general geoastro ii: astronomy
DESCRIPTION
General GeoAstro II: Astronomy. The name of the game : slides will NOT be put on the web attend the lectures, take notes ! suggested reading: “Universe” (Kaufmann & Freedman) no laptops, no mobiles during class classes are not complicated, but please repeat them regularly - PowerPoint PPT PresentationTRANSCRIPT
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General GeoAstro II: Astronomy
The name of the gameThe name of the game::
slides slides willwill NOT NOT be putbe put on the web on the web attend the lectures, take notes !attend the lectures, take notes !
suggested suggested reading: “Universe”reading: “Universe” (Kaufmann & Freedman) (Kaufmann & Freedman)
no laptops, no mobiles no laptops, no mobiles during classduring class
classes are not complicated, but please classes are not complicated, but please repeatrepeat them them regularly regularly
onlyonly few formulae few formulae, but you have to know them, but you have to know them
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General GeoAstro II: Astronomy
StarsStars
- Nature of starsNature of stars- Birth of starsBirth of stars- Stellar evolutionStellar evolution- Endpoints:Endpoints: White Dwarfs White Dwarfs
Neutron Stars Neutron Stars Black HolesBlack Holes
GalaxiesGalaxies
- Milky Way- Milky Way
- Other galaxies- Other galaxies
- Supermassive - Supermassive
black holesblack holes
CosmologyCosmology
- Cosm. Expansion- Cosm. Expansion
- Big Bang- Big Bang- Tests of our Tests of our
theoriestheories
- New - New
developmentsdevelopments
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Distance to the stars
From brightness? No!From brightness? No! Parallax-experiment …Parallax-experiment … Stellar Stellar parallax …parallax …
d= 1/pd= 1/p
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Distance to the stars
DefineDefine: “star has a distance of 1 parsec (pc) if its: “star has a distance of 1 parsec (pc) if its parallax is one arcsecond”parallax is one arcsecond”
1 pc = 3.26 light years1 pc = 3.26 light years
Brightest stars on the night sky: too far to measure parallaxBrightest stars on the night sky: too far to measure parallax
Blurring of atmosphereBlurring of atmosphere: parallaxes < 0.01 arcsec extremely : parallaxes < 0.01 arcsec extremely hard to measure hard to measure
reliable out toreliable out to d= 1/p = d= 1/p = 100 pc100 pc
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Distance to the stars
Hipparcos: Hipparcos: High Precision Parallax High Precision Parallax Collecting Satellite Collecting Satellite (Hipparchus: greek astronomer)(Hipparchus: greek astronomer)
Parallaxes still importantParallaxes still important to gauge other to gauge other distance indicatorsdistance indicators
Stellar motionsStellar motions …. ….
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Brightness and Distance (“Inverse square law”)
Distance and brightness Distance and brightness luminosityluminosity
Stars have different masses Stars have different masses
different different luminositiesluminosities
““luminosityluminosity= energy/time” [J/s]= energy/time” [J/s]
““brightnessbrightness= energy/(time surface area)” [J/s m= energy/(time surface area)” [J/s m22]]
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Brightness and distanceBrightness and distance
•bb= L/(4 = L/(4 dd22))
•““double the distance double the distance brightness reduced by a factor 4”brightness reduced by a factor 4”
• brightness brightness ….….
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luminosities
huge variety huge variety of stellar luminosities:of stellar luminosities:
LLmaxmax =10 =101010 L Lmin min
(10(1010 10 = number of all people that = number of all people that everever lived on earth) lived on earth)
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The Magnitude system System toSystem to classify stellar brightness classify stellar brightness Very old: Hipparchus (200 B.C.):Very old: Hipparchus (200 B.C.):
“ “ brightest stars: first magnitudebrightest stars: first magnitude
half as bright: second magnitudehalf as bright: second magnitude
…… …… sixth magnitude”sixth magnitude”
“ “apparent magnitudes”apparent magnitudes”
Attention: Attention: “scale backwards”“scale backwards”
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Magnitude system
1919thth century astronomers century astronomers: : “first magnitude stars “first magnitude stars shall be 100 times brighter than sixth magnitude shall be 100 times brighter than sixth magnitude stars”stars”
differencedifference of 5 mag corresponds to a of 5 mag corresponds to a factorfactor of 100 in brightness, of 100 in brightness, i.e. xi.e. x5 5 = 100 x= 2.52= 100 x= 2.52
“ “half as bright half as bright 11//2.522.52 as bright” as bright”
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Magnitude system
Scales backwards:Scales backwards: “the brighter the more “the brighter the more
negative”negative” Examples:Examples:
Venus: m= - 4Venus: m= - 4 Full moon: m= - 13Full moon: m= - 13 Our sun: m= - 26.8Our sun: m= - 26.8
Relation brightness – magnitudes...Relation brightness – magnitudes...
mm22-m-m11= 2.5 log(b= 2.5 log(b11/b/b22))
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Absolute magnitudes
Definition: Definition: ”absolute mag.= relative mag. as seen ”absolute mag.= relative mag. as seen from a distance of 10 pc”from a distance of 10 pc”
Distance modulus Distance modulus (m-M)…(m-M)…
m - M= 5 log(dm - M= 5 log(dpcpc) – 5) – 5
ddpcpc: distance in pc: distance in pc
m : apparent magnitudem : apparent magnitude
M : absolute M : absolute magnitudemagnitude
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Stellar colours
Stellar colours Stellar colours depend depend
on theon the surface temperature ! surface temperature !
Wien’s law: Wien’s law: maxmax T = const T = const … …
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Spectra of stars How do we know the same laws of physics hold in How do we know the same laws of physics hold in
the observable universe?the observable universe?
Sun:Sun: absorption line spectrum absorption line spectrum (=continuum + dark lines)(=continuum + dark lines)
Spectral classificationSpectral classification: O B A F G K M : O B A F G K M
““Oh be a fine girl/guy kiss me…”Oh be a fine girl/guy kiss me…”
““hot”hot” T Tsurf surf ~ 25 000 K~ 25 000 K
SunSun
““cool”cool” T Tsurf surf ~ 3000 K~ 3000 K
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Spectra of Stars
Advent of quantum mechanics:Advent of quantum mechanics: Interpretation of absorption lines in terms of atomic energy levelsInterpretation of absorption lines in terms of atomic energy levels
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Stellar sizes impossible impossible to measureto measure with telescopes with telescopes measure measure i) brightnessi) brightness
ii) distance ii) distance (parallax)(parallax)
iii) surface iii) surface temperaturetemperature (spectral (spectral type)type)
..
..
luminosityluminosity
RadiusRadius
Stefan Boltzmann lawStefan Boltzmann law
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Hertzsprung-Russel diagram IdeaIdea: : plot luminosity vs. temperature plot luminosity vs. temperature (spectral type)(spectral type)
information about radiusinformation about radiusclassification of starsclassification of stars
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Hertzpsrung-Russel diagram
not random, just anot random, just a few classes few classes most stars onmost stars on “Main Sequence” “Main Sequence” (hydrogen burning)(hydrogen burning)
White dwarfs: White dwarfs: same temperature, but lowersame temperature, but lower luminosity luminosity small radiussmall radius RRWDWD ~ 10 000 km ~ R ~ 10 000 km ~ Rearthearth
Giants: Giants: same temperature, but higher same temperature, but higher luminosity luminosity large radiuslarge radius RRgiantgiant = 10 - 100 R = 10 - 100 Rsun sun
TTsurf surf = 3000 – 6000 K= 3000 – 6000 K
Supergiants: Supergiants: up to 1000up to 1000 RRsun sun
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Stellar Masses needneed binary stars ! binary stars ! (~50% of all stars in binaries)(~50% of all stars in binaries)
““double stars”double stars” either either i) “optical double stars”i) “optical double stars”
ii) true binary starii) true binary star How to get masses???How to get masses???
Kepler IIIKepler III: : GGMM11+M+M22)/a)/a33
M1: mass star 1M1: mass star 1 M2: mass star 2M2: mass star 2
a : separation between starsa : separation between stars G : gravitational constantG : gravitational constant = 2 = 2 /T, T: orbital period/T, T: orbital period
measure a andmeasure a and T T total system masstotal system mass
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Stellar masses
individualindividual masses?masses?
i) find i) find center of masscenter of mass (CM) (CM)
ii) distances from CM to stars, ii) distances from CM to stars, aa11 & a & a22
aa11= (M= (M22/M/Mtottot) a) a
aa22= (M= (M11/M/Mtottot) a) a
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Mass-luminosity relation Observation: Observation:
L ML M3.53.5 ….. …..
““proportional to”proportional to”
Stellar Stellar
lifetimelifetime
“ “fat blokes die young”fat blokes die young”
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The Birth of Stars
““We see a region of space extending from We see a region of space extending from the centre of the sun to unknown distances the centre of the sun to unknown distances contained between two planes not far from contained between two planes not far from each other…” each other…” ((Immanuel KantImmanuel Kant: “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und : “Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und
Theorie des Himmels”) Theorie des Himmels”)
Nuclear burning in the sunNuclear burning in the sun (“hydrogen to helium”): (“hydrogen to helium”):
consumes 6 10consumes 6 1011 11 kg/s of hydrogenkg/s of hydrogen
no infinite fuel resources: finite life timeno infinite fuel resources: finite life time
stellar evolution stellar evolution (“birth, evolution, death”)(“birth, evolution, death”)
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Birth of Stars
““snapshot problematic”snapshot problematic”
stellar >> human lifetimestellar >> human lifetime
Derive evolutionary sequence from a set of Derive evolutionary sequence from a set of “snapshots”“snapshots”
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Stellar Birth Stars are born in the Stars are born in the
gravitational collapse of gravitational collapse of
giant molecular cloudsgiant molecular clouds
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Stellar Birth
computer-simulationcomputer-simulation of of
the collapse of a giant the collapse of a giant
molecular cloud by molecular cloud by
Mathew BateMathew Bate
very dynamic processvery dynamic process stars form in groupsstars form in groups many binary/multiplemany binary/multiple
star systems formstar systems form observation:observation:
~ 50% of stars are in~ 50% of stars are in
binary systemsbinary systems
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Stellar birth
Where does star formation take place?Where does star formation take place?
……in thein the spiral arms spiral arms of galaxies…of galaxies…
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Interstellar Medium (ISM) ISM providesISM provides matter of which stars are matter of which stars are
mademade
ISM consists of aISM consists of a combination of gas and combination of gas and dustdust
Interstellar clouds Interstellar clouds are (for historical are (for historical reasons)reasons) called nebulae called nebulae
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Interstellar medium
Three kinds of nebulae:Three kinds of nebulae:
Emission N. Reflection N. Dark N.Emission N. Reflection N. Dark N.
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Interstellar medium
Emission nebulaeEmission nebulae:: temperaturestemperatures: ~ 10 000 K: ~ 10 000 K massesmasses: ~ 10 – 10 000 M: ~ 10 – 10 000 Msolarsolar densitydensity: n ~ few 1000 atoms/cm: n ~ few 1000 atoms/cm33
((compare with: “air” ~ 10compare with: “air” ~ 101919 atoms/cm atoms/cm33
ISM ~ 1 atom/cmISM ~ 1 atom/cm33))
found found near hot, young starsnear hot, young stars (O and B (O and B stars with Tstars with Tsurfsurf > 10 000K) > 10 000K)
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Interstellar medium: emission nebulae
InterstellarInterstellar hydrogen hydrogen found infound in two forms” two forms” ““HI-region”: HI-region”: neutral hydrogenneutral hydrogen ““HII-region”: HII-region”: ionized hydrogen ionized hydrogen (i.e. protons(i.e. protons
and electrons)and electrons)
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Interstellar medium: emission nebulae
Emission mechanism Emission mechanism HII-region:HII-region:
recombinationrecombination (proton captures electron, emits light (proton captures electron, emits light
as it cascades down)as it cascades down)
most important transition most important transition
from n=3 to n=2 from n=3 to n=2
(“Ha-photons”)(“Ha-photons”)
reddish colourreddish colour
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•Reflection nebulae
Lots of fine-grainedLots of fine-grained dust dust, low density, low density
reflects short-wavelengths morereflects short-wavelengths more
efficiently than long onesefficiently than long ones
blue colourblue colour
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•Dark Nebulae
High density of dust grainsHigh density of dust grains
block view to the starsblock view to the stars TemperatureTemperature: 10 – 100 K hydrogen : 10 – 100 K hydrogen
moleculesmolecules DensityDensity: n ~: n ~ 10 1044 – 10 – 109 9 atoms/cmatoms/cm33
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Stellar Evolution Protostars:Protostars:
Gravity has to overcome gas pressureGravity has to overcome gas pressure dense & cold regions preferreddense & cold regions preferred dark nebulaedark nebulae (“stellar nurseries”) (“stellar nurseries”)
“ “standard cosmic standard cosmic abundancesabundances”:”:75 % 75 % HHydrogenydrogen24 % 24 % HeHeliumlium 1 % 1 % heavierheavier elements elements
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Protostars
youngyoung protostars more luminous protostars more luminous than later on the than later on the main sequence (gravitational energy)main sequence (gravitational energy)
Decrease of luminosity at almost Decrease of luminosity at almost constant surface constant surface temperaturetemperature,,
but central temperaturebut central temperature
risesrises
Evolutionary Evolutionary path inpath in
HR-diagramHR-diagram……
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Protostars
At TAt Tcentralcentral ~ 10 ~ 1066 K: thermonuclear reactions K: thermonuclear reactions
(H He)(H He) set in set in produce energy/produce energy/pressurepressure stop contractionstop contraction
hydrostatic equilibrium+nuclear burninghydrostatic equilibrium+nuclear burning = Main sequence (MS) = Main sequence (MS) reachedreached
Exact Exact position on MS determined byposition on MS determined by stellar stellar mass…mass…
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Main sequence masses
Extreme cases:Extreme cases: Mass too small Mass too small (<0.08 M(<0.08 Msolsol))
no ignition of hydrogen, no main sequence stageno ignition of hydrogen, no main sequence stage
Brown DwarfBrown Dwarf Mass too big Mass too big (>100 M(>100 Msolsol))
violent winds violent winds
disruption of the stardisruption of the star
Main sequence: 0.08 < MMain sequence: 0.08 < MMS MS < 100 M< 100 Msolsol
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Young stellar objects (YSOs): …youngsters in revolution…
Accretion disks: Accretion disks:
Jets:Jets:
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Young stellar objects
examples of examples of accretion disk – jet connectionaccretion disk – jet connection
interaction of these outflows with surrounding interaction of these outflows with surrounding matter:matter: Herbig-Haro objects Herbig-Haro objects
Jets Jets are usuallyare usually short-lived: 10 short-lived: 1044 years, years,
but canbut can eject large masses eject large masses (~1 M(~1 Msolsol) during this ) during this timetime
many young stars lose mass viamany young stars lose mass via strong winds: strong winds: mass lossmass loss 10 10-7-7 M Msolsol/year/year
(our sun: (our sun: 1010-14 -14 MMsolsol/year)/year)
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Young stellar objects
Young stars like to hang aroundYoung stars like to hang around in groups in groups
(see previous movie)(see previous movie)
““open clusters”open clusters”
fastest stars may leavefastest stars may leave
““evaporation” of open clustersevaporation” of open clusters
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Stellar evolution: overview
once formed,once formed, evolution evolution of starsof stars depends on depends on theirtheir masses: masses:
M < 0.08 MM < 0.08 Msolsol:: no no nuclear nuclear fusionfusion
“ “Brown dwarfs”Brown dwarfs”
0.08 < M < 8 M0.08 < M < 8 Msolsol: i) : i) Main sequenceMain sequence
ii) ii) GiantGiant phase phase iii) iii) White DwarfWhite Dwarf + + planetary nebula planetary nebula
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Stellar evolution: overview
8 < M < 25 M8 < M < 25 Msolsol: : i) Main Sequencei) Main Sequence
ii) Giantii) Giant phasephase iii) iii) supernovasupernova explosionexplosion
neutron starneutron star
M > M > 25 M25 Msolsol: : i) Main Sequencei) Main Sequence
ii) Giantii) Giant phasephase iii) iii) supernovasupernova explosionexplosion
black holeblack hole
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Evolution of a M < 8 Msol star ““our sun”:our sun”: -- MS-starMS-star, H-burning in core, H-burning in core
- - Red GiantRed Giant: H in core : H in core exhausted, H-burning in exhausted, H-burning in shellshell
- - Red GiantRed Giant:He ignites in:He ignites in stellar core, radius ~ 1 AUstellar core, radius ~ 1 AU earth swallowedearth swallowed (~ 5 10(~ 5 109 9 years from now)years from now)
- - final stagesfinal stages: hot, cooling : hot, cooling
Carbon-Oxygen core,Carbon-Oxygen core, eject envelopeeject envelope
White dwarf + “planetary nebula”White dwarf + “planetary nebula”
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8 Msol -star
Planetary nebulaePlanetary nebulae::
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8 Msol -star
Evolution in the HR-diagram:Evolution in the HR-diagram:
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Testing stellar evolution:globular clusters Globular clustersGlobular clusters
~~101055 stars stars
in in halohalo of galaxy of galaxy
OldOld: about same age as: about same age as galaxygalaxy
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Globular clusters and HR-diagrams
Basic ideaBasic idea: : - - heaviest starsheaviest stars have already have already evolvedevolved away from away from
main sequencemain sequence
- - lightest stars stilllightest stars still on on main sequencemain sequence
age of age of clustercluster
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Evolution for M > 8 Msol
Stages:Stages:
• Main sequenceMain sequence
• Giant stageGiant stage
• Final stage:Final stage:
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Evolution for M > 8 Msol
No more No more nuclear nuclear fuel fuel (beyond iron)(beyond iron)
“ “core”-collapsecore”-collapse
supernova explosionsupernova explosion (type II) (type II)
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Evolution for M > 8 Msol
Supernova explosionSupernova explosion results in results in
eithereither
i) a i) a neutron starneutron star (M < 25 M (M < 25 Msolsol))
oror
ii) a ii) a black holeblack hole (M > 25 M (M > 25 Msolsol))
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End stages of stellar evolution: White dwarfs: White dwarfs:
Left behind in Left behind in center of planetary nebulacenter of planetary nebula
NoNo more nuclear more nuclear burningburning just coolsjust cools until it fades until it fades awayaway
MassesMasses: 0.2 – : 0.2 – 1.4 M1.4 Msolsol
above 1.4 Mabove 1.4 Msol sol collapse to collapse to neutron neutron starstar
DensitiesDensities: ~ 10: ~ 1066 – 10 – 108 8 g/cmg/cm3 3 (earth: ~ 5 g/cm(earth: ~ 5 g/cm33))
EquilibriumEquilibrium between between gravitygravity and and degeneracy pressuredegeneracy pressure
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White dwarfs
Degeneracy pressure:Degeneracy pressure: purely purely quantum mechanical quantum mechanical effect:effect:
Electrons are “Fermions” (spin= ½)Electrons are “Fermions” (spin= ½)
don’t want to be in the same statedon’t want to be in the same state
(Pauli-exclusion principle)(Pauli-exclusion principle)
resist compression even at zero temperatureresist compression even at zero temperature
• all all mass from neutrons and protonsmass from neutrons and protons
•all all pressure from electronspressure from electrons
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white dwarfs
Mass-Radius relationship: Mass-Radius relationship: R MR M -1/3-1/3
““More massive More massive WDs areWDs are smaller” smaller”
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End Stages of stellar evolution: Neutron Stars
Masses: Masses: ~1.4 M~1.4 Msolsol
Radius: Radius: ~10 - 15 km~10 - 15 km
Density: Density: fewfew 101014 14 g/cmg/cm33
observed neutron star mass distributionobserved neutron star mass distribution
Magnetic field: Magnetic field: 101012 12 - 10- 101515 G G (earth: ~ 0.5 G)(earth: ~ 0.5 G)
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Neutron stars
hard to detect:hard to detect:
new-born neutronnew-born neutron
star in Supernova star in Supernova
remnantremnant
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Neutron Stars
Internal structure:Internal structure:
mostly neutronsmostly neutrons (~90% neutrons, ~10% protons)(~90% neutrons, ~10% protons)
crust: iron-likecrust: iron-like
nucleinuclei
center: “exotic”center: “exotic”
particles?particles?
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End Stages of stellar evolution:
Black holes
neutron star hasneutron star has limiting mass, limiting mass, above that above that mass: mass: collapse to a black holecollapse to a black hole
not even light can escape not even light can escape from a black from a black hole…hole…
HowHow can a black hole be can a black hole be detected?detected?
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Black holes
Black hole “accretes”Black hole “accretes” mass from mass from
companion starcompanion star
x-ray binaryx-ray binary
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Galaxies:Our Galaxy: the Milky Way
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.
The Structure of the Milky Way
Galactic Plane
Galactic Center
The actual structure of our Milky Way is very hard to determine because:
1) We are inside2) Distance measurements are difficult3) Our view towards the center is
obscured by gas and dust
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Structure of the Milky Way (MW) So what can we do toSo what can we do to explore the MW ?? explore the MW ??
a) space craft? a) space craft? No No
b)b) select select bright objects bright objects that can be seen that can be seen throughout the MWthroughout the MW
c)c) observe in observe in different wavelengthsdifferent wavelengths
d) trace velocities d) trace velocities of all visible objectsof all visible objects
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Structure of Milky Way: a) space craft
a)a) How long would it take to get How long would it take to get good good “outside view” “outside view” of our Galaxyof our Galaxy
(travel at speed of light)(travel at speed of light)??
i) 2 monthsi) 2 months
ii) 1 yearii) 1 year
iii) 500 yearsiii) 500 years
iv) 30 000 yearsiv) 30 000 years
v) 5 million years ??v) 5 million years ??
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Answer:iv) 30,000 years
The Sun is about
8.5 kpc = 8,500 pc
≈ 30,000 light years
from the Galactic center.
Sun
Galactic Center
=> No spacecraft will ever travel a significant distance through or even out of the Milky Way
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Structure of Milky Way: b) bright objects
b) b) What areWhat are bright objects? bright objects?
A A typetype stars ? stars ?
Brown dwarfs ?Brown dwarfs ?
White dwarfs ?White dwarfs ?
O O typetype stars ? stars ?
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Structure of Milky Way: b) bright objects
Answer: O- and B-stars ! Answer: O- and B-stars !
Remember: O and B stars are the most massive, most luminous stars
Look for very young
clusters or associations:
O/B- Associations !
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Structure of Milky Way: b) bright objects optically bright objects
O/B Associations
Distances to O/B Associations determined using Cepheid Variables
O/B Associations trace out 3 spiral arms near the Sun.
Sagittarius arm
Orion-Cygnus arm
Perseus arm
Sun
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Structure of Milky Way: b) bright objects
Globular Clusters
• Dense clusters of 50,000 – a million stars
• Approx. 200 globular clusters in our Milky Way
• Old (11 billion years), lower-main-sequence stars
Globular Cluster M80
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Structure of Milky Way: b) bright objects
Globular cluster distribution:Globular cluster distribution:
we are not in the centre of our Galaxywe are not in the centre of our Galaxy
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Structure of Milky Way: c) different wavelengths
Galaxy (optical):Galaxy (optical):
absorption by gas and dustabsorption by gas and dust
Galaxy (near-infrared):Galaxy (near-infrared):
emission from warm dustemission from warm dust
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Structure of Milky Way: c) different wavelengths
Galaxy moreGalaxy more transparent at longer transparent at longer (than optical)(than optical) wavelengths….wavelengths….
most transitions in hydrogen atom at most transitions in hydrogen atom at “short” wavelengths,“short” wavelengths, but … but …
coupling magnetic moments electron and coupling magnetic moments electron and proton in neutral hydrogen hydrogen:proton in neutral hydrogen hydrogen:
21cm radio emission21cm radio emission
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Structure of the Milky Way
Neutral hydrogen createsNeutral hydrogen creates
radio emission radio emission ((= 21cm):= 21cm):
coupling between magnetic coupling between magnetic
moments of proton and electron…moments of proton and electron…
“ “21-cm radiation” can be 21-cm radiation” can be
used to trace the used to trace the
distribution of neutral distribution of neutral
hydrogen in the Galaxyhydrogen in the Galaxy
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Structure of the Milky Way
Animation
75,000 light years
Disk
Nuclear Bulge
HaloSun
Globular Clusters
Open Clusters, O/B Associations
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Structure of Milky Way
Stellar Populations:Stellar Populations:
……heavier elements are formed in variousheavier elements are formed in various
burning stages of stars…burning stages of stars…
QuestionQuestion::
1) Old stars should be more metal-rich…
2) Young stars should be more metal-rich…
3) They should be the same…
how does the metal content of young and old stars differ?
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Structure of Milky Way
Of course:Of course: young stars are “metal”-rich young stars are “metal”-rich
Stellar PopulationsStellar Populations
Population I: Young stars: metal rich; located in spiral arms and disk
Population II: Old stars: metal poor; located in the halo (globular clusters) and nuclear bulge
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Dynamics in the Milky Way (I)
Population I (disk stars)
Population II (halo stars)
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Dynamics in the Milky Way (II)
Differential Rotation
Sun orbits around Galactic center with 220 km/s
1 orbit takes approx. 240 million years.
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Dynamics in the Milky Way
QuestionQuestion: : What determines the velocity with which the What determines the velocity with which the sun is moving around the Galactic centre?sun is moving around the Galactic centre?
MassMass of the of the sunsun??
Rotational period of the Rotational period of the spiral arm patternspiral arm pattern??
Mass insideMass inside the orbit of the sun ? the orbit of the sun ?
Angular momentumAngular momentum of the of the Milky WayMilky Way ? ?
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Dynamics in the Milky Way
Answer:Answer: Newton’s Laws tell us that it is the Newton’s Laws tell us that it is the mass inside the radius mass inside the radius
of the sunof the sun that determines its velocity that determines its velocity
The more mass there is inside the orbit, the faster the sun has to orbit around the Galactic center (argument similar to Kepler’s III. law)…
V= 220 km/s Minside ~ 1011Msol
R= 8.5 kpc
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Dynamics in the Milky Way
Forms of rotationForms of rotation
rigid rotation
differential
rotation…
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Dynamics of the Milky Way
Use theUse the 21-cm-radiation of neutral hydrogen 21-cm-radiation of neutral hydrogen to to
determine thedetermine the rotation curve rotation curve (“velocity as a function of radius”)(“velocity as a function of radius”) of our Galaxyof our Galaxy
observedobserved
expected expected (if(if
mass concentratedmass concentrated
in centre)in centre)
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Dynamics in the Milky Way
explanation explanation for the observed rotation curve:for the observed rotation curve:
There must be more mass than is visible !!!There must be more mass than is visible !!!
“ “ DARK MATTER “ (DM)DARK MATTER “ (DM)
- 90 % - 90 % of the matter in the of the matter in the
Galaxy isGalaxy is “invisible” “invisible”
- - only only 10 % 10 % inin stars stars
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Dynamics in the Galaxy
What could dark matter be made of?What could dark matter be made of?
i) dim stars, massive planets, black holes?i) dim stars, massive planets, black holes? (= (= mamassive ssive ccompact ompact hhalo alo oobjects= bjects= MACHOSMACHOS))
experiments: experiments: only small fractiononly small fraction of of DM are MACHOSDM are MACHOS
ii) A new kind of particle ?ii) A new kind of particle ? (=(=wweakly eakly iinteracting nteracting mmassive assive pparticle= article= WIMPWIMP))
maybe, but maybe, but none none such particle has such particle has been been detecteddetected yet… yet…
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The centre of our Galaxy
Wide-angle optical view of the GC region
Galactic center
Our view (in visible light) towards the Galactic center (GC) is heavily obscured by gas and dust:
Only 1 out of 1012 optical photons makes its way from the GC towards Earth!
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Radio View of the Galactic Center Many supernova remnants;
shells and filaments
Sgr A
Arc
Sgr A*: The Center of our Galaxy
Galactic Center contains a supermassive supermassive black holeblack hole of approx. 2.6 million solar masses2.6 million solar masses.
Sgr A
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Centre of our Galaxy
motion of stars motion of stars close to Galactic centreclose to Galactic centre
(observed !)(observed !)
everything consistent witheverything consistent with a black a black
hole of 2.6 million solar masseshole of 2.6 million solar masses
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Other Galaxies types galaxiestypes galaxies
spiral galaxies
barred spiral
galaxies
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Other Galaxies
elliptical elliptical
galaxiesgalaxies
irregular irregular
galaxiesgalaxies
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Other galaxies
...some more beautiful galaxies…...some more beautiful galaxies…
Sombrero galaxy Blackeye galaxy Andromeda galaxySombrero galaxy Blackeye galaxy Andromeda galaxy
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Other galaxies
Stars do not collide !Stars do not collide !
But galaxies do…But galaxies do…
(observations !)(observations !)
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Other Galaxies
galaxy mergersgalaxy mergers
(computer simulation !)(computer simulation !)
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Other galaxies
Do other galaxies also contain supermassive Do other galaxies also contain supermassive black holes ? black holes ? YES !YES !
Similar to accretion Similar to accretion
disk-jet connection in disk-jet connection in
young stellar objectsyoung stellar objects
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Cosmology
Ancient Mythology and Modern Ancient Mythology and Modern Cosmology:Cosmology:
Is there a Difference ?Is there a Difference ?
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Creation Stories I:The Christian/Jewish View
Genesis: Genesis: In the beginning God created the heavens In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth. And the earth was waste and void; and the earth. And the earth was waste and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep: …and darkness was upon the face of the deep: …
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Creation Stories II:Greco-Roman MythologyHesiod: Hesiod: In the beginning there was only “chaos” [the infinite In the beginning there was only “chaos” [the infinite
emptiness]. Then out of the void appeared Erebus, the emptiness]. Then out of the void appeared Erebus, the unknowable place where death dwells, and Night. All else unknowable place where death dwells, and Night. All else was empty, silent, endless, darkness. Then somehow Love was empty, silent, endless, darkness. Then somehow Love was born bringing a start of order. From Love came Light was born bringing a start of order. From Love came Light and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea, the earth and Day. Once there was Light and Day, Gaea, the earth appeared. appeared.
Then Erebus slept with Night, who gave birth to Ether, the Then Erebus slept with Night, who gave birth to Ether, the heavenly light, ...heavenly light, ...
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Common Themes and Concepts:
AnthropomorphismAnthropomorphism Action of a supreme craftsmanAction of a supreme craftsman Generation from a seedling/eggGeneration from a seedling/egg Imposition of order over “chaos”Imposition of order over “chaos” Life cycle dominates over eternal/unchanging: Life cycle dominates over eternal/unchanging:
there is a beginningthere is a beginning Hybrid schemes: act of creation, but supreme Hybrid schemes: act of creation, but supreme
being/chaos existed foreverbeing/chaos existed forever AnthropocentrismAnthropocentrism
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Scientific “Creation” Story 2005:
In the beginning there was neither space nor time In the beginning there was neither space nor time aswe know them, but a shifting foam of strings aswe know them, but a shifting foam of strings and loops, as small as anything can be. Within the and loops, as small as anything can be. Within the foam, all of space, time and energy mingled in a foam, all of space, time and energy mingled in a grand unification. But the foam expanded and grand unification. But the foam expanded and cooled. And then there was gravity, and space and cooled. And then there was gravity, and space and time, and a universe formed. …time, and a universe formed. …
Is there a difference ?Is there a difference ?
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The Scientific Method
specific instancesspecific instances
observationsobservations
inductioninduction
general principlegeneral principle
deductiondeduction
predictionprediction
individual eventsindividual events
revisionrevision
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History:
Mythology vs the scientific methodMythology vs the scientific method Cosmos = Earth Cosmos = Earth solar system solar system Milky Way Milky Way
Hubble sphereHubble sphere
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Edwin Hubble (1889-1953)Four major accomplishments Four major accomplishments in extragalactic astronomyin extragalactic astronomy The establishment of the The establishment of the
Hubble classification Hubble classification scheme of galaxiesscheme of galaxies
The convincing proof that galaxies are island The convincing proof that galaxies are island “universes”“universes”
The distribution of galaxies in spaceThe distribution of galaxies in space The discovery thatThe discovery that the universe is expanding the universe is expanding
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Doppler effect (for light)
The light of an approaching source is shifted to the The light of an approaching source is shifted to the blue, the light of a receding source is shifted to the blue, the light of a receding source is shifted to the redred
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Doppler effect
red shiftred shiftblue shiftblue shift
The light of an approaching source is shifted to the blue, The light of an approaching source is shifted to the blue,
the light of a receding source is shifted to the red.the light of a receding source is shifted to the red.
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Doppler effect
redshift:redshift:
zz=0: not moving=0: not moving
zz=2: =2: vv=0.8=0.8cc
zz==: : vv==cc
cv
cvz
/1
/11
cv
cvz
/1
/11
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The redshift-distance relation
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Key results Most Most galaxiesgalaxies are moving are moving away from usaway from us The recession The recession speed vspeed v is is larger for more distant larger for more distant
galaxiesgalaxies. The relation between recess velocity. The relation between recess velocity vv and distanceand distance dd fulfills a linear relation: fulfills a linear relation: v = Hv = H0 0 d d
Hubble’s measurement of the constantHubble’s measurement of the constant HH00::
HH00 = 500 km/s/Mpc = 500 km/s/Mpc
today’s best fit value of the constant:today’s best fit value of the constant: HH00 = 71 km/s/Mpc = 71 km/s/Mpc (WMAP)(WMAP)
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Question:If all galaxies are moving away from us,If all galaxies are moving away from us,
does this imply that we are at the center?does this imply that we are at the center?
Answer:Not necessarily, it also can indicate that the Not necessarily, it also can indicate that the universe is expanding and that we are at no universe is expanding and that we are at no special place.special place.
Einstein’s General Relativity +Einstein’s General Relativity +observation of expanding Universe:observation of expanding Universe:
Universe started from a point:Universe started from a point:
““Big Bang Model”Big Bang Model”
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Example: static universe
R(t)
t
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Example: expanding at a constant rate
R(t)
t
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: expansion
is
slowing down
R(t)
t
Example: expansion slowing downExample: expansion slowing down
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Example: expansion is accelerating
R(t)
t
Example: expansion accelerating Example: expansion accelerating
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R(t)
t
Example: Collapsing UniverseExample: Collapsing Universe
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Cosmological redshift
While a photon travels from a distance While a photon travels from a distance source to an observer on Earth, the source to an observer on Earth, the Universe expands in size fromUniverse expands in size from RRthenthen toto RRnownow..
Not only the Universe itself expands, but Not only the Universe itself expands, but also the wavelength of the photonalso the wavelength of the photon ..
emittedthen
nowreceived R
R emittedthen
nowreceived R
R
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Cosmological redshift
General definition of redshift:General definition of redshift:
for cosmological redshift: for cosmological redshift:
emitted
emittedreceivedz
emitted
emittedreceivedz
then
now
emitted
received
R
Rz
1then
now
emitted
received
R
Rz
1
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A large redshift z implies ...
The spectrum is strongly shifted toward red The spectrum is strongly shifted toward red or even infrared colorsor even infrared colors
The object is very far awayThe object is very far away We see the object at an epoch when the We see the object at an epoch when the
universe was much younger than the universe was much younger than the present day universepresent day universe
most distant astrophysical object discovered most distant astrophysical object discovered so far: z=5.8so far: z=5.8
z>5.8: “dark ages”z>5.8: “dark ages”
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k>0k>0 k<0k<0k=0k=0
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Are there any indications that this picture is correct?
Yes !Yes !
Primordial NucleosynthesisPrimordial Nucleosynthesis
Cosmic Microwave backgroundCosmic Microwave background
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Primordial NucleosynthesisGeorgy Gamov (1904-1968)
If the universe is expanding, then If the universe is expanding, then there has been a big bangthere has been a big bang
Therefore, the early universe must Therefore, the early universe must have been very dense and hothave been very dense and hot
Optimum environment to breed the elements by Optimum environment to breed the elements by nuclear fusion (Alpher, Bethe & Gamow, 1948)nuclear fusion (Alpher, Bethe & Gamow, 1948) success: predicted that helium abundance is 25%success: predicted that helium abundance is 25% failure: could not reproduce elements more massive failure: could not reproduce elements more massive
than lithium and beryllium (than lithium and beryllium ( formed in stars) formed in stars)
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The Cosmic Microwave Background (CMB)
Last scattering surface transparenttransparent
opaqueopaque
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Penzias and Wilson 1965
Working at Bell labsWorking at Bell labs Used a satellite dish to measure radio Used a satellite dish to measure radio
emission of the Milky Wayemission of the Milky Way They found some extra noise in the They found some extra noise in the
receiver, but couldn’t explain itreceiver, but couldn’t explain it discovery of the background radiation discovery of the background radiation
Most significant cosmological observation Most significant cosmological observation since Hubblesince Hubble
Nobel prize for physics 1978Nobel prize for physics 1978
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More results from the CMB
The Earth is moving The Earth is moving with respect to the with respect to the CMB CMB Doppler shift Doppler shift
The emission of the The emission of the GalaxyGalaxy
Fluctuations in the Fluctuations in the CMBCMB
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•Fluctuations in CMB responsible for structure formation in the universe