gender imbalance in india

8/6/2019 Gender Imbalance in India

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Gender Imbalance and its SocialConsequences

Imbalanced Sex Ratios



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Sex Ratios over Time Amartya Sen calculated that 100 million women were

missing in the world, many of them in India andChina. (figure was revised downwards to 60 million

by demographers).

In India, the sex ratio has been declining since 1901with a slight improvement in 2001 (improved from927 in 1991 to 933 in 2001).

Sex Ratio No. of girls to 1000 boys

Normal Sex Ratio 950 girls to a 1000 boys



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Sex Ratio Map of India



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2001 Census

The 2001 census, however, showed steep declines in

Child Sex Ratios (0-6) over large parts of the country

Declined from 945 in 1991 to 927 in 2001.



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Child Sex Ratios (0-6yrs)



Contd. The declines in 2001 were spread almost all over the

country and were very steep in some of the states,

many of which already had adverse sex ratios.

As many as 456 districts out of 577 recorded adecline in the child sex ratio in 2001 compared to1991.

In 70 districts, the decline was in the order of 50points. In several districts, the decline was more than100 points.

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States with low sex ratios:

2001 Punjab: 874

Haryana: 861

Uttar Pradesh: 898

Gujarat: 921

Madhya Pradesh:919 Rajasthan: 921



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Prosperous Major Cities: 2001 Delhi:821

Chandigarh:77

3 Ahmedabad:814



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Percentage decline in SR and CSR

between 1991- 2001 in selected states

Punjab 8 CSR 82 points

Haryana 4 CSR 59 points

Rajasthan (+12) CSR 7 points Madhya Pradesh (+8) CSR 12 points

Himachal Pradesh 6 CSR 54 points

Gujarat 17

CSR 50 points Maharashtra 12 CSR 29 points

(Punjab and Haryana have declined further from already low sexratios; the decline in CSRs is steep)



Contd. A study in The Lancet concluded that

this decline can mainly be attributed tosex selective abortions and that in thepast two decades 10 million femalefoetuses had been aborted (Prabhat Jha

et al).

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How? Female foeticide; Role of Sex Determination Technologies since

the 1980s

Female infanticide (in the past, but still continues in somepockets)

Deliberate neglect of girl-child

Improvements in female mortality and life expectancy but

maternal mortality rates remain high

Small family norm with son-preference (modern scientificrationality and planning the family) impact of state policies



Perception of girls as a burden Watering the others garden

Investments in daughters go to in-laws Dowry needed for marriage

Have to be protected because familyhonour depends on their sexual chastitybefore marriage

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Structural Reasons Patrilineal Descent and Inheritance

Patri-virilocal residence Old age support by sons

Male-breadwinner ideology

Compulsory marriage Hypergamous marriage norms

accompanied by dowry



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Perceptions Investment in boys vs Expenditure on

Girls for reasons highlighted earlier.

Intergenerational transfers of property,resources for education, health,

nutrition skewed towards boys



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Socialization and son-preference Children are socialized in the context

outlined earlier and internalize a high

value for the male child and a low valuefor the female child.

Womens status in their marital familiesand in society depends on being themothers of sons.



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Honour and Security Girls are seen as presenting an additional burden

since they carry family honour on their bodies andmust be protected until marriage. (hence early

marriage preferred leading to high fertility and lowautonomy)

The North of the country has seen a lot of honourcrimes; marriages seen as socially inappropriate

(love marriages, inter-caste marriages, incorrect clanpairings, inter-religious marriages) have beenseverely punished, to the point of death.



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Cont. Parents feel the social climate is insecure for

girls this affects their education and

employment prospects and is becominganother excuse for why people dont want girlchildren.

Net result is more and more missing girls.



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Negative impact on women of

fewer women and girls Increase in crimes against women

Greater violence towards them

Following other effects can take place:

Lowering of age at marriage as younger girlsare sought

Lower literacy and education due to earlymarriage

Lower work force participation too muchdomestic and child-bearing burden



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Implications for marriage The marriage squeeze - severe shortage of marriageable

women in certain parts of the country; shortage is localized.

Excess of males and shortage of females has negativeconsequences for both sexes and for society in the long run.

Haryana and Punjab - 20% deficit of women

One in every five Haryanvi and Punjabi stands to remain

unmarried

If the decline in the sex ratio is not arrested future cohorts of men will face further difficulties



Predictions In India, female deficit 25 million by 2030

(Guilmoto, 2007)

15% excess males by 2020 (Guilmoto, 2007)

In India, the sex ratio of single population is

expected to be 153 males per 100 females in2031 and there will be excess supply of grooms by 24% by 2031 in India (Bhat andHalli, 1999).

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China Excess males in the first marriage

market will reach at least one millionannually from 2015 and may exceed 1.2 million annually between 2017 and2040 (Jiang Quanbao et al, 2007)

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Aspects of shortage Declining child sex ratios mean further future

shortages with several adverse social consequences.

Men who cross 35 yrs cannot find a local bride.

Even younger men are looking for brides outside thecommunity.

Second wives are impossible to find within thecommunity.



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Impact on males Higher age at marriage they have to wait

longer to find spouses

Marriage outside cultural region

Involuntary bachelorhood for many

Lower or no widower remarriage

Bachelors deserted by family Stratification between men losers in the marriage

market are men who are illiterate, poor, widowers,handicapped etc.



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Factors determining availability of local

women for marriage in North India Demographic Factors sex ratio

Social Factors Rules of Marriage (avoidance of clans of

mother/father/paternal/maternal grandmothers)

Village Exogamy need to marry outside village

Caste Endogamy no inter-caste marriages allowed

Hypergamous marriage for women

Prohibition of widow marriage

Class Matching; personal characteristics of groom/bride



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How is the shortage being

addressed? Cross-Region Marriages (Import of

Brides from other parts of the country)

Involuntary Bachelorhood

Fraternal Polyandry



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Other adjustments In Gujarat (such as in Rajkot and Mehsana

districts) men are willing to marry widows withchildren; they are marrying adivasi (tribal)women or women from other castes.

Many families are only giving daughters if theycan get a daughter-in-law in exchange.Exchange marriage.



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Long distance/cross-culture

marriages Brides are being sought from the

Eastern states of Bengal, Assam,

Tripura and more recently even fromthe high literacy southern state of Kerala.

Quantum of such marriages is going uprapidly.



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Issues related to such

marriages Cross- culture couples do not share

language or most other dimensions of

culture food, clothing, behaviouralnorms.

Culture in the north is far morepatriarchal and female-unfriendly thanin the East and South.



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Cont. Physical distance is large raising an issue of

support systems for in-marrying women.

Marriages take place either in a chainmigration fashion where married womenbring others or through professional agentswho charge a high fee.



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Issues raised by such marriages Are such women bought?

Are they being trafficked?

Is this marriage?

Are they treated well or badly?

How does local society accept them?



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Significant characteristics of

brides From poor states

From poor families

From families of several girls

Marriage migration of poor women toprosperous states

Question of female agency.



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Who are the men who marry

stranger women? None or little land ownership None or little education

Physical handicap Social scandal Second marriage Over 35 yrs of age

Family does not arrange marriage Today, in Haryana if you do not have a job,

you will not find a Haryanvi girl for a wife!



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Implications These marriages are dowry-less, with the

man taking care of all the marriage expenses.

They are uniting couples across barriers of caste, region, language. Will they haveintegrative potential?

Will the more patriarchal culture be modifiedtowards acceptance of girls?



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Other marriage trends Inter-caste marriages and marriages

with tribal girls in states like Gujarat.

Surreptitious return to polyandry instates such as Punjab and Haryana.

Large numbers of unmarried men.



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Questions Will the shortage of girls improve their

value?

Will it impact dowry negatively?

Will it turn the sex ratio around?

gender imbalance in india

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