gender inequality in south korea - rationalization through the lens of system justification theory

7/27/2019 Gender Inequality in South Korea - Rationalization Through the Lens of System Justification Theory

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Gender Inequality in South Korea: Rationalization

through the Lens of System Justification Theory

By Peter Machielse

August 2011


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1 Introduction

The South Korean labor market is characterized by a huge gender inequality (Rudolf & Cho,

2011). South Korea like other Confucian countries in Asia is a country where the role of

woman in society is marginal. Economic development has improved South Korea socially and

politically regarding gender equitable opportunities, but this has not translated fully into

employment and family structure (Chun, Khang, Kim & Cho, 2008). This paper primarily

focuses on the gender inequality in South Korea.

As Lee (2009) shows us, a wide palette of statistics that woman inequality is still present in

South Korea. Although little progress is made, the inequality is still lacking behind compared

to many western countries (Gaye, Klugman, Kovacevic, Twigg & Zambrano, 2010). The IMF

reforms due to the financial crisis during the end of the 90s forced South Korea to dismantle

their permanent employment system which ensured man as main breadwinner (Kim & Voos,

2007) and modernized East Asian countries like Japan and South Korea also woman found

their ways to the universities but even when they are equally skilled, they are faced with their

traditional roles (Cong, 2008).

When discussing gender inequality, statistical obstacles arise. The different methodologies

show different results, scholars disagree and therefore it is hard to rely on a single method

(Gaye, et al 2010). South Korea is ranked as number 20 in the Gender Inequality Index1, but

is ranked as 104 in the Global Gender Gap.2 Because of the wide range of ratings, results are

discussed in the media and as a result the value of surveys and methods will decrease. 3

However this paper shows the main results that can be drawn from the different indexes.

1UN Human Developement Report 2010 Gender Inequality Index

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The Global Gender Gap Index 2010 rankings: Comparisons with 2009, 2008, 2007 and 20063http://thegrandnarrative.com/2011/03/31/korea-gender-empowerment-measure/


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Although the problems of measuring gender inequality are covered in this paper, a full

discussion is beyond the scope of this text. This text rather focuses on the way the social

problems are justified by the system that caused them. Social justification theory is rooted in

cognitive dissonance theory and focuses on the way the society is rationalizing social

problems. Gender inequality is not a new phenomenon in South Korea. Rooted in Neo-

Confucian thought, gender inequality has been common for years. Since the 70s and

especially after the democratization during the 90s organized attempts were made to fight for

gender equality (e.g. family law that was finally accepted in 2005) (Nam, 2010).

This research does not utilize empirical data generated by the researcher. It rather suggests

explanation from different sources that give support to the way that social problems are

justified in the system. Therefore the central question in this paper is formulated as followed:

What are the main arguments that rationalize gender inequality South Korea?

2 Theoretical backgrounds

Before elaborating on the theoretical background of this paper we need a definition of a social

issue itself. Eitzens (2009) provides us the following definition of a social problem: Social

problems are societal induced conditions that harms any segment of the population. Social

problems are also related to acts and conditions that violate the norms and values found in

society.

This definition shows us that we are talking about a social problem when it harms a segment

of the society. In the case of gender inequality on the South Korean labor market we can see

that the monthly average wages between male and female are wide (Rudolf & Cho, 2011).

The average monthly wage of a female is only 63 % of a male wage, which can be seen as


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material harm (Lee, 2009). Although the perception and amount of harm experienced by

gender inequality can differ among European and East Asian woman, gender inequality in

general has a negative effect on the psychological well being of woman (psychological harm)

(Kinias & Kim, 2011). Therefore it can be argued that gender inequality can be considered as

a social problem.

2.1 System Justification Theory

According to Jost and Hunyady (2002) system justification theory is most influenced by

cognitive dissonance theory. Cognitive dissonance is described by Festinger (1957) as a

misbalance between an actorss believes and the way the person acts. People try to rationalize

their behavior in order to overcome the misbalance. Therefore two hypotheses were made.

First, the existence of dissonance, being psychologically uncomfortable, will motivate the

person to try to reduce the dissonance and achieve consonance. Second, when dissonance is

present, in addition to trying to reduce it, the person will actively avoid situations and

information, which would likely increase the consonance(Festinger, 1957 p 3). Although the

system justification theory is influence by cognitive dissonance theory, three main differences

can be catalyzed. First, cognitive dissonance theory is often regarded as an ego justice

theory and will rather emphasize the individual. Second, is that the cognitive dissonance

theory assumes that people should be personal responsible in order to justify it. Third,

cognitive dissonance theory stresses cognitive consistency (Jost & Hunyady, 2002).

Three main justification tendencies or motives can be distinguished that can conflict that can

conflict or contradict for members of disadvantaged groups: ego justification, group

justification and system justification (Jost & Banaji, 1994). First, ego justification maintains a

good self image and makes people feel valid, justified and legitimate as an individual. Second,

group justification focuses on social identity theory and arising from this the development and


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maintenance of ones group and justify the behavior of its members. Third, system

justification concerns social and psychological needs to keep the status quo with legitimacy

and consider it as good, fair, natural, desirable and inevitable (Jost, Banaji & Nosek, 2004).

In most capitalistic countries wide gap of economic and social inequalities exist. Even though

the capitalist thought is spreading across the globe, capitalist countries dont suffer from a

lack of legitimacy or instability (Jost & Hunyady, 2002). According to Jost & Hunyady (2002)

scholars mention the role of ideology as justifier of the system. Social scientists typically

point to the role of ideology in maintaining popular support for the system by explaining,

justifying, and rationalizing inequality in such a way that people are seen as deserving the

outcomes and treatment they receive (Jost & Hunyady, 2002 p 112).

2.2 Neo Confucianism

During the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948, the country adopted a Western

constitution that ensures in an equal treatment between genders. Article 11:1 of the Korean

constitution indicates: All citizens shall be equal before the law, and there shall be no

discrimination in political, economic, social or cultural Life on account of sex, religion or

social status. 4 However a constitution alone cannot change cultural believes or social

behavior. Roots of gender inequality can be found hundreds of years ago when the Choson

Dynasty (1392-1910) adopted Neo-Confucianism as the states ideology. During the 17

century the Choson Dynasty restructured family organization, like marriages and kinship

practices, but also in the establishing of strict gender roles. Neo-Confusianism in contrast to a

western constitution rather emphasizes inequality than equality. Not only there is a difference

between gender, also social classes and generations are rather described as unequal (Cho,

1998). Confusion values are still dominant in the South Korean labor market. As a result those

4The Constitution of the Republic of Korea

http://english.ccourt.go.kr/home/att_file/download/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_Korea.pdf


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values keep the woman subordinate in social and economical perspectives (Chun et al. 2008).

Confucianism articulates ideas about self-cultivation, regulation of the family, social civility,

moral education, ethical relations between persons, the wellbeing of the people, governance of

the state, and universal peace. It has shaped the ideas, norms, and values that underlie the

moral fabric of East Asian societies for many centuries and continues to do so up to the

present day (Zhao & Biesta, 2011 p 9).

3 Statistics and measurement problems

This chapter covers the results of South Korea gender inequality from the most common used

methods (Chun et al, 2008). It shows the different outcomes and discusses briefly the

difference among them. This chapter also shows some specific statistics regarding inequality

on the labor market provided by the South Korean government.

3.1 Inter sexes labor market comparison

The womans labor market participation increased from 41.9 % in 1985 to 50.0 % in 2008.

The males participation in comparison increased from 72,8 % in 1985 to 78,5 % in 2008.

Notable fact in the womans participation is an M shaped line graph. Between 25 and 29 the

participation reaches its peak with a 69, 3 % participation and this declined to 53, 3 % for the

ages 30-34. Within the range of 40-44 years old, the womans participation on the labor

market reached its second peak at 65,9 % (2008 measures).5An inequality can be when the

average wages are examined. The average womans wage increased from 2000 to 2007 up to

a monthly average of 1.839.000, but this is still only 63,0 % of the male average on a

monthly base (slightly depending on educational achievement).6

5National Statistical Office (2008), Annual Report on the Economically Active Population Survey

6Ministry of Labor (2007), Survey Report on Wage Structure, Survey Report on Occupational Wage Survey


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Womans participation in local and central government (higher than level 5) is low, but a

slight increase can be noticed. Participation in the central government increased from 4, 8 %

in 2001 to 10, 0 % in 2007. In the local government the growth is less spectacular, from 5, 3 %

in 2001 to 7, 1 % in 2007 78(Lee, 2009).

3.2 The use of different methods to measure gender inequality

In the 1995 Human Development Report two main measure methods of gender inequality

were launched. The Gender-related Development Index (GDI) and the Gender Empowerment

Measure GEM)(Gaye et al 2010). The GDI covers an overall assessment of well being, which

covers measures of health, education and income. The GEM was launched as a

complementary measure of the GDI and measures gender inequality in terms of economic and

political power. The three dimensions included are: First, control over economic resources,

measured by men and womens earned income. Second, economic participation and decision

making, measured by women and mens share of administrative, professional, managerial,

and technical positions. Third, political participation and decision making, measured by male

and female shares ofparliamentary seats (Gaye et al, 2010 p 8). The GEM represent the level

of economic autonomy and political participation in society and the GDI is an index of life

expectancy, knowledge and a decent standard of living (Chun et al 2008; Lee, 2009). For an

overview of variables9. Since people were conducting research along the GDI and GEM

methods, criticism occurred. Discussing the arguments in beyond the scope of this paper (for

example the strong correlation between GPD and gender equality), but in 2010 a new

methodology was launched to meet the critics (Gaye, 2010). The GII focuses on three

dimensions: empowerment, economic activity and reproductive health. The GII shows the

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Ministry of Government Administration (2008), Yearbook of Ministry of Government Administration.8Ministry of Public Administration and Security (2008), Civil Service Commission.

9http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_Tech_Note_1.pdf


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loss in human development due to inequality between female and male achievements in these

dimensions (Gaye et al., 2010 p 8).

As mentioned earlier an in depth study of the different outcomes on the three different

methods is beyond the scope of this paper, but the outcomes can reveal the general impression

of the South Korean case. When looking at the GII index (2008 values), South Korea is

ranked as number 20 between Austria (19) and Portugal (21)10. When looking at the 2009

GEM, South Korea is ranked as 61 out of 109 between the Russian Federation (60) and

Vietnam (62)11. The GDI (2007/2008) South Korea is ranked as number 26 out of 159,

between Slovenia (25) and Cyprus (27)12. In South Korea the low GEM index was therefore

often used by lobby groups to force the government to take actions against the absence of

woman in the political and economical sector (Gaye et al., 2010). The Global Gender Gap

places South Korea at place 104 out of 134, between United Arab Emirates (103) and Kuwait

(105)13.

4 Justification of labor market inequality

Hoffman (1995) states that traditional gender opposition theory does not cover the full

explanation of gender inequality in the specific South Korean case. Many scholars

underestimate the role of the informalpower women hold and therefore the image of South

Korean women in society still holds descriptions as powerless and subordination. Previous

research did not examine the psychological dimensions of woman experience like

achievement oriented personalities. These underlying concepts were underestimated in

explaining the male dominance.

10UN Human Developement Report 2010 Gender Inequality Index

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Human Developement 2009 Gender Empowerment Measure12Human Developement 2007 / 2008 Gender-related Developement Index

13The Global Gender Gap Index 2010 rankings: Comparisons with 2009, 2008, 2007 and 2006


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Cook (2003) argues that the role of the woman in building the family is an important duty for

Korean woman. According to (Berik, 2009) woman in Korea do not invest in careers, because

of their home responsibilities. South Korea has with a weekly 46, 6 hours the highest amount

of working hours among the OECD countries. Therefore family friendly jobs are hard to

obtain and this results in a low participation on the labor market (Rudolf & Cho, 2011).

Kwon (1996) 14 states that most of the research on gender inequality is conducted too

simplistic. Cross country research ignores the complex relation between genders that exist for

generations and ignoring those characteristics is misleading. Women prefer to stay away from

the labor market. Women value intangible contribution to family and society more and

woman are giving even more value to raise their kids properly. When comparing youth crime

rates in South Korea and the U.S. the intangible input will be tangible, because U.S. rates

are much higher due to bad marriages and family problems.

In order to understand male female relations in Korea, research should not focus on the

typical western pattern of gender inequality (Hoffman, 1995). According to Hoffman (1995)

the common used gender opposition theory focuses too much on the displacing of

dichotomized discourse of gender (Hekman, 1990 p 142). According to Hoffman (1995) this

view in the South Korean case provides an incomplete. Inner psychological dimensions of

woman experiences are ignored. "Many Korean women have developed high achievement-

oriented personalities despite their Obedient and self-sacrificing' image" Cho (1987 p 53).

Hoffman (1995) also argues that women are the ones that maintain the old values to protect

the society from low morality from the Western world. The male can be the leading in

figure in public, but they are absolutely in control over family affairs.

14 http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0254/is_n3_v55/ai_18688304/


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The main argument made by Hoffman (1995) is that Western gender inequality thinking

focuses on the removal of roles distinctions in order to achieve principled equality. This

view ignores the existence of different psychological experiences among genders. In the

South Korean case (and probably other countries like Japan we find an official cultural

ideology that is strongly gender differentiated, with "public" and "domestic" domains that are

comparatively much more clearly marked as male and female than in the United States, there

exists an underlying cultural psychology that stresses a fundamental intimacy between men

and women in which selves as well as gender are categorically blurred or identified with one

another. (Hoffman, 1995 p 131).

When comparing the gender among the U.S. and South Korea (but probably among other

Asian and Western countries) it is important to distinguish the differences between the official

cultural ideology of gender differences and gender roles and in contrast the cultural practice

that is shaped by cultural psychologies, conceptualizations of self and philosophies of natural

or cosmic order. When looking at the surface it looks as if South Korean woman are treated

unequal, and are powerless. U.S. woman in contrast look very free, equal and powerful on the

surface. Under the surface the reality of Korean cultural psychology recognizes a certain

non-conflictual identity that resulted in a unity of sexes and in the U.S. sexes rather can be

regarded as they are in a play for power (Hoffman, 1995).

5 Discussion and conclusion

The research shows that scholars agree that there is a gender inequality on the South Korean

labor market. The results of the most common used gender inequality measuring

methodologies (GII, GEM, GDI & GGG) can provide us an impression, but because of the

ambiguity among the results, scholars can easily defend their opinions. Results vary from rank

20 in the GII to rank 104 in the GGG index. The indexes also show that the inequality on


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South Korean gender market is decreasing (for example by IMF reforms), but only slow

progress was made and it is still lacking behind when the results are compared with most

Western countries.

During this paper it is argued that there isa gender inequality and this paper rather focuses on

the social justification of that social problem instead of determine how bigthe problem really

is. Maybe this makes it even more interesting to look at arguments that are not supported by

hard (among scholars) widely accepted statistics.

System justification theory mainly focuses on how people are rationalizing the social problem.

Striking was that arguments for justifying the system were mainly based on the old cultural

traditions in the Korean society. Many scholars underestimate the intangible psychological

experiences of woman in Korean society and the role they play in the parts of society that are

not covered in the statistics. The way how the gender inequality was rationalized was first

based on the different perspectives on gender inequality. Western views rather regard

societies as equal by making principleequality among the different sexes. Koreans rather

focus on the psychologicalequality, while accepting that there is a difference between sexes.

Second this result in a situation where the Western women are equal on the surface, but in fact

are in rival of power with males and in contrast Korean women look unequal on the surface

but in fact achieve a unity of sexes. This explanation fits the description of a Neo Confucian

philosophy that justifies differences in contrast to a Western society where the main doctrine

depends on equality among people.


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References

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Cong, L. (2008).Does the Current Position of Women in the Labor Market in Asia Pacific

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Eitzen, D. Stanley, Maxine B., and K. E. Smith. (2009). Social Problems.(11th Ed.) Boston:

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Festinger, L. (1957).A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance.Stanford University Press. Stanford

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Gaye, A.,J. Klugman, M. Kovacevic, S. E. Twigg & Zambrano. ( 2010).Measuring Key

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Hekman, Susan J. 1990. Gender and Knowledge: Elements ofa Postmodern Feminism.

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Hoffman, D. M. (1995) The Cultural Construction of Male and Female in South Korea.

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Jost, J. T., M. R. Banaji & B. A. Nosek. (2004).A Decade of System Justification Theory:

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Jost, J. T., & Banaji, M. R. (1994). The role of stereotyping n system-justification and the

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Jost, J. T. & O. Hunyady. (2002). The psychology of system justification and the palliative

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Zhao, K. & G. J. J. Biesta (2011).Lifelong Learning Between East and West:

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Links Gender indexes

GGG: https://members.weforum.org/pdf/gendergap/rankings2010.pdf

GDI: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_20072008_GDI.pdf

GEM: http://tinyurl.com/449khfg

GII: http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/HDR_2010_EN_Table4_reprint.pdf

gender inequality in south korea - rationalization through the lens of system justification theory

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