General Psychology General Psychology Chapter 1:Chapter 1:

Thinking Critically Thinking Critically With Psychological ScienceWith Psychological Science

Sarah RachSarah Rach

What is Psychology?What is Psychology?

Not easily definedNot easily defined Science of mental lifeScience of mental life Scientific study of Scientific study of

observable behaviorobservable behavior Scientific study of Scientific study of

behavior & mental behavior & mental processesprocesses ObservableObservable Subjective Subjective

inferred from behaviorinferred from behavior

Psychological Science is Psychological Science is BornBorn William WundtWilliam Wundt Mary Whiton Mary Whiton

CalkinsCalkins Philosophy & Philosophy &

BiologyBiology

Self-examination

Emotional states & mental processes

Inner sensations, images & feelings

Pioneering PsychologistsPioneering Psychologists

Charles DarwinCharles Darwin Ivan PavlovIvan Pavlov Sigmund FreudSigmund Freud Jean PiagetJean Piaget William JamesWilliam James John B. WatsonJohn B. Watson B.F. SkinnerB.F. Skinner Carl RogersCarl Rogers Abraham MaslowAbraham Maslow

Contemporary Contemporary PsychologyPsychology

Growing & GlobalizingGrowing & Globalizing Different perspectivesDifferent perspectives Different subfieldsDifferent subfields APA APA

4183 4183 160,000 160,000 WorldwideWorldwide

500,000 Psychologists500,000 Psychologists 130,000 belong to European Psychological 130,000 belong to European Psychological

OrganizationsOrganizations

The Big QuestionThe Big Question

Nature-Nurture???Nature-Nurture??? Genes or ExperienceGenes or Experience

TwinsTwins Nurture works on Nurture works on

what nature endowswhat nature endows

““Rationality-Irrationality”Rationality-Irrationality” Your total score for items 1, 4, 7, Your total score for items 1, 4, 7,

10, and 13 is:10, and 13 is:A.A. 0-50-5

B.B. 6-106-10

C.C. 11-1511-15

D.D. 16-2016-20

E.E. 21-2521-25

““Stability Versus Change”Stability Versus Change” Your total score for items 2, 5, 8, Your total score for items 2, 5, 8,

11, and 14 is:11, and 14 is:A.A. 0-50-5

B.B. 6-106-10

C.C. 11-1511-15

D.D. 16-2016-20

E.E. 21-2521-25

““Nature-Nurture”Nature-Nurture” Your total score for items 3, 6, 9, Your total score for items 3, 6, 9,

12, and 15 is:12, and 15 is:A.A. 0-50-5

B.B. 6-106-10

C.C. 11-1511-15

D.D. 16-2016-20

E.E. 21-2521-25

About the ScoresAbout the Scores

Scores suggest a respondent’s Scores suggest a respondent’s perspective on some of psychology’s perspective on some of psychology’s big issues.big issues.

Consider This…Consider This…

How do you think differences in intelligence, How do you think differences in intelligence, personality, and psychological disorders are personality, and psychological disorders are influenced by heredity and by environment?influenced by heredity and by environment?

How are humans alike (because of our How are humans alike (because of our common biology and evolutionary history) common biology and evolutionary history) and different (because of our differing and different (because of our differing environments)?environments)?

Are gender differences biologically Are gender differences biologically predisposed or socially constructed?predisposed or socially constructed?

3 Main Levels of Analysis3 Main Levels of Analysis

BiologicalBiological SocialSocial PsychologicalPsychological

Each is valuableEach is valuable By themselves, incompleteBy themselves, incomplete

Biopsychosocial Approach

Biopsychosocial Biopsychosocial ApproachApproach

Several Different Several Different PerspectivesPerspectives

To know more…To know more…

Basic ResearchBasic Research Build on psychology’s Build on psychology’s

knowledge baseknowledge base Applied ResearchApplied Research

Tackles practical problemsTackles practical problems

More than just More than just psychological science…psychological science…

Helping professions:Helping professions:

Counseling psychologistsCounseling psychologists CounselorsCounselors

Clinical psychologistsClinical psychologists Assess & treat mental, emotional, and behavior Assess & treat mental, emotional, and behavior

disordersdisorders PsychiatristsPsychiatrists

Medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs, Medical doctors licensed to prescribe drugs, can also provide psychotherapycan also provide psychotherapy

Help people cope with challenges (academic, vocational, personal)

Psychologists use the Psychologists use the science of behavior science of behavior

and mental and mental processes to better processes to better

understand why understand why people think, feel, people think, feel, and act as they do.and act as they do.

Intuition & Common Intuition & Common SenseSense

Hindsight BiasHindsight Bias Hindsight is 20/20Hindsight is 20/20 Finding that something has Finding that something has

happened makes it seem happened makes it seem inevitableinevitable

I-knew-it-all-along I-knew-it-all-along phenomenonphenomenon

OverconfidenceOverconfidence Both lead us to Both lead us to

overestimate our intuitionoverestimate our intuition

The Scientific AttitudeThe Scientific Attitude CuriosityCuriosity

Curious skepticismCurious skepticism What do you mean?What do you mean? How do you know?How do you know?

HumilityHumility An awareness of our own An awareness of our own

vulnerability to error and an vulnerability to error and an openness to surprises and new openness to surprises and new perspectivesperspectives

““To believe with To believe with certainty we must begin certainty we must begin by doubting.” by doubting.”

– – Polish proverbPolish proverb

Critical ThinkingCritical Thinking Smart thinking that examines Smart thinking that examines

assumptions, discerns hidden values, assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusionsconclusions

Thinking that does not blindly accept Thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusionsarguments and conclusions

The real purpose of the scientific methodThe real purpose of the scientific method is to make sure Nature is to make sure Nature

hasn’t misled you hasn’t misled you into into thinking you know something thinking you know something

you don’t actually know.”you don’t actually know.”-Robert M. Pirsig-Robert M. Pirsig

The Scientific MethodThe Scientific Method Theory – explains by:Theory – explains by:

1. organizing and linking observed facts 1. organizing and linking observed facts 2. implying hypotheses that offer testable 2. implying hypotheses that offer testable

predictions and, sometimes, practical predictions and, sometimes, practical applicationsapplications

Simplifies Simplifies HypothesisHypothesis

Testable predictionsTestable predictions Operational definitionsOperational definitions

A statement of the procedures (operations) used A statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variablesto define research variables

ReplicateReplicate Repeating the research study to see whether the Repeating the research study to see whether the

basic finding extends to other participants and basic finding extends to other participants and circumstancescircumstances

Types of ResearchTypes of Research

Descriptive ResearchDescriptive Research

Case StudyCase Study SurveySurvey Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

The Case StudyThe Case Study Among the oldest research methodsAmong the oldest research methods Studying one individual in great Studying one individual in great

depthdepth Can suggest hypotheses for further Can suggest hypotheses for further

studystudy Show us what can happenShow us what can happen Can suggest fruitful ideasCan suggest fruitful ideas An individual may be atypicalAn individual may be atypical Contradictory casesContradictory cases To discern general truths we must To discern general truths we must

answer questions with other methodsanswer questions with other methods

The SurveyThe Survey Looks at many cases in less depthLooks at many cases in less depth Asks people to report their behavior or opinionsAsks people to report their behavior or opinions Wording EffectsWording Effects

The phrasing of a questions may affect the responsesThe phrasing of a questions may affect the responses Random SamplingRandom Sampling

The best basis for generalizing is from a The best basis for generalizing is from a representative sample of casesrepresentative sample of cases

PopulationPopulation Total group you want to studyTotal group you want to study

Random SampleRandom Sample Every person in the group has an equal chance of Every person in the group has an equal chance of

participatingparticipating

Naturalistic ObservationNaturalistic Observation

Watching and Watching and recording the recording the behavior of behavior of organisms in their organisms in their natural natural environmentenvironment

Does not Does not explainexplain Does Does describedescribe

Correlational ResearchCorrelational Research Help us predictHelp us predict Does NOT prove causationDoes NOT prove causation Indicates a Indicates a possibility possibility of a cause-effect of a cause-effect

relationshiprelationship Correlate Correlate

When surveys and naturalistic observations reveal When surveys and naturalistic observations reveal that one trait or behavior accompanies anotherthat one trait or behavior accompanies another

Correlation coefficientCorrelation coefficient Statistical measure of the relationshipStatistical measure of the relationship

Positive correlation – between 0 and 1.00Positive correlation – between 0 and 1.00 Direct relationshipDirect relationship Two things increase together or decrease Two things increase together or decrease

togethertogether Negative correlation – between 1 and -1.00Negative correlation – between 1 and -1.00

Indicates an inverse relationshipIndicates an inverse relationship One thing increases, the other decreasesOne thing increases, the other decreases

Illusory CorrelationsIllusory Correlations

A perceived but nonexistent correlationA perceived but nonexistent correlation We believe there is a relationship between two We believe there is a relationship between two

tings, we are likely to notice and recall tings, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our beliefinstances that confirm our belief

When we notice random coincidences, we may When we notice random coincidences, we may forget that they are random & instead see forget that they are random & instead see them as correlatedthem as correlated

Getting cold and wet causes a coldGetting cold and wet causes a cold Sugar makes kids hyperSugar makes kids hyper Weather changes trigger arthritis painWeather changes trigger arthritis pain

Perceiving Order in Perceiving Order in Random EffectsRandom Effects

““rage for order” – we look for order even in rage for order” – we look for order even in random datarandom data

““The really unusual day would be one where nothing The really unusual day would be one where nothing unusual happens.” unusual happens.” -Diaconis-Diaconis

Experimental ResearchExperimental Research A research method in which an investigator A research method in which an investigator

manipulates one or more factors (independent manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on some behavior variables) to observe the effect on some behavior or mental process (the dependent variable). or mental process (the dependent variable).

By random assignment of participants, the By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant experimenter aims to control other relevant factorsfactors

Experiments enable a researcher to focus on the Experiments enable a researcher to focus on the possible effects of one or more factors by possible effects of one or more factors by 1. manipulating the factors of interest1. manipulating the factors of interest

2. holding constant (“controlling”) other factors2. holding constant (“controlling”) other factors

Evaluating TherapiesEvaluating Therapies Blind (uninformed)Blind (uninformed)

Participants are uninformed about what treatment, Participants are uninformed about what treatment, if any, they are receivingif any, they are receiving

Double-blind procedureDouble-blind procedure Neither the participant nor the research assistant Neither the participant nor the research assistant

collecting the data knows whether the participant’s collecting the data knows whether the participant’s group is receiving the treatmentgroup is receiving the treatment

Placebo effectPlacebo effect Pseudo treatment Pseudo treatment Thinking you are getting treatment can boost your Thinking you are getting treatment can boost your

spirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptomsspirits, relax your body, and relieve your symptoms Well documented in reducing pain, depression and Well documented in reducing pain, depression and

anxietyanxiety Experimental groupExperimental group

These participants receive the treatmentThese participants receive the treatment Control groupControl group

These participants do not get treatmentThese participants do not get treatment

Variables Variables – – anything that can anything that can varyvary Independent VariablesIndependent Variables

We can vary it independently of other factorsWe can vary it independently of other factors Dependent VariablesDependent Variables

Can vary depending on what takes place Can vary depending on what takes place during the experimentduring the experiment

FAQsFAQs

Can laboratory experiments illuminate Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?everyday life?

Does behavior depend on one’s culture Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?and gender?

Why do psychologists study animals, and Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?is it ethical to experiment on animals?

Is it ethical to experiment on people?Is it ethical to experiment on people? Is psychology free of value judgments?Is psychology free of value judgments? Is psychology potentially dangerous?Is psychology potentially dangerous?

Tips for Studying Tips for Studying PsychologyPsychology

Actively ProcessActively Process SQR3 – Our book uses this method!SQR3 – Our book uses this method!

Survey – notice headings & organizationSurvey – notice headings & organization Question – that you should answer as you readQuestion – that you should answer as you read Read – actively search for the answerRead – actively search for the answer Rehearse – in your own words, what you read – Rehearse – in your own words, what you read –

do what you can recall, glance back over what do what you can recall, glance back over what you can’tyou can’t

Review – read over notes, organization, entire Review – read over notes, organization, entire chapterchapter

Tips for Studying Tips for Studying PsychologyPsychology Distribute your study timeDistribute your study time

Spaced practice promotes retentionSpaced practice promotes retention Learn to think criticallyLearn to think critically

Note the assumptions, evaluate the evidence, assess Note the assumptions, evaluate the evidence, assess conclusions (and alternatives)conclusions (and alternatives)

Listen activelyListen actively Then write down main ideas and sub ideas – ask Then write down main ideas and sub ideas – ask

questionsquestions OverlearnOverlearn

Devote extra time to testing yourself & reviewing Devote extra time to testing yourself & reviewing what you knowwhat you know

Be a smart test-takerBe a smart test-taker Essay first, jot ideas & organization down, then Essay first, jot ideas & organization down, then

multiple-choice, rethink your answer, start writing, multiple-choice, rethink your answer, start writing, proofreadproofread

Multiple choice – try to answer the question as if it Multiple choice – try to answer the question as if it were fill in the blank, then find the answer that best were fill in the blank, then find the answer that best matches your first answermatches your first answer