

Schizophrenia is triggered by childhood events and upbringing. Fromm-Reichman proposed the idea of the schizophrenogenic mother, with a cold, domineering nature.

Suggestion that other family factors can induce SZP symptoms, such as constant arguing between parents.Alanen, proposed the importance of a combination of genetics and upbringing. Supporting the proposed usefulness of early on family relations.

Social Causation, Living in an urban area increases the risk of developing SZP due to deprivation in living condition, unemployment etc causing stress and triggering breakdown in those who are vulnerable.

AO2 AO2 AO2 AO2SUPPORTING EVIDENCEStirling; experiment with shapes found SZP patients incorrectly identified the shapes they drew

PROBLEMS WITH EVIDENCE/RESEARCHEthical factors in research. Stress to already unstable individual.Does not show the cause of faulty information processing.

SUPPORTING EVIDENCESchofield and Balian compared personal histories of SZP patients and found patients are more likely to have a

PROBLEMS WITH EVIDENCE/RESEARCHRetrospective study-expand.Pre-schizophrenic child may cause abnormal parental behaviour.Risk of adding to families misery by blaming

SUPPORTING EVIDENCELidz et al, looked at family backgrounds of SZP patients.He found again that mothers were

PROBLEMS WITHEVIDENCE/RESEARCHContradicts research by Schofield and Balian.Retrospective-expand.

SUPPORTINGEVIDENCECastle et al supports this, SZP patients in Camberwell had been born into deprived areas.

PROBLEMS WITH EVIDENCE/RESEARCHThis view is deterministic. Not all deprived individuals will develop symptoms.Does not explain why more affluent or rural individuals develop symptoms.

when rotated, the result of faulty information processing

mother who is domineering and over protective.

members for condition.Evidence suggests SZP view the world differently and therefore may interpret normal behaviour as cold and abnormal.

cold and domineering. Unlike Schofield and Balian he found that parents often had serious personality disorders and constantly argued etc.

SOCIAL CAUSATION

AO1 (1) AO1 (2) AO1 (3) AO1 (4)

Schizophrenia is much higher in urban areas than rural areas.

Social causation states that living in an urban area could be a cause of schizophrenia due to social deprivation and unemployment.

Social selection is where a schizophrenic person chooses to live in an urban area because of cheap houses and can drift into society easier.

Schizophrenic individuals tend to be born into deprived inner city areas.

AO2 AO2 AO2 AO2Freeman done studies in London and Chicago (Look up Freeman) found a

Run down areas are linked to stress which can trigger schizophreni

Unemployment can lead to stress possible link to schizophrenia.

Unemployment doesn’t only occur in urban areas so you can’t say urban areas causes

(Castle et al) didn’t support social selection hypothesis shows

Jablensky states that it’s unlikely that the social aspect of urban life is

These areas are known for high birth complications combined

higher incidence of schizophrenia.

a. schizophrenia.

urban area is not a cause of schizophrenia but a consequence

responsible for causing schizophrenia.

with the finding that maternal influenza is a risk factor for schizophrenia (O’Callaghan) shows that there is a link between deprived inner city areas & the development of schizophrenia.

Psychology Department

Genetic and environmental influences Essay Plan

Title: a) What is meant by the term genetic influence? (3marks)

b) Critically consider the relationship between genetic and environmental influences on behaviour. (22 marks)You will have 35-38 minutes in the exam and should be aiming for 3-4 sides of A4. Remember AO1 is worth 3 marks, A02 is worth 7 marks and AO3 is worth 15 . Focus on balance.Use the following plan, which will help you structure your answer and highlight the kind of material required. Each number should be a new paragraph or section.

1. Define the nature-nurture debate, focusing on the interaction between the two. Controversial question: What has most influence on behaviour –

genes or environment? Is it the same for all behaviours?

2. Explain what we mean by genotype and phenotype and how it is difficult toSeparate them.

3. a) Describe where the perspectives we have studied (biological/evolutionary, psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive) stand on the relative importance of nature and nurture. Highlight the fact that for different types of behaviour the relative influence of nature and nurture will be different.

3. b) Choose 3 examples (eg Intelligence, Mental Illness and Aggression) of behaviour we have studied from across the course and offer different explanations (biological/evolutionary, psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive.)

c) For each example highlight the relative importance of nature and nurture

4 Highlight the problems connected with researching nature-nurture.

5 Conclusion: mention diathesis-stress model and focus on interaction.

A) Define what we mean by Cultural Bias (3)Define Cultural Bias (A01) CRUCIAL – Worth 3 Marks, so at least 3 strong, clear ideas.

B) Discuss Issues of cultural bias in psychology (22) – 15 Marks AO3 , 7 Marks AO2.

Introduction and controversial questions

What do we mean by culture?

What is the point of cross-cultural psychology?

What if there a real differences between cultures?

Controversial Questions – What is cultural bias? Why would psychologists want to study other cultures? Is Cultural Bias really a problem for psychologists? If it is, how can it be solved?

Issue One: Examples of Cultural Bias

When we look at other cultures, we might exaggerate their differences from our own culture. (Alpha Bias) or we could ignore differences from our own culture (Beta bias) Either way this could stop us getting at the truth about human behaviour. (AO3)

Explain HOW and give examples and counter-argue (AO2)

Discuss Ethnocentrism and Eurocentrism (AO3)

Give examples and counter-argue (AO2)

Bias in studies: psychology uses a sample of a select subgroup of people to apply to all people (AO3)


Imposed etic: the research carried out in other cultures is based upon western ideas and cultural differences are ignored (AO3)


Issue Two: Dealing with Cultural Bias

Indigenous psychologies: psychology carried out by the members of a particular culture themselves, rather than Western psychologists (AO3)


Emic approach: acknowledging that some phenomena may only apply in particular cultures. Therefore, theories for one culture are developed by using research carried out in that culture, and cannot be applied cross culturally (AO3)


Etic approach: assumes human behaviour is universal, and findings from one culture can be applied to others (AO3)


Derived etic approach: acknowledges the role of culture, and recognised that behaviour does differ from culture to culture. (AO3)


(Describe possible issues of bias, or ways of dealing with them for the following studies/theories

Asch, Buss, Langer and Rodin – these are good examples)

Conclusion – answer controversial questions.

PY4 Essay Question : Discuss the view that psychology should be regarded as a science. (3 marks – AO1; 7 marks – AO2; 15 marks – AO3)

This essay is from the controversies section and the examiner is mostly interested in how well you understand how science works (15 marks for AO3). You can also pick up 7 marks for evaluation (AO2) and 3 marks for a knowing an appropriate definition.

This is a first attempt at this essay and by June you will have lots of extra material to use to give the essay more depth. I will be marking the essay with this in mind, though if you followed the structure outlined below you could achieve a top grade now.

Remember STRUCTURE is essential for a top band answer, so by starting the essay with a controversial question and answering it in the conclusion, you are building a structure in straight away. Try and include examples where you can.

Paragraph 1: Introduction. The controversy is really about two things: whether psychology fits the criteria that we generally apply to sciences; and whether we think psychology SHOULD be a science. You need to frame a controversial question to include these issues.

Paragraph 2. We need to explain what a science is: we can include the six criteria, the scientific method plus science’s use of reductionism. (AO1)

Paragraph 3. What is psychology? This will be quite long because: there are different approaches to psychology (AO3); some aspects of psychology match the criteria for science (AO3); some parts of psychology are reductionist (AO3); some psychologists use the scientific method (AO3)

Paragraph 4. Reductionism – what are the advantages for science? What are the advantages for psychology? Does reductionism help us find out the truth about human behaviour? (AO2)

Paragraph 5. Psychology lacks objectivity (some research needs INTERPRETATION) but Popper argues that all science is biased because all research is based on hypotheses (make sure you understand this point). (Ao3)

Paragraph 6. So, if all science is biased, does it matter if psychology lacks objectivity? (AO2)

Paragraph 7. Goals of Science: Prediction, Understanding and Control (AO3) some parts of psychology share these goals, BUT should they? (AO2)

Paragraph 8. Scientific research sort fact from opinion, so maybe it’s crucial for psychology (AO3) BUT – what about the validity of scientific research such as lab experiments – do they tell us the truth about human behaviour? (AO2)

Paragraph 9. Does Psychology have an overall paradigm? What would Kuhn’s view be? (AO2)

Paragraph 10. Answer your controversial question. (AO3)

Free-will versus Determinism essay planPara 1 -Introduction

Define and give examples of the key concepts and say why the debate is important in psychology

Free-will

Determinism

Biological

Environmental

Psychic

Why is it a controversy?

Para 2 Explain arguments in favour of determinismPsychology is a science

Why is it a problem for science if we believe in free-will?

Biological/genetic determinism

What is biological determinism? What evidence is there that we can be determined by our biology?

What is it that does the willing?

Why is defining what free-will is difficult?

Para 3 Explain arguments in favour of free-willSubjective experience

Why is this controversy difficult to ignore?

Individuals can self-determine

Do individiuals in every culture believe they are self-determining?

Moral responsibility

What is the belief that underpins our moral values? Why do we punish criminals?

Para 4 conclusion

How successful have attempts at studying this problem objectively been and what is a good compromise between the two?

Description and evaluation of Libet’s study

Soft determinism

How does this concept include both hard determinism and free-will?

Title

a) What is meant by determinism?(3 marks)b) Discuss the question of free will and determinism in respect

of human behaviour. (22marks)

a) Define determinism + example (100-150 words)b) Controversial Question

Is it possible that despite our personal experience of making what feel like making free choices, all our behaviour is determined by

internal or external forces beyond our control? Or is there a middle view?

A03 Argument 1 – Genes determine our behaviour

Use material on genetic influence on intelligence/abnormality/mate selection

Provide research that supports these viewsEg Twin studies, Buss

A02 Evaluate the studies: How convincing are they?

A02 Counter-argument : Could we possibly make free choices to: be more intelligent, be more “normal” , to select a mate that doesn’t fit the evolutionary stereotype?

A03 Argument 2 – Biology determines our behaviour

Use material From Libet to explain brain activity determining our behaviour

Explain his research

A02 Evaluate the study: How convincing is it?

A02 Counter-argumentBiology can’t explain the complex cognitive behaviour of humans in the same way as less complex animals

A03 Argument 3 – Environment determines our behaviour

Use Bandura’s explanation of aggression

Provide supporting research eg Bobo Doll Studies

A02 Evaluate the studies: How convincing are they?

A02 Counter-argument: Could we possibly make free choices to: be less aggressive?

A03 Argument 4– Subjective experience says we have free will.

Dr Johnson – “We know the will is free..”

AO2 – Is This an illusion? (Skinner)

AO3 Argument 4 – Moral Responsibility Indicates Free will

AO2 – Piaget suggests this develops through maturation (ie Genetic)

Conclusion

Soft Determinism

TitleDescribe and Evaluate the Multi-store Model of Memory


Does the MSM give a comprehensive picture of how memory works or can it be improved?

A01

Description of Model with diagrams

Explanations of STORES and PROCESSES involved

A02 Research 1

Duration: Peterson & Peterson(59) STM Bahrick et al (75) LTM

WHY DOES THIS RESEARCH SUPPORT THE MODEL?

Counter-argumentPeterson & Peterson(59) –Ecological ValidityBahrick – Confounding variables

DO THESE COUNTER-ARGUMENTS MEAN THE MODEL IS USELESS?

A02StrengthsWeaknesses

Counter-argumentOther Models – ARE THEY BETTER/DIFFERENT?

Conclusion

Improvement – Include parts of other models

Titlea) Describe and Evaluate alternatives to the Multi-store Model

of Memory


A01

Description of Models with diagrams

Explanations of STORES and PROCESSES involved

A02 Research 1

Counter-argument

A02 Research 2

Counter-argument

Conclusion

TitleDescribe and evaluate the role of emotion in memory. (25)Controversial questionDoes emotion affect memory ? Do things like flashbulb memories and repression really exist?

AO1 Description of enhanced memories e.g Flashbulb memories and impaired memory e.g repression (perhaps MDM also) with examples for each.

AO2 Research which supportsBrown and Kulik 1977 / Cahill and McGaugh (rats)Why do these studies support the idea that emotion enhances memory?

Williams 1994 / Karon and Widener WWII veteransHow do these studies support the idea that emotion can impair memory?

Counter-arguments – are there any studies which contradict these findings?Flashbulb memories can be inaccurate – Wright 1993What does this suggest about the affect of emotion on memory?Repressed memories could be false rather than recovered – Loftus and Pickerell.What does this suggest about the idea of repression?

AO2 – strengths and weaknesses of argumentsEvaluations of studies etcHow can memories be both enhanced and impaired by emotion? Evolutionary explanation ?

Counter-argument - Impaired memory is supported also by MDM and Depressive state.

Conclusion - Does emotion affect memory ? Do things like flashbulb memories and repression really exist?

TitleDiscuss explanations of forgetting


What’s the best explanation for forgetting and can we use the same explanation to account for forgetting in STM and LTM?

A01

Define AVAILABLE and ACCESSIBLE

Connect forgetting with DURATION and CAPACITY of stores

STM – DECAY v DISPLACEMENT

LTM – INTERFERENCE V CUE-DEPENDENT FORGETTING

A02 Research 1 - STM

Decay : Peterson & Peterson(59) Nonsense Trigrams

WHY DOES THIS RESEARCH SUPPORT DECAY?

Displacement: Waugh and Norman(65)Serial Probe

WHY DOES THIS RESEARCH SUPPORT DISPLACEMENT?

Counter-argumentPeterson & Peterson(59) – Could be displacement -see Reitman(74)

Waugh and Norman(65) – Maybe decay – see Shallice(67)

DISPLACEMENT = slightly more convincing explanationA02 Research 2 – LTM

Interference – Underwood(57) Word-pairs

WHY DOES THIS RESEARCH SUPPORT INTERFERENCE?

Cue-dependent Forgetting Abernethy(40)

WHY DOES THIS RESEARCH SUPPORT Cue-dependent forgetting?

Counter-argumentInterference – Tulving and Psotka(71) – Cued Recall

WHY IS THIS CRUCIAL RESEARCH?

Why does Michael Eysenck support cue-dependent forgetting?

Conclusion

Different explanations for STM and LTM

Which ones, and why?

TitleDescribe and evaluate explanation of disorders of memory (25)Intro and Controversial question – Two disorders amnesia and Alzheimers caused by brain injury or disease. Case studies can help us discover more about how the memory works. Are disorders like Alzheimers genetic or can they be affected by environmental factors?

AO1 Describe aspects of amnesia e.g lack of explicit memory, anterograde and retrograde amnesia.

AO2 Research evidenceH M and Gollin test, supports loss of explicit memory and Stickgold and tetris game.Isaac and Mayes suggest Anterograde amnesia is problems with consolidation – pps helped by cued recall. Also temporal gradient supports idea of consolidation problems.

Counter-arguments – Schachter et al found pps some amnesiacs could not do implicit tasks either.Gabrieli found damage to one part of the hippocampus (CA1) causes antergrade amnesia but not retrograde – suggests not just hippocampus damage but specific parts. Reed and Squire also found temporal lobe to be important.Suggests complicated picture of what actually causes amnesia

AO1 Describe explanations of Alzheimers e.g Beta amyloid protein cuases plaques, affects Basal Forebrain leads to attention problems, interferes with NMDA which is needed for learning. Evidence of genetic link also AO2. Supporting evidence Murphy and Levine say Beta Amyloids set off chain reaction which explains weak link between them and AD. chromosomes 21,1 and 14 early onset and 10 for late onset.

Counter-argument - Genetic link is weak only 50% of suffers have relatives with AD. Yoruba people in Nigeria – Hendrie found enironmental factors such as diet important. However new treatments involving Beta Amyloid defense appears to help.

Conclusion – Summarise two disorders and explanations – Amnesia - research is not entirely conclusive as brain scans and case studies are imprecise and in Alzheimers genetic studies only provide half the answer.

Title Discuss theories of Hypnosis (25)

Controversial QuestionIs hypnosis a unique state of consciousness different from waking or sleeping?A01Define consciousness & hypnosis

Explain Hilgard’s (Neodissociationist) STATE theory of hypnosis

Explain Wagstaff’s (Socio-cognitive) NON-STATE theory of hypnosis

A02 Research 1Research into STATE theory eg

Evans & Orne (71)“Reals v Fakers”

Hilgard (77) – Hidden Observer

Remarkable Physical Feats

Kosslyn et al (2000) Unique Brain states

Counter-argumentEvaluate research findings and conclusions drawn from them

A02 Research 2Research into NON-STATE theory eg

Wagstaff (86)

Spanos (86)

Counter-argumentEvaluate research findings and conclusions drawn

ConclusionSuggest which theory is better for explaining hypnosis – or the one has has the best evidence !

TitleDiscuss the role of endogenous and exogenous factors in bodily rhythms

Controversial QuestionWhat are more important in creating bodily rhythms – endogenous factors or exogenous zeitgebers

A01

Define your selected Rhythms (circadian & Infradian)

Explain endogenous mechanisms:

Pineal GlandSCNMelatoninSerotonin

Explain exogenous zeitgebers:

LightSocial FactorsTemperature

A02 Research 1

Research supporting explanations on circadian and infradian rhythmsEg SiffreAschoff & Wever(76)Morgan (95)

Counter-argument

A02 Research 2Eg RussellFolkard(96)

Counter-argument

ConclusionInteraction Conclusion about the importance of interaction between endogenous and exogenous factors

Eg Blindman who had to take drugs to regulate circadian rhythms

TitleDiscuss theories of Dreaming

Controversial QuestionAre dreams meaningless or do they tell us something important about ourselves?

A01

Dreams are meaningful

Freud’s Wish-Fulfilment Theory

A02

Falsification

Nightmares

Solms (supporting)

Cartwright - Problem-solving as an alternative (WHY INCLUDE THIS HERE?)

A01

Dreams are meaningless

Hobson & McCarley – Activation-Synthesis Hypothesis

AO2

Braun

Solms (supporting and opposing)

Crick and Mitchison – Reverse Learning Theory

Conclusion

How far do dreams have significance for the individual dreamer?

Sleep DisordersCritically assess explanations of sleep disorders (25)

Introduction – Define sleep disorders using classifications. Define types including insomnia, narcolepsy and sleep walking.

controversial question - Somnipathy often appears to be caused by something else like depression, however insomnia often precedes disorders like depression so what causes what? Should we treat the depression or the insomnia?

AO1 Point - One explanation of Insomnia is Primary insomnia – give details including risk factors and possible causes.AO2 evidence Watson et al twins , also see storms and Nisbett attribution theory.AO2 evaluation/analysis e.g diathesis stress model

AO1 Point - Another explanation is that insomnia is caused by other medical or psychiatric disorders – secondary insomnia – explainAO2 evidence – shift in circadian rhythms in teenagers, shift work, depressionAO2 evaluation/analysis - Ohayon and Roth say insomnia precedes disorders like depression and so initial cause may be of little concern when it comes to treatment

AO1 Point - explanations of narcolepsy such as disorders of REM function, HLA or hypocretin AO2 evidence – REM - Vogel 1960, Hypocretin- Lin et al.AO2 evaluation/analysis - REM is the explanation convincing -? How convincing is the HLA argument here – it is found in non-narcoleptic people too! Is Hypocretin reduction a cause or a symptom of narcolepsy? The picture is still unclear of the cause

AO1 Point - explain sleepwalking explanations e.g incomplete arousal, geneticsAO2 evidence – genetic evidence from Broughton.AO2 evaluation - diathesis stress model and what this tells us about the evidence above, predisposing, precipitating and perpetuating factors

Conclusion – Summarise sleep disorders and possible causes coming to a conclusion about the controversial question using diathesis-stress model.

genetic and environmental influences essay plan web viewtitle . discus aetiologies of schizophrenia....

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